ACE cell A new hydrogen gas generator ( ACE = AC Electrolysis )

Transcription

1 Cell Current Cell Temp ACE cell A new hydrogen gas generator ( ACE = AC Electrolysis ) This document describes a new hydrogen production method that uses low-cost metals (iron or aluminum) and catalytic carbon (CC) in an electrolysis system, called an ACE cell. The ACE cell produces hydrogen gas and virtually no oxygen gas. This document describes the Mark II version of the ACE cell. This document may be updated from time to time. This file was initially posted on 8/24/ Updates will be posted online: The Mark II is a more advanced design of the ACE cell. The earlier Mark I version of the ACE cell is described on-line at The upgrades and modifications, from Mark I to the Mark II version of the ACE cell are described on-line at All comments and suggestions are welcome. Kind regards, hp@valliant.net Page 1

2 Contents Executive Summary and Introduction... 5 Mark II -- ACE cell... 6 Upgrades and improvements... 6 Cell fabrication... 8 Proprietary flashback prevention method Other changes and modifications include: Injection of hydrogen into the engine ACE cell system design What is the major benefit of the upgrades incorporated into the Mark II version of the ACE cell? 13 How can an ACE cell be designed to produce hydrogen at a rate of more than 100 LPM? The ACE cell is a new AC Electrolysis hydrogen production technology that is very flexible; it can operate either with or without Catalytic Carbon The ACE cell technology and the CC-HOD technology can be blended to design systems using the best of either technology QUEST and ACE cell development history Separator cells based on membrane separation are not needed to produce adequately-pure hydrogen gas Sacrificial anode chemistry Electrolysis of most metals in water can produce hydrogen Iron oxide in the water Cleanup and separation of the iron oxides from the water The ACE cell uses iron electrodes, water, an electrolyte and, optionally, catalytic carbon (CC) and large electrode area to generate hydrogen at high rates The ACE cell does not produce red gunk in the water container Simplified explanation of the ACE cell chemistry: SBS electrolyte chemistry Catalyst How much metal surface area is the minimum required to produce hydrogen? ACE cell fabrication -- How to connect iron to copper APPENDIX A -- Hydrogen production and anode metal variations in electrolysis cells Electrolysis of water when inert electrodes are used Electrolysis of water when aluminum electrodes are used Electrolysis of water when Gold electrodes are used Summary -- oxygen concentrations Iron anode electrolysis produces almost no oxygen bubbles Electrolysis of water when iron electrodes are used Page 2

3 Why is the inverter required to run at a frequency of approximately 0.1 Hz? Space charge effects cause current transients in the ACE cell to decay with long time constants, which must be matched by the inverter frequency Bubble formation also contributes to the current decline Three reasons for the transient current decline in an electrolysis cell following the application of voltage Space charge formation near the electrodes also contributes to the current decline immediatly after application of voltage to the cell For the ACE cell electrodes, iron is preferred for the following reasons APPENDIX B -- ACE cell characteristics and the use of boost mode hydrogen fuel supplementation in automobiles ACE cell technology does NOT require modification of oxygen sensors on automobiles ACE cell technology does NOT vent any gas into the atmosphere Lower cost and hardware simplicity Safety APPENDIX C -- Air-fuel ratios and oxygen sensors Engine management systems Counter-intuitive realization regarding using hydrogen as a fuel supplement for automobile engines (boost mode operation) Typical performance improvement: 34 MPG is an MPG gain of approximately 31% APPENDIX D -- Car test results -- 30% fuel savings Measurement of Test Vehicle performance Temperature measurement Temperature effects How to make black water The ACE cell system performance can be improved -- Any ACE cell can use CC with very largearea electrodes to reduce the required electrolysis current and increase the hydrogen production rate CC can be obtained in either of 3 ways Beneficial effects of using CC in ACE cells with large electrode area APPENDIX E -- Electrical details of the Mark II ACE cell system What s in the INV box? Inverter in a box Inverter circuit Inverter circuit design notes How to obtain an inverter The following pages provide information about parts used to build the inverter The above information describes parts, prices and sources via ebay for the inverter circuit The information below describes parts, prices and sources via ebay for other parts of the ACE system Where can I find cast iron pipe? MPG measurement Temperature control Residual effect Page 3

4 APPENDIX F -- Iron anode chemistry What kind of iron oxide does DC electrolysis produce? Chemical forms of iron oxides Current spike Voltage waveform for ACE cells What kind of iron oxide does AC electrolysis produce? Magnetic removal of iron oxide from the cell Fe3O4 nanoparticles Chemistry of Fe3O Production of hydrogen and Fe3O Double advantage of using iron electrodes in the ACE cell APPENDIX G -- Electrode lifetime Fe3O4 has commercial value Are there uses for Fe3O4? APPENDIX H -- Commercial and novel uses of Fe3O Novel uses of Fe3O4 -- Voltage-controlled window research Now, we consider catalytic carbon Fe3O4 and Catalytic Carbon New discovery / invention APPENDIX I -- Related Research Will hydrogen improve the fuel economy on a large truck? Peterbilt hydrogen system -- 30% improvement in MPG! APPENDIX J -- Plans for the future Possible Applications of the ACE cell Current State of the Art -- ACE cell demonstration HYDROGEN -- Take it to the people Page 4

5 Executive Summary and Introduction Three main messages in this document can be summarized as: 1. A new hydrogen-producing carbon catalyst, CC, can be used to produce hydrogen from water and scrap metals. The new hydrogen production process can be used to generate hydrogen at commercially-useful rates. For more information, please see 2. The ACE cell, a new hydrogen-producing apparatus using only scrap iron and water for fuels can be designed to produce hydrogen at any rate, even above 100 LPM. The new hydrogen production process can be designed to use CC, or not, depending on the desired rate of hydrogen output. 3. The ACE cell is simple and can be built by anyone, including amateur experimenters. The DIY plans for building an ACE cell are described in this document. 30% MPG improvement has been demonstrated. Page 5

6 Mark II -- ACE cell Upgrades and improvements This document describes the Mark II version of the ACE cell, which incorporates the following changes: The outboard shelf is no longer needed / used. The Mark II is an all-under-the-hood system. The test vehicle is a 2004 Buick Park Avenue, EPA rated 26 MPG highway and 14 MPG city driving. That was the actual fuel consumption performance before using hydrogen. The use of hydrogen resulted in a 30% fuel savings = 30% cost savings for the cost of fuel. Typical operating conditions: 12 VAC, 5 to 10 Amperes; 200 to 300 milliliters/minute output from the ACE cell and input to the engine. Results: 30% fuel savings! The water container and the hydrogen cell are located under the hood, in front of the radiator. Page 6

7 The water container and the hydrogen cell are a single unit, which, together, comprise the ACE cell. The inner part of the telescoping PVC structure is shown and the electrode array is shown. Iron pipe Iron hardware spike The electrode array is an iron hardware spike surrounded by an iron pipe, with insulation to prevent shorting.. Page 7

8 Cell fabrication The ACE cell can be designed with many variations. The photos below show one variation of the cell that was designed for use on a diesel engine. These photos show the cell during the fabrication so that details can be shown before the cell is fully assembled. AC wires Thermal sensor wire (black) Center electrode = iron rod Outside electrode = cast iron pipe AC wires AC wires Water tank Port hole connecting the water tank to the PVC Photo showing the solder connections to the two electrodes. Check the resistance between the copper wire and the electrode. The resistance should be less than 0.2 ohms. For this cell, the outside electrode was 1/2-inch cast iron pipe. Other cast-iron pipe sizes (3/4 and 1 ) have been used in different cells with good results. 1/2 inch pipe Page 8

9 Above: Plastic tubing and rubber cement were used to insulate and chemically passivate the electrodes. The same method was used for the outside electrode (shown in the photo below). Both the plastic and the rubber cement hold up indefinitely in the electrolysis environment, which is controlled to a temp of 80C (180F) by use of the temperature controller (DTC). Above: The center electrode was placed inside the outer electrode. Plastic tubing and rubber cement were used to insulate and chemically passivate the wires feeding through the smaller PVC pipe (white pipe in thephoto above). The electrically-connected assembly is shown below. Page 9

10 Right top photo: The bottom of the cell assembly is shown with the two concentric electrodes nested inside the 1.25 PVC pipe. There is plenty of room to allow for the wires to be coiled and housed in the top end of the PVC pipe. Middle photo: The top end of the PVC pipe illustrates how the 1.25 PVC pipe fits nicely into the 2 PVC pipe. This snug fit prevents excessive sloshing of water out of the cell when the vehicle is operated on bumpy roads. Note that rubber cement has been used to seal the pipe fitting (hydrogen output) and the wire holes (thermal sensor and AC input wires) Left photo: The completed assembly is shown, ready for adding electrolyte and mounting on the vehicle. Plastic pipe fitting. Hydrogen gas is collected at the top of the 1.25 pipe and routed to the engine. The vacuum from the engine prevents leakage of hydrogen from the cell. Note that the entire cell operates at atmospheric pressure (1 Atm = 1 bar). Also note that no gas is vented into the atmosphere. The space between the PVC pipes is not sealed. This space allows the space inside the PVC pipes to operate at 1 Atm. This non-sealed assembly can be easily disassembled for inspection and maintenence if needed. The vent hole allows the water container to operate at 1 Atm Page 10

11 Injection of hydrogen into the engine The hydrogen is injected into the air filter system. This was made possible when we determined that for our test vehicle (Buick) the fuel injection system stops flashback under all test conditions. This may not be the case for other vehicles unless they have tight fuel injection systems. A flashback arrestor can be used to prevent any possible ignition of the hydrogen in the air filter system and in the ACE cell via the plastic tube. Proprietary flashback prevention method There is a new and novel way to prevent flashback, with no requirement for a flashback arrestor. This new technology is not described in this document, because it was not invented and developed by Phillips Company. Other changes and modifications include: The temp sensor is located at the top of the hydrogen column, because that is the warmest location in the ACE cell. This is illusrated on the previous page. The electrical connections (AC and thermal sensor wires) to the electrode array are made through the top of the hydrogen column. This is illusrated on the following page. A complete list of upgrades (from Mark I to Mark II) is available online: Page 11

12 ACE cell system design H2 to engine air intake AC INV Ground Meter A Shunt - Auto Battery ( 12 V) + Fuse or Circuit Breaker Vent hole Water overflows Temp Sensor On/Off DTC Water level Water tank, 1 Atm. AC Electrode array +12 VDC when ignition is ON Water level 1.25 inch PVC 2 inch PVC An OBD-2 scan gauge is used to provide accurate MPG data. The scan gauge can measure either instantaneous MPG or and average value of MPG for any period desired. Modern autos display MPG, so for modern autos, a scan gauge is not needed. A DC meter is wired as shown (with meter shunt) in the diagram above. Our Buick test vehicle has the scan guage, the meter and the DTC mounted on the dashboard. Page 12

13 What is the major benefit of the upgrades incorporated into the Mark II version of the ACE cell? The following section describes how the ACE cell can be used to design systems having a hydrogen output rate greater than 100 LPM. The blend of ACE cell and CC-HOD technology is a new method that can use iron electrodes (bulk metal; not powder) to produce hydrogen at very high rates, not limited by high electrolysis currents. Higher hydrogen rates, with lower electrolysis current requires a much larger electrode area, as explained on the following page. The hydrogen production rate using this technology is limited only by the electrode plate area and the hardware design. The performance (current; area; LPM) of the ACE cell is envisioned as a 3- dimentional relationship The hydrogen output (LPM) will depend on the current to the cell and the AREA of the electrodes. A very large-area electrode cell could have iron electrodes with 50 square meters of area, which would produce hydrogen at a HIGH LPM, with low current. A small-area electrode cell could have iron electrodes with 0.1 square meters of area, which would produce hydrogen at a lower LPM, with higher current. Page 13

14 How can an ACE cell be designed to produce hydrogen at a rate of more than 100 LPM? The design concept shown below describes how the ACE cell technology and the CC- HOD technology can be blended to design systems using the best of either technology. This design space has been demonstrated by an ACE cell on a test vehicle Electrolysis current required Non-linear scale This design space has been demonstrated by CC-HOD hydrogen production 0 LPM LPM Hydrogen production rate, liters / minute The design space using the CC-HOD technology has been demonstrated (see the on the graph above). The world's first 30 gallon-per-minute (114 liters per minute) process using aluminum metal (in powder form) and catalysts for producing hydrogen for fuel was publicly demonstrated by Phillips Company. Ref: HYDROGEN.html Area of iron electrodes The blend of ACE cell and CC-HOD technology is a new method that can use iron electrodes (bulk metal; not powder) to produce hydrogen at very high rates, not limited by high electrolysis currents. The hydrogen production rates using this technology is limited only by the hardware design. The focus of this document is the ACE cell. The ACE cell is now being demonstrated using an automobile, with results shown by on the above graph. Page 14

15 Small systems, ACE cell. CC not required Large systems, ACE cell using CC-HOD Electrolysis current required ACE cell design space Electrolysis current Area of iron electrodes Non-linear scale 0 LPM LPM Hydrogen production rate, liters / minute Area of iron electrodes Design concept: The ACE cell can use conventional electrolysis for small-hydrogen-flowrate applications (automobiles, trucks), and the ACE cell with CC-HOD technology can be used for large-hydrogen-flow-rate applications (locomotives, ships, large motorgenerator systems for powering island nations). For a conventional electrolysis cell, an increase in hydrogen output rate requires more current -- but that is true ONLY if the area of the electrodes remains approximately constant. The CC-HOD technology has shown that if the metal area is LARGE, the electrolysis current can be virtually zero, and the water splitting energy can be supplied chemically. These are two extremes of the design space can be blended as illustrated above. Page 15

16 The maximum production rate of hydrogen, LPM, is less when only electrical energy is used. The limitation is because of the excessive current required; the practical limit being about 50 Amperes. Higher hydrogen production rates can be obtained with the addition of chemical production of hydrogen. This can be done by simply increasing the area of the electrodes. Production rate, LPM Limited range Chemical energy Electrical Heat energy Electrical Current High current, 30 to 50 Amps Medium current, 10 to 30 Amps Low current 1 to 10 Amps Chemical energy Electrical energy Heat energy Less More H2 LPM Page 16

17 Using the ACE cell described in this document, hydrogen input to the test vehicle ranges from 200 to 300 milliliters/minute, when travelling at a velocity of 60 MPH, consuming fuel at a rate of 34 MPG, obtaining a fuel savings of 30%. The fuel consumption rate is 34 MPG divided by 60 MPH = 0.57 gallons/hour. Limited hydrogen output. Automobile & small engine Small-area electrodes Conventional electrolyzers Electrical energy ACE cell (ACE cell can be designed to operate anywhere in the entire yellow area. CC-HOD ACE Cell Very-large-area electrodes Chemical energy Thermal energy Large hydrogen output. Large truck, bus, tractor, diesel generator, locomotive, cargo ship, & power plant The use of the ACE cell described in this document uses electrolysis with small-area electrodes; not CC-HOD. For the ACE cell, the ratio of electrically-produced hydrogen to chemically produced hydrogen is approximately = E/C = 0.01 = 1%. Therefore, the calculation results of Mr. Moholkar, when applied to the ACE cell, approximates the production of hydrogen at 250 milliliters/minute, corresponding to the following: The rate of iron consumption is g/min, water is consumed at a rate of g/min and Fe 3 is produced at a rate of approximately g/min. Page 17

18 The ACE cell is a new AC Electrolysis hydrogen production technology that is very flexible; it can operate either with or without Catalytic Carbon. The characteristics of the ACE cell are summarized below: 1 ACE cell is the name of a new hydrogen production technology that uses AC (not DC) to power the cell. 2 The reason the ACE cell works better than conventional electrolyzers is that CONVENTIONAL WISanatorOM about electrolysis cells overlooked some basic chemistry. 3 When the basic chemistry is taken into account, the ACE cell design is MUCH less complex and far LESS expensive -- neutral plates are optional (not required), no need for parallel plates; no need for stainless steel plates to minimize corrosion. 4 It only needs two electrodes, but can use more electrodes for use in special applications. 5 It uses CC to best advantage, but does not REQUIRE CC, as it can run as a conventional electrolyzer. 6 It produces only hydrogen; virtually no oxygen (that is also the case with the CC- HOD technology), but 7 It is NOT a separator cell in the conventional sense. It does not use physical separation, with membrane technology, to separate oxygen from HHO. The ACE cell does function as a separator cell, but it uses chemical separation to keep the oxygen in the liquid in the form of metal oxides. 8 It requires no powder (a big cost savings, compared to CC-HOD which required 30 micron aluminum for fuel), 9 It can use ANY metal for electrodes, but some metals work better than others (different anode chemistry). Because iron is cheap, cheap, the ACE cell was developed using iron electrodes. The ACE cell can also use aluminum. 10 The electrodes are in the form of bulk metal (no powder). Iron can be used for electrode material. Iron is cheap, cheap and available from the hardware store or from scrap metal dealers. Page 18

19 11 The BEST iron for electrodes is old cast iron (cheap, cheap), 12 But, if the iron is galvanized, that will work too. Eventually, the galvanized layer (usually zinc) will be corroded away, after which the ACE cell will work even better. 13 It uses tap water; not deionized water; not distilled water. In fact, tap water works BETTER than DI water or distilled water. Again, the reason for this is anode chemistry that uses corrosion to advantage (to sequester oxygen). 14 It works at atmospheric pressure, so safety is better than working with a pressurized system. It CAN be used with a pressurized design, which can then fuel vehicles using pure hydrogen (no liquid petroleum fuel). 15 Using the ACE cell at atmospheric pressure, preliminary tests with the Buick test vehicle has shown that getting 30% mileage improvement is easy -- or, it is easy to get a 30% reduction in gasoline fuel cost (same thing). 16 It can be built SMALLER than conventional HHO cell systems, so fitting under the hood is an easier job. 17 The cost of materials is about $30 to $50 -- a bit less than typical (conventional) HHO electrolyzer systems. 18 It runs at any temperature from room temp to about 180F, but optimized performance is obtained at about 180F. I use a Digital Temperature Controller (Cost = $15) for temperature control. The DTC is about half the cost of materials for the whole system. 19 The ACE cell runs on 12 volts AC. An inverter is needed to convert DC to 12 VAC. No need for a PWM power source. 20 The ACE cell is totally HOD, so there is no need to collect and store hydrogen. 21 The ACE cell technology and the CC-HOD technology can be blended to design systems using the best of either technology. As noted earlier in this document, the ACE cell without CC can use electrolysis for smallhydrogen-flow-rate applications (automobiles, trucks). The ACE cell with CC technology can be used for large-hydrogen-flow-rate applications (locomotives, ships, large motorgenerator systems for powering island nations).

20 The ACE cell technology and the CC-HOD technology can be blended to design systems using the best of either technology. Catalytic Carbon (CC) is a new material that has given rise to new applications useful in the generation of hydrogen from water. QUEST and ACE cell development history The CC-HOD hydrogen production method uses electrolysis to keep the metal clean and free of oxide films. This is done when the electrolysis dissociates the oxide films on the metal. The electrolysis current required is less than 1 Ampere, and the hydrogen production rate can exceed 100 LPM. One problem with the CC-HOD technology is that it requires aluminum metal in the form of small granules, with a particle diameter of about 30 microns. This makes the fuel somewhat expensive. A second CC-HOD problem is that it is difficult to stop the hydrogen-producing reaction since the hydrogen is produced chemically. Adding electrolysis to the process can make the process half electrical and half chemical. The QUEST project describes a new hydrogen-on-demand technology using catalytic carbon to produce hydrogen (no oxygen) at very high rates, limited only by the design of the apparatus. That technology is called CC-HOD. Under proper conditions, the CC- HOD process can produce hydrogen with very low power input In the early development of the CC-HOD hydrogen-production technology, the only fuels used by the CC-HOD process were water and aluminum in the form of powdered metal granules. Water is cheap, but aluminum powder is available at some cost. The QUEST project goal was to find a less expensive substitute for the aluminum fuel. For more information, please see the QUEST document, available on-line at The ACE cell technology provides one answer to the QUEST objective -- no aluminum is required (but can be used), and no powdered material (fuel) is used, thereby providing a cost reduction advantage. Adding electrolysis to the process can enable the process to use a wider range of metals -- not just aluminum. Specifically, it allows the ACE cell to use iron electrodes. Page 20

21 Separator cells based on membrane separation are not needed to produce adequately-pure hydrogen gas Engineering Draft The ACE cell produces hydrogen using a simple design that can reduce both complexity and cost of producing hydrogen. It does not use physical separation, with membrane technology, to separate oxygen from HHO. The ACE cell does function as a separator cell -- it uses chemical separation to keep the oxygen in the liquid in the form of metal oxides.the ACE cell does not require a conventional physical separator-cell design to produce adequately-pure hydrogen gas without the excessive production of oxygen gas. The good things about producing hydrogen using an ACE cell, are that (1) virtually all the gas that is produced is hydrogen; (2) virtually no oxygen gas is liberated. Sacrificial anode chemistry The novel aspect of this new cell design is that it uses the metal anode as a fuel (along with water). Most HHO experimenters use stainless steel and other metals to REDUCE the corrosion of the anode metal. The cell described in this document makes beneficial use of anode corrosion chemistry to produce hydrogen with virtually no oxygen gas production, thereby eliminating the need for membrane separator cell designs to separate the oxygen gas and hydrogen gas. Electrolysis of most metals in water can produce hydrogen The ACE cell uses only two things for fuel -- metal and water. Most metal anodes in an electrolysis cell can result in the production of hydrogen (at the cathode) as a result of water splitting and corrosion of the metal. The ACE cell works with most metals, when the anode metal is used as a sacrificial anode. We have chosen iron for one embodiment of our sacrificial anode for the ACE cell because scrap iron is cheap, non-toxic and plentiful - - and it can be used in bulk-metal form with no requirement to grind it into a powder. Rusting (corrosion) of iron consists of the formation of hydrated oxides, including Fe 3 and Fe 2 O 3. In an ACE cell, some Fe 2 O 3 formed, but the most important oxide formed is Fe 3. Page 21

22 The chemical process is complex and will depend in detail on the prevailing conditions, for example, in the presence of oxygen (from water splitting), the anodic oxidation will be Fe + H 2 O Fe + OH -1 + H +1 (1) The electric field in the water then sweeps the H +1 toward the cathode and the OH -1 toward the anode. In the ACE cell, hydrogen gas is formed as follows: Fe + OH -1 + H +1 Fe 3 + H 2 (2) Equation (3), in balanced form, is: Overall: Fe + 2H 2 O Fe 3 + H 2 (3) 3Fe + 4H 2 O Fe 3 + 4H 2 (4) This is an efficient reaction. Three iron atoms (3Fe) provides eight hydrogen atoms (4H 2 ), while at the same time sequestering four oxygen atoms ( ). No hydrogen is sequestered in the water or the electrolyte. Iron oxide in the water The water container is shown after operation in the test vehicle for 10 days of normal driving. Important observations are: 1 The amount of water used during the 10-day trial is low. When water expands to become hydrogen vapor, the vapor volume can occupy more than 1000 times the volume of water used to create the hydrogen gas. This factor of 1000 is called the volume expansion ratio. 2 The presence of some Fe 2 O 3 is shown by the orange/red color of the water. 3 In an ACE cell, the most important oxide formed is Fe 3. The Fe 3 oxide has a black color, and accumulates in the bottom of the water container. Page 22

23 The ACE cell does not produce red gunk in the water container. This is the same water container shown on the previous page. But, this bottle has a magnet in the water container. The bottle is backlit with a hand-held flashlight to show the light transmission through the water. This photo shows the water container on the Buick test vehicle. Prior to this photo, the ACE cell had been in operation for about a week of normal driving. This photograph shows that, in an ACE cell, the most important oxide formed is Fe 3. The Fe 3 oxide has a black color, and accumulates in the bottom of the water container. Fe 2 O 3 has a red color but it appears in low concentration as an oxidation product of an ACE cell. Cleanup and separation of the iron oxides from the water Two methods can be used. Gravity separation works well, as shown in the photograph on the previous page. A second method is to use magnetic separation. Just drop a magnet in the water container, and the iron oxide will accumulate at the bottom of the water container, around the magnet. The ACE cell can use both methods. The ACE cell uses iron electrodes, water, an electrolyte and, optionally, catalytic carbon (CC) and large electrode area to generate hydrogen at high rates In the ACE cell design, water and oxygen are plentiful. The oxygen is supplied by the water-splitting effects of both electrolysis and the water-splitting action of catalytic carbon. The use of CC is optional for small-hydrogen-flow-rate applications, and required for largehydrogen-flow-rate applications. As explained earlier in this section, small-hydrogen-flow-rate applications can include automobiles and trucks; and the ACE cell with CC-HOD technology can be used for largehydrogen-flow-rate applications (locomotives, ships, large motor-generator systems for powering island nations) Page 23

24 The ACE cell produces hydrogen gas and virtually no oxygen gas. The Fe 3 oxide compound stays in the water, and acts to sequester oxygen and prevent the production and release of oxygen gas. This is how the ACE cell acts as a separator cell -- by splitting water to obtain hydrogen gas, while keeping the oxygen in the water. Simplified explanation of the ACE cell chemistry When an iron anode corrodes, hydrogen gas is produced at the cathode and iron oxides prevent the production of oxygen gas. Hydrogen peroxide (H O ) and/or hydronium (H O + ) may be produced in the ACE cell A hydronium ion (H O + ) is what happens when you add a proton to a water molecule. 3 They have been the object of much study these days, partly because of their emerging importance in battery systems. In chemistry, hydronium is the common name for the aqueous cation (H O + ), the type of 3 oxonium ion produced by protonation of water. It is the positive ion present when an Arrhenius acid is dissolved in water, as Arrhenius acid molecules in solution give up a proton (a positive hydrogen ion, H+) to the surrounding water molecules (H O). 2 From Wikipedia: Page 24

25 While the hydronium ion contains the hydrogen ion in its structure, the hydronium ion itself is surrounded by yet more water molecules. This serves to spread the positive charge further, stabilizing the system to a greater extent. The number of molecules A chemistry-lab quantitative analysis can be done to determine the hydrogen peroxide and/ or hydronium ion concentration, if this might be of interest to cell builders. SBS electrolyte chemistry The electrolyte we have chosen, for use in the ACE cell, is sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), sometimes called SBS. The water-based mixture is Catalytic Carbon in SBS (Saturated Baking Soda). Other electrolytes can be used. If foaming occurs, use 50% SBS and 50% tap water. Tap water contents depend on where the tap water is obtained. Depending on the tap water, the hydrogen output can sometimes contain a bit of foam. Foam can be propagated through the hydrogen hose to the engine -- not a good thing. This can be prevented by reducing the concentration of the electrolyte, by using 50% SBS and 50% tap water. Surprise! You might expect the resistance of the hydrogen cell to double, if instead of SBS, you use 50% SBS and 50% tap water. You might be surprised that the difference will be much less. 50% SBS and 50% tap water may produce about 80% of the current from the hydrogen cell, compared to the use of SBS. The reason for this is believed to be that the current in an electrolysis cell can be partially or mostly diffusion limited. Sodium bicarbonate contains no chlorine. Chlorine pits and eats away at both steel engine blocks and aluminum engine blocks. This is why other technologies, such as that used by Novofuel, Inc. and AlumiFuel Power Corporation are less suited for producing hydrogen fuel for engines. Their patent (US 8,974,765 B2) describes the use of sodium chloride, potassum chloride and combinations thereof. Their technologies are, however, excellent for their intended uses, such as filling balloons for meteorological or military applications. For their applications, they do not require CC. Page 25

26 The purpose for the CC is to provide very high rate of water splitting, especially when the cell is operated at temperatures in the range of 180F or above. This provides a higher rate of hydrogen production resulting from chemistry described as CC-HOD. (Ref: Catalyst The ACE cell works well without CC, but the use of CC can provide a higher hydrogen production rate at any given current level, when the ACE cell is operated at a temperature in the range of 180F or above, especially when the iron electrodes have a very high surface area. The surface area is a design variable and can be varied and specified (selected) to provide the hydrogen production rate (LPM) for a specific application.. The CC works well in the CC-HOD mode of hydrogen production, which requires a high metal surface area. How much metal surface area is the minimum required to produce hydrogen? Answer: More than about 1.5 square meters. For more information: Page 26

27 ACE cell fabrication -- How to connect iron to copper Engineering Draft We selected iron as the anode material for our first proof-of-principle prototype. Aluminum may be separately considered as a special case for reasons described on-line ( Ref: ). The rate of extra hydrogen production is dependent on the metal and the metal area that is used for the ACE cell electodes, as explained in Appendix A. As explained later in this document, we use electrodes composed of either a metal rod inside a pipe; or a small pipe inside a slightly larger pipe. We have found that it is easy to make a good metalurgical connection between the cast iron electrode and a copper wire. Here is one method we have used: Step 1. Cut a slot in the pipe and remove the rust and oxide trom the area where the copper wire will be soldered into the slot. Do not cut the slot all the way through the pipe. Cast iron electrode Copper wire Step 2. Put the copper wire in the slot, and tap it into place with a few light taps of a hammer. The assembly is being held by a vicegrip tool. Page 27

28 Step 3. Put the assembly in an oven, with the assembly near the front of the oven so that later, it will be convient when applying the solder. Next, close the door and heat the assembly. We use a temperature of about 425 F because most acid-core solder materials melt at temperatures between 360F to 400F. Step 4. When the oven reaches a temp of 425F, open the door and apply solder. We use acid-core solder. It works well to bond to both cast iron and copper. Page 28

29 This solder job is not yet complete. The application of solder was stopped to take this photograph at a stage when both the cast iron and copper can be viewed. As shown, the solder bonds very well to both metals. After this photo was taken, more solder was applied to cover all the copper wire. This photo (right) shows a solder job not yet completed. This bond could NOT be pulled apart. Step 5. Solder a flexible, stranded copper wire to the copper stud. A common electronics soldering iron may be used because the stud is long enough to prevent excess heat sinking (cooling) by the large iron pipe. If your soldering iron produces insufficient heat for this step, the burner on an electric cookstove can be used as shown here. Page 29

30 The result is a good low-electrical-resistance connection suited for high-current use. Step 6. Insulate all copper wire from the electrolysis bath. This is necessary to prevent excessive copper corrosion when the electrodes have voltage applied (normal operation of the ACE cell). We use Tygon plastic tubing and a good quality rubber cement This photo shows the layout of the electrodes before being inserted into the 1.25 PVC tube. Step 7. Next, the electrode assembly can be inserted into the 1.25 PVC tube (1). The top of the 1.25 PVC cap is fitted for hydrogen export (2), the electrode wires (3) and the temperature sensor (4). Rubber cement can be used to prevent hydrogen leaks. Small vent hole in cap allows the water container to operate at atmospheric pressure Step 8. Next, the 1.25 PVC tube can be inserted into the 2 PVC tube (5). The 1.25 end cap fits snugly into the 2 PVC tube. This junction operates at atmospheric pressure -- easy dissambly when needed. Page 30

31 APPENDIX A -- Hydrogen production and anode metal variations in electrolysis cells The ratio of hydrogen gas to oxygen gas can be measured using this kind of apparatus. This appendix provides data obtained using inert electrodes and sacrificial anodes (aluminum and iron). Sacrificial anodes can be used to sequester the oxygen and produce high-purity hydrogen. Page 31

32 Electrolysis of water when inert electrodes are used H2 O2 Note the 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen. This only occurs when inert electrodes are used. O2 H2 When inert electrodes are used to electrolyze water, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2. HHO gas is 1/3 or 33% oxygen. One type of inert metal is gold. Electrolysis of water using gold electrodes is shown on the following page. Page 32

33 Electrolysis of water when Gold electrodes are used When gold is used for electrodes, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2. Engineering Draft Amount of hydrogen produced when Gold is used for electrodes. Amount of oxygen produced when Gold is used for electrodes. This HHO gas is 1/3 or 33% oxygen. When gold is used for electrodes, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2. Electrolysis of water when aluminum electrodes are used When aluminum is used for electrodes, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 4. Amount of hydrogen produced when Aluminum is used for electrodes. Amount of oxygen produced when Aluminum is used for electrodes. This HHO gas is 1/5 or 20% oxygen. Page 33

34 Electrolysis of water when iron electrodes are used When iron is used for electrodes, the ratio of hydrogen to other material is almost 20. Amount of hydrogen produced when iron is used for electrodes. Almost zero oxygen gas is produced when iron is used for electrodes. The material produced is iron oxide. This HHO gas is less than 5% oxygen. Summary -- oxygen concentrations 21% oxygen -- oxygen in air. 33% oxygen -- oxygen in HHO produced using electrolysis with inert-anode. 20% oxygen -- oxygen in HHO produced using electrolysis with aluminum anode. Less than 5% oxygen -- the amount of oxygen in HHO produced using electrolysis with iron electrodes; specifically an iron-anode. The percent oxygen data above are approximations and the % figures can vary, depending on electrolysis experimental conditions. Iron anode electrolysis produces almost no oxygen bubbles No bubbles at the anode means no oxygen gas is being liberated at the anode. In our lab (Phillips Company), we evaluated this using experimental methods. The results are shown on the following page. Page 34

35 Iron anode after many days of continuous DC electrolysis. Iron oxide definitely is forming! Note: The oxidation products are different when AC is used, as in the ACE cell. Iron oxide sequesters oxygen. Result: Very few bubbles are produced at the anode, but high hydrogen production occurs at the cathode (see below). 12 to 35 volts DC; 2 amps Iron Very few oxygen bubbles SBS Lead Cathode High bubble production rate Lead Cathode is difficult to see, because of the cloud of fine H2 bubbles. Page 35

36 Why is the inverter required to run at a frequency of approximately 0.1 Hz? Space charge formation near the electrodes is a major factor which contributes to the current decline immediatly after application of voltage to the cell. Relaxing time is long (time constant of 4 to 10 seconds) because ions move slowly as they are being swept out of the space charge region under the influence of the electrical field near the electrode. The phase reversal period must match the time constant of the cell chemistry for best results. Phase reversal every 5 seconds corresponds to a frequency of 0.1 HZ. Phase reversal using a square wave is best. Phase reversal every 5 seconds corresponds to a frequency of 0.1 HZ. Phase reversal using a square wave is best. Iron Anode Cell current. Typically, Imax = 5 to 30 Amperes. Zinc Anode Aluminum Anode I = 0 Time 0 30 sec 1 min This sketch illustrates the effects of space charge formation and anode surface oxide formation at the initial onset of electrolysis. Iron oxides can be partially removed from the electrode surface if phase reversal is used. Other metals, including zinc and aluminum, can quickly form a protective oxide layer which tends to limit the current in the cell. Page 36

37 Space charge effects cause current transients in the ACE cell to decay with long time constants, which must be matched by the inverter frequency Space charge effects on the currents in liquids have been studied to form a good theoretical knowledge of the space-charge formation and how ion mobility affects the currents in an electrolysis cell. Figure 23. Ionic current at cathode / anode The data in the above graph was aquired with a partially-conducting oil dielectric (electrolyte). The author says, The asymmetry in the electric field distribution depends on the polarity. That suggests the existence of different mobilities of the positive and negative ions rather than injection of charges at the electrodes It is well known that when water is split into H and OH, the mobilities of the H and OH are different in a liquid. The timing of the current transients depend on the chemistry and configuration of the electrodes in the cell. For our ACE cell, the observed current relaxing time is long (time constant of 4 to 10 seconds) because ions move slowly as they are being swept out of the space charge region under the influence of the electrical field near the electrode. Therefore, we have chosen a polarity reversal period of 5 to 10 seconds for the inverters designed to apply AC to the ACE cell. Page 37

38 Three reasons for the transient current decline in an electrolysis cell following the application of voltage The three reasons are oxide formation, bubble formation and space charge effects. These three mechanisms are discussed below. Bubble formation also contributes to the current decline When the cell is started, it produces hydrogen bubbles. The bubbles do not conduct electricity as well as the water/electrolyte combination without bubbles. Consequently, until steady-state bubble production is achieved, the current will decline as shown in the sketch. Steady state operation is usually realized within about 1 minute, with variation depending on the cell construction. Space charge formation near the electrodes also contributes to the current decline immediatly after application of voltage to the cell. The mechanism of space charge formation is beyond the scope of this document, but the theory is well understood in the field of solid state physics. This effect can be used to good advantage, as is done in the ACE cell, if polarity reversal (low frequency AC) is used to power the cell. For the ACE cell electrodes, iron is preferred for the following reasons 1. Iron is cheap. Both new iron and corroded iron work well. Interestingly, corroded iron works well because its surface can be rough, providing more surface area than new iron pipe. 2. The iron oxides do not form an electrically-insulating layer. Page 38

39 APPENDIX B -- ACE cell characteristics and the use of boost mode hydrogen fuel supplementation in automobiles Page 39

40 ACE cell technology does NOT require modification of oxygen sensors on automobiles. Engineering Draft Modern fuel-injection automobile engines use oxygen sensors to optimize the air/fuel ratio and the performance of engine. The engine control computer is designed to obtain oxygen from air, which is 21% oxygen. If hydrogen is introduced into the air intake manifold in the form of HHO containing 33% oxygen, the oxygen sensors must be modified to compensate for the difference. Without modification, the engine will run rich and use more fuel than is needed, thereby defeating the fuel-saving objective that can be obtained when hydrogen is introduced into the air input. However, if hydrogen is introduced into the air intake manifold in the form of HHO containing less than 21%, the oxygen sensors do not require modification or adjustment to compensate for the difference. ACE cell technology can introduce hydrogen into the air intake manifold in the form of HHO containing much less than 21% oxygen. This can be done with most metals when used as sacrificial anodes. Of special interest are ACE cell anodes made from iron and aluminum; both of which can be used in cells that do NOT require any kind of complicated separator-cell apparatus designed to separate oxygen from hydrogen. ACE cell technology does NOT vent any gas into the atmosphere. Separator cells are usually designed to vent oxygen into the atmosphere. ACE cell operation does not require venting oxygen (or any other gas) into the atmosphere. Lower cost and hardware simplicity Lower cost, safety and hardware simplicity are the reasons why ACE cell technology can be considered for fuel-cost-saving applications in modern automobiles. The ACE cell technology can blend seamlessly into modern automobiles to provide the advantages discussed above. The discussions in this document require a basic knowledge of how modern computer-controlled fuel injection systems use data from oxygen sensors. The following section (Appendix C) discusses Air-fuel ratios and oxygen sensors. Page 40

41 Safety The ignition key should not be in the ON position without the engine running. The ACE2 system produces hydrogen when the ignition is ON, and produces no hydrogen when the ignition is OFF. The system should be operated only when the engine is running. We recommend you use a flashback arrestor. We use a more risky approach -- the hydrogen is injected into the air filter system. This was made possible when we determined that for our test vehicle (Buick) the fuel injection system stops flashback under all test conditions. This may not be the case for other vehicles unless they have tight fuel injection systems. ANY use of hydrogen can be a safety hazard and we encourage all users of hydrogen to learn about the safety issues and practice good design and operation of hydrogen equipment. Martin provided information on this topic via his post on HODinfo.com: In a carbburator engine the flash-back runs back to the carb via the manifold space. Diesels and PI petrol engines have no input manifold void that is filled with a combustible air/fuel mixture as the fuel is directly injected. So in theory, a flash-back would not be a reality in normal use. However, if you were to unfortunately flood the engine (or it turns over without starting) some fuel vapor could conceivably escape into the inlet manifold and provide an opportunity for a flash-back in exactly the same way excess unburnt fuel entering the exhaust manifold can cause a back-fire "bang". I'd err on the side of caution because you never know! ANY use of hydrogen can be a safety hazard and we encourage all users of hydrogen to learn about the safety issues and practice good design and operation of hydrogen equipment. A hydrogen or HHO explosion is similar to a methane gas explosion. A methand gas explosion is shown online at: Page 41

42 APPENDIX C -- Air-fuel ratios and oxygen sensors Page 42

43 Air fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in a combustion process such as in an internal combustion engine or industrial furnace. If exactly enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as the stoichiometric mixture. For precise AFR calculations, the oxygen content of combustion air should be specified because of possible dilution by ambient water vapor, or enrichment by oxygen additions/ variations. (Ref: The introduction of hydrogen using the ACE cell is an important oxygen-to-fuel variation which the computer WILL take into consideration. The AFR is an important measure for anti-pollution and performance-tuning reasons. The lower the AFR, the richer the mixture. In theory, a stoichiometric mixture has just enough air to completely burn the available fuel. In practice this is never quite achieved, due primarily to the very short time available in an internal combustion engine for each combustion cycle. (Ref: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/air%e2%80%93fuel_ratio) Hydrogen supplementation helps solve this problem because of the high flame front velocity of hydrogen-air combustion. Most of the combustion process completes in approximately 4 5 milliseconds at an engine speed of 6,000 rpm. (100 revolutions per second; 10 milliseconds per revolution) This is the time that elapses from when the spark is fired until the burning of the fuel air mix is essentially complete after some 80 degrees of crankshaft rotation. Catalytic converters are designed to work best when the exhaust gases passing through them are the result of nearly perfect combustion. (Ref: Hydrogen supplementation can improve the performance of the catalytic converter because of the high flame front velocity of hydrogen-air combustion, which leads to more complete combustion of the gasoline fuel. A stoichiometric mixture unfortunately burns very hot and can damage engine components if the engine is placed under high load at this fuel air mixture. Due to the high temperatures at this mixture, detonation of the fuel air mix shortly after maximum cylinder pressure is possible under high load (referred to as knocking or pinging). Detonation can cause serious engine damage as the uncontrolled burning of the fuel air mix can create very high pressures in the cylinder. As a consequence, stoichiometric mixtures are only used under light load conditions. For acceleration and high load conditions, a richer mixture Page 43

44 (lower air fuel ratio) is used to produce cooler combustion products and thereby prevent detonation and overheating of the cylinder head. Hydrogen supplementation can improve the performance of the engine because of the high flame front velocity of hydrogen-air combustion, which leads to more complete combustion of the gasoline fuel even when the engine is operated at non-stoichiometric AFR mixtures. Engine management systems The stoichiometric mixture for a gasoline engine is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that burns all fuel with no excess air. For gasoline fuel, the stoichiometric air fuel mixture is about 15:1 -- for every one gram of fuel, 15 grams of air are required. The fuel oxidation reaction is: (Ref: Any AFR mixture greater than ~15 to 1 is considered a lean mixture. Any AFR mixture less than ~15 to 1 is a rich mixture given perfect (ideal) test fuel (gasoline consisting of solely n-heptane and iso-octane). In reality, most fuels consist of a combination of heptane, octane, a handful of other alkanes, plus additives including detergents, and possibly oxygenators such as MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether) or ethanol/methanol. These compounds all alter the stoichiometric ratio, with most of the additives pushing the ratio downward (oxygenators bring extra oxygen to the combustion event in liquid form that is released at the time of combustion. For MTBE-laden fuel, a stoichiometric ratio can be as low as 14.1:1). Vehicles that use an oxygen sensor or other feedback loop to control fuel to air ratio (lambda control), compensate automatically for this change in the fuel s stoichiometric rate by measuring the exhaust gas composition and controlling fuel volume. Vehicles without such controls (such as most motorcycles until recently, and cars predating the mid-1980s) may have difficulties running certain fuel blends (especially winter fuels used in some areas) and may require different jets (or otherwise have the fueling ratios altered) to compensate. Vehicles that use oxygen sensors can monitor the air fuel ratio with an air fuel ratio meter. Page 44

45 APPENDIX D -- Car test results -- 30% fuel savings Typical performance improvement: 34 MPG is an MPG gain of approximately 31% Counter-intuitive realization regarding using hydrogen as a fuel supplement for automobile engines (boost mode operation) The following is an explanation of the counter-intuitive optimization improvement that can result from the use of hydrogen as a fuel supplement (boost mode) for automobile engines: If hydrogen is introduced into the air intake manifold in the form of HHO containing less than 21%, the engine will run lean (saving gasoline) and the improved combustion efficiency of the gasoline, aided by the injected hydrogen can provide the extra power needed for proper operation. This is called boost mode operation. The reason for improved combustion efficiency of the gasoline, aided by the injected hydrogen, is that the flame-front velocity of hydrogen-air combustion is much greater than that for gasoline-air combustion. These factors and the resulting fuel cost savings are explained in more detail on-line (Ref: Page 45

46 Measurement of Test Vehicle performance At a cell current of approximately 8 Amperes, and at a speed of 65 MPH, the gas mileage was measured to be 34 MPG. ACE cell current 65 MPH 34 MPG 34 MPG is an MPG gain of approximately 31%. This is typical, although the MPG measurement is subject to change because of terrain (lower MPG uphill; higher MPG downhill). The hydrogen flow rate, being delivered to the engine, is less than 200 ml/minute of hydrogen, at this cell current. Page 46

47 Temperature measurement The cell current meter and the Digital Temp Controller (DTC) are mounted on the Buick dashboard as shown below. These data were taken during the warm-up, soon after the Buick reached a highway speed of 65 MPH. At this moment, the cell temperature was 61.8C, with an upper-limit goal of 80C (approximately 180F). Temperature effects There are two mechanisms of hydrogen production in the ACE cell. 1. One mechanism is to produce hydrogen using electrolysis. In the ACE cell, the oxygen is retained in the water, and the cell output is mostly hydrogen and virtually no oxygen. This is done without using any kind of separator-cell design, as explained later in this document. 2. The second mechanism of hydrogen production is based on the CC-HOD technology, using iron instead of aluminum powder for fuel. The CC-HOD technology, described elsewhere, was originally based on aluminum-water chemistry: 2Al + 6H2O + CC = CC + 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2 For a full explanation of the CC-HOD technology, please see If high hydrogen generation rates are required, the ACE cells described in this document use a new version of the CC-HOD technology, in which iron is substituted for aluminum, and electrolysis is combined with this iron-anode chemistry to produce hydrogen. When the CC-HOD mode of operation is used, the cell temperature should be maintained near 180F (approximately 80C) for best performance. If high hydrogen generation rates are NOT required, the cell can be operated at any temperature from 35F up to 180F (approximately 80C) for best performance. Page 47

48 The ACE cell system performance can be improved -- Any ACE cell can use CC with very large-area electrodes to reduce the required electrolysis current and increase the hydrogen production rate. There are two mechanisms of hydrogen production in the ACE cell. One mechanism is to produce hydrogen using electrolysis. The second mechanism of hydrogen production is based on the CC-HOD technology For a full explanation of the CC-HOD technology, please see CC means Catalytic Carbon. The ACE cell uses water with catalytic carbon and an electrolyte. I use sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) for a dielectric. It is effective and cheap, usually costing about $1 per box at any grocery store. For carbon, I use crushed coal, but any carbon will work just fine including crushed charcoal (typically fuel used for your barbecue grill) or GAC sold for use as a water filter. You can buy CC or you can make your own CC. Making CC is easy. The method is online at How to make black water 1. Begin by selecting any convenient-size container; either plastic, metal or glass. 2. Fill the container with water to the 3/4 full level with any water -- tap water, ocean water, distilled water, dirty water -- ANY water. 3. Add baking soda until no more of it will dissolve. It is OK to leave a few tablespoons of un-dissolved baking soda in the bottom of the container. 4. Fill the container to the 90%-full level with CC. Mix and stir. 5. When adding black water to the ACE cell water tank, use the POUR-OFF method. Pour the liquid, but do not pour the dregs into the ACE cell water tank. Page 48

49 Beneficial effects of using CC in ACE cells with large electrode area This additional contribution to the hydrogen production rate can ONLY be achieved if the electrode surface area is very large. The area is a design variable. Hydrogen rate produced by the ACE cell The additional hydrogen produced (because of the presence of CC) can range from negligible to large, depending on the design and operation of the ACE cell (iron anode area and operating temperature). Room temp 80C (approximately. 180F) Temperature, degrees C The increase in hydrogen production rate (shown as in the above figure) can only be obtained with the use of CC in the ACE cell, with very-large-area iron electrodes.. CC can be obtained in either of 3 ways 1. You can make your own CC using the method explained on-line: Method: 2. Or, you can purchase CC as a quick way to get started building your ACE cell. CC purchasing information is on-line at: How to get CC from the USA: How to get CC from the UK: 3. Or, you can add carbon granules to the ACE cell, and, over time, the electrolysis environment will activate the carbon and it will become CC. The activation requires about 6 Ampere-hours of cell operation. Page 49

50 APPENDIX E -- Electrical details of the Mark II ACE cell system To the reader: Before reading this section, you are enthusiastically encouraged to first read Page 50

51 What s in the INV box? The ACE cell (AC Electrolysis) is defined by using AC to power the electrolysis cell. INV +12 VAC out, to cell electrodes INVERTER: 12 VDC input. 12 VAC output. Frequency = 0.1 Hz Ground (0 V) +12 VDC in from either a fuse or a circuit breaker. +12 VDC from the DTC, when DTC signals the electrolysis cell to be in the POWER-ON state. 2 PVC 16 inches long AC out INVERTER Model: Mark II Use: Hydrogen ACE cell Input: 12 VDC Output: 12 VAC, 0 to 30 Amperes, Frequency = 0.1 Hz Phillips Company: Input: +12V and ground. Red wire is +Vs control from the DTC. Page 51

52 Inverter in a box DC input +12 V from battery and Ground.. White wires +12V 0V AC out Square Wave 2 blue wires Red wire is control from DTC. +12 VDC input = Inverter ON Page 52

53 Inverter circuit Oscillator +Vcc ~ 11 VDC 1.5K 5.6K 5.6K 1.5K 150R +Vs (Note A) 2N2222 C 1 C 2 2N2222 C3 = 3300 Mfd Relay Driver Q4 MJE A, 150V 12K 12K Q5 MJE A, 150V Switching; (DC in; AC to Electrodes) Electrodes 12K +Vs (Note A) LEDs +12 VDC from battery (high current) Note A: This voltage (+Vs) is +12V supplied via the DTC. This is a low-current voltage source. Page 53

54 Inverter circuit design notes This circuit has been modified to remove the LEDs from the OSCILLATOR section of the inverter. Reasons for this change are: (1) Improved circuit reliability because of fewer parts, and (2) with this change, the base drive current for Q3 and Q4 are not limited by LED current. If desired, LEDs can be used as an oscillator visual indicator during circuit troubleshooting or oscillator evaluation. This can be done by using a test probe, connected to the collector of Q1 and the collector of Q2. The test probe can be configured as shown below. To collector of Q1 18K To collector of Q2 The connections shown above can be temporary (test probe) or the circuit can be a permanent part of the circuit if desired, to ALWAYS provide a visual indication of oscillator operation. Frequency adjustment: Pull-up resistors have been added between the base of Q1 and Q2 to the Vs power supply, to increase stability of the oscillator and to provide frequency adjustment. Lower resistance provides a lower time constant, higher frequency, and shorter polarity reversal time. R = 5.6 K ohms is shown on the diagram -- the value of these resistors can be changed to force the oscillator to oscillate at lower of higher frequencies, as desired. This simple circuit uses relays. Inexpensive cube relays, available on ebay, carry a specification of 1 million cycles, which is good. Even so, an advanced design of this inverter could be all-solid-state design, using semiconductors to replace the electromechanical relays. C1, C2 and C3 are all 3300 Mfd, 25 volt electrolytic capacitors. Note the polarization of the capacitors. Note that both ACE cell electrodes are grounded when the system is OFF (when Vs =0). This is a better OFF condition than the alternative of having both ACE cell electrodes at a voltage of +12 volts when the system is OFF. These LEDs can be of different colors. Page 54

55 We use one white and one red LED to signal when the phase reversal occurs. This inverter is a power efficient design. It does not dissipate as much heat as would be the case if the relays are replaced with semiconductors. Therefore, for this design, large heat sinks are not required for cooling the power transistors, Q3 and Q4. Optioinally, heat sinks can be provided for Q3 and Q4. These heat sinks will normally not be required if the inverter is placed in a cool place, such as the space between the grill and the radiator. Heat sinks for Q3 and Q4 may be needed if the inverter is located in a hot place, such as inside the engine compartment. There is one condition where having heat sinks may be needed for Q3 and Q4. This is a situation when low voltage is used to operate the inverter. This condition can occur if the battery voltage is low, and the alternator is not charging the battery sufficiently. Under this condition, the drive current can become insufficient to keep Q3 and Q4 in saturation. This will result in excessive heat dissipation for Q3 and Q4 when either of these transistors are normally ON. The relays do not feed back to the oscillator. Therefore, if a relay occasionally fails to make good contact, the system continues to run. Page 55

56 At first look, the circuit may appear to offer the possibility of a short circuit, depending on the state of the relays. But, no short is possible. Below is the truth table for the relays: This is a required feature of the design, because mechanical relays often have variations in pull-in current, drop-out current and mechanical characteristics. This feature of the design also allows the relay contact to, on occasion, not make good electrical contact because of a number of reasons -- dirty contacts, worn contacts, etc. When the relays occasionally fail to make good electrical contact, the inverter continues to work, and the next cycle will probably result in good electrical contacts -- until the useful life of the relay is exceeded. Trouble-shooting the switching section of the inverter I ve had an input from cell builders that have had difficulty sorting out the switching section of the inverter (shown below). A B Page 56

57 You can trouble shoot the problem by isolating and disconnecting the SWITCHING section from the other parts of the circuit. If you ground A (but not B), then the left relay should pull in. If you ground B (but not A), then only the right relay should pull in. In both those cases, the output voltage (potential difference) to the hydrogen cell should be 12 volts, but different polarity as you first ground only A, and then ground only B. If neither A nor B is grounded, both electrode terminals should be at ground potential. If both A and B are grounded, then both electrode terminals should be at +12 volts. No latching or ground-to-12 volt shorting is possible when the circuit is wired as shown above. Inverter fabrication in a PVC pipe: This design is laid out on a metal strip. It is long, to fit into a PVC pipe when completed. This photo shows the switching relay section only; with quick-ties used to hold the components until glue dries. 1. Relays 2. Harness wiring 3. Control wires to Q3/Q4 4. DC (+12V from battery) 5. AC out This is the completed electronics section of the inverter. This fabrication method uses flying-wire construction, to conserve space so that it will fit into a PVC tube. A MUCH BETTER construction method, by Frank Taylor, is shown on the following page. Page 57

58 Inverter first success confirmed! Frank Taylor s oscillator and relay driver module is shown below (with permission). Frank was the first to successfully build and test the inverter, based on the circuit diagram shown earlier in this section. Frank, in Australia, can be reached by squizzy_taylor61@yahoo.com.au Frank Taylor s oscillator and relay driver sections of the 0.1 Hz inverter C1 C2 C3 Oscillator DC input Q1 Q2 LEDs Relay driver Q3 Q4 To Relays Frank would win the INTERNATIONAL HYDROGEN PRIZE, if only we had such a prize to award. Why? The ACE cell invention and the inverter circuit were first posted on August 24, Frank had the circuit constructed and tested in less than a week! WOW! Page 58

59 How to obtain an inverter You have two choices: YOU CAN MAKE YOUR OWN INVERTER AS A DIY PROJECT or I WILL FABRICATE AN INVERTER AND MAIL IT TO YOU. For a few selected cell builders: Until someone else begins to sell kits or ACE inverters, I will supply cell builders with the inverter if you want one but don t have time to build one as a DIY project. The inverter will be like the one shown below, in a box. I will incorporate all current upgrades and design improvements when it is fabricated. International cell builders: I an only ship the inverter to USA addresses. Can you supply a USA address of a friend that can ship it to you? For more information, please see Page 59

60 The following pages provide information about parts used to build the inverter Transistors: The simple inverter circuit uses only 4 transistors. The 2N2222 is a gardenvariety transistor and almost any small-signal silicon npn transistor can be used. The MJE01530 is a medium-power npn transistor. Many medium-power transistors in this class will work just fine in this circuit, including the MJE13007A. The beta (current gain) must be greater than 30 for use in this inverter circuit. Page 60

61 Don t forget to include the cost of LEDs, a circuit board, and a few pennies for hookup wire and solder. Page 61

62 NC Normally Closed NO Normally Open COM Common The above information describes parts, prices and sources via ebay for the inverter circuit. Page 62

63 The information below describes parts, prices and sources via ebay for other parts of the ACE system Page 63

64 Single-ended commercial oscillator The above oscillator, available via ebay, can oscillate as the required frequenty. It can be used as an alternate to the oscillator shown earlier in this section. Complete inverter system circuit diagrams are not available from Phillips Company. Page 64

65 Where can I find cast iron pipe? Cast iron works best for use as ACE cell electrodes. Homes built before 1960 used galvanized steel or cast iron DWV (drain/waste/vent) pipe systems. Cast iron DWV pipe is preferred for ACE electrodes. Cast iron was commonly used before 1950 for the vertical drain, vent stacks, and sometimes the horizontal drain lines. Cast iron is durable, but can rust over time. When browsing through a scrap metal yard, look for rusty pipe -- that s what you need. When shopping for cast iron, take a magnet with you. Cast iron is attracted by a magnet. Stainless steel and other steel metal is not strongly attracted to a magnet. You don t want stainless steel. In fact, you do not want any kind of steel. Steel contains carbon. For ACE cell electrodes, you do not want iron that has carbon in it. When shopping for cast iron in a hardware store or a scrap yard, try to find an old man to help you. Old men know exactly what cast iron is. It s about the only kind of iron pipe available in the 1950s and before that. Page 65

66 Fifty years ago, cast iron was about the only kind of iron pipe available in a hardware store. Now, cast iron (cheap) pipe has been mostly replaced by more-expensive black pipe for gas lines or galvanized pipe for general use. For ACE cell electrodes, you do not want black pipe or galvanized pipe. You want cheap cast iron DWV pipe, with no paint or anti-corrosion outer layer. Remember we WANT our electrode to corrode, in the same way a sacrificial anode is intended to corrode. Machine shops often use KEY STOCK iron. It is perfect cast iron, sometimes called soft iron. Key stock iron is usually found as flat-plate stock; not in the form of pipe. You may be able to find cast iron pipe in a hardware. But, in your area, cast iron may be more plentiful in scrap yards. A perfect place to find cast iron pipe is where an old building is being torn down; especially if the building was built before Below is a photo of cast iron pipe removed from a 50-year-old building. Summary: The ACE cell works best with cast iron electrodes. Cast iron pipe can usually be found in scrap yards in the form of rusty pipe that is strongly attracted to a magnet. Take a small magnet with you when you shop for cast iron. Cast iron is often distinguised by price. Cast iron will probably be the cheapest iron (per pound) in the scrap yard, or in the hardware store. Page 66

67 MPG measurement The typical DIY builder will not need a scan gauge. The reason I use a scan gauge is that the ACE cell development was a engineering project, and I wanted more data than a typical DIY builders might want. I use the ScanGauge II to provide accurate MPG data. The scan gauge can measure either instantaneous MPG or and average value of MPG for any time period desired. Photo from the owners manual. This is not intended to be a data photo. I ve never driven 129 MPH in my life! Miles per gallon -- measures accurately from 0 MPG through 100 MPG. Battery voltage (Volts) The ScanGuage owner s manual on-line at: Page 67

68 Temperature control I use a digital temperature controller (DTC) to control the temperature of the ACE cell. It has a relay output that can be used to control a larger power relay in the inverter, which, in turn switches high currents to the ACE cell. This DTC is typically found on ebay for a price in the $15 range. For ACE cell typical operation, I set the DTC for an upper limit of 80C or about 180F. When the cell reaches that temp, the ACE cell is switched OFF until it cools to about 175F, at which time the power is re-applied to the ACE cell. A diode can be used as a clamp to limit sparks from back-emf when the power relay coil is switched off. This can extend the lifetime of the DTC relay. Page 68

69 The DTC typically results in the following switching control 175 to 180F Typical switching of ACE cell current ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON Heat Cool Heat Cool Heat Cool Heat Cool from 180F to 175F 0 minutes 60 minutes Time Current (ACE cell) 15 Amps Typical switching of ACE cell current ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON Heat Cool Heat Cool Heat Cool Heat 0 Amperes 0 minutes 60 minutes Time The ON/OFF timing will depend on experimental conditions and ambient temperature. A good place to locate the ACE cell is in front of the radiator to benefit from air cooling. This results in more ON time and less OFF time. Residual effect Many DIY hydrogen cell builders have reported that after operating on hydrogen, the mileage improvement continues even after the hydrogen is switched off. This is not completely understood (by me), but I typically see this effect on the Buick test vehicle. When I measure the instantaneous MPG, it remains virtually unchanged when the ACE cell is switched from ON to OFF. I suspect this effect is not due to the ACE cell, but rather it is caused by the ECU computer in the engine assembly. Page 69

70 APPENDIX F -- Iron anode chemistry Page 70

71 Chemical forms of iron oxides Engineering Draft Iron(III) oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Fe 2 O 3. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the other two being iron(ii) oxide (FeO), which is rare, and iron(ii,iii) oxide (Fe 3 ), which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. The mineral known as hematite, Fe 2 O 3 is the main source of the iron for the steel industry. Fe 2 O 3 is ferromagnetic, dark red, and readily attacked by acids. The form of iron oxide produced in an electrolysis cell depends on many factors, including the applied voltage. AC electrolysis produces different results than DC electrolysis. What kind of iron oxide does DC electrolysis produce? For DC electrolysis, the oxidation products appear to be both Fe2O3 and Fe 3. In our lab, we oxidized iron over a period of weeks at a current of 5 Amperes and an applied voltage of 12 to 35 volts. The iron anode is shown here, with the appearance of both red oxide and black oxide. For DC electrolysis, the oxidation products appear to be both red Fe 2 O 3 and black Fe 3. Sacrificial anode corrosioin from DC electrolysis Current spike The application of DC voltage to an electrolysis cell results in a current spike (transient high current) followed by a slow decay, over a period of 5 seconds to 30 seconds, to a steady state current. The ACE cell operates in a way that uses current during this transient to produce hydrogen. This is done with the use of an inverter to convert DC to AC at a phase reversal frequency of approximately 0.1 Hz. Page 71

72 Voltage waveform for ACE cells The results reported below were obtained with ACE cells built using two iron electrodes, composed of two pipes, one smaller than the other, arranged in a coaxial configuration. The form of iron oxide can be different, depending on whether AC or DC electrolysis is used to oxidize the iron. In our ACE cell, we use AC electrolysis (phase reversal) at a low frequency, typically less than 1 Hz. In these cells, we apply power only during the initial peak-current period. Then, the voltage polarity is reversed after a few seconds, before the current becomes constant = steady state, or DC electrolysis. The following discussion describes the black Fe 3 produced in our ACE cells. What kind of iron oxide does AC electrolysis produce? For AC electrolysis, the primary oxidation product of iron electrodes appear to be Fe 3. In our tests, we oxidized iron in our test vehicle over a period of several days, under normal driving conditions, at a current of 5 to 10 Amperes and an applied voltage of 12 volts AC, 0.1 Hz. The iron oxide produced in these tests had the appearance of only black oxide, as shown below. One of the two magnets (left side) is clean, and has not been exposed to the black oxide. The magnet on the right shows how the black oxide is attracted to a magnet. The particles of black oxide are NOT magnetically attracted to each other. This is shown by the uniform distribution of the black particles in the water. The saucer contains liquid removed from our ACE cell after operating the cell for a period of several days, under normal driving conditions, at a current of 5 to 10 Amperes and an applied voltage of 12 volts AC, 0.1 Hz. The black residue is Magnetite, Fe 3. It is quite inert, non toxic and can be disposed of down the drain. Page 72

73 Magnetic removal of iron oxide from the cell The results shown below illusstrate that a magnet can be used to remove the iron oxide from the ACE cell, to keep it clean. The coin on the bottom of the bowl is a quarter. The black particles, assumed to be Fe 3, are not attracted to the non-magnetic metals in the quarter. A magnet was placed under the bowl, but not in the water. The black particles, assumed to be Fe 3, ARE attracted to magnetic field from the magnet under the bowl. The black particles were dried in air to become black powder. The particles show no indication of attracting each other via magnetic forces. Page 73

74 The black particle sizes were measured using a measuring microscope. The results shown above show that the particle diameter is much less than 20 microns, probably in the range of to 1 microns, or 1 to 1000 nanometers. Fe 3 nanoparticles It appears that the ACE cell produces nanoparticles. Iron oxide nanoparticles are iron oxide particles with diameters between about 1 and 100 nanometers. The two main forms are magnetite (Fe 3 ) and its oxidized form maghemite (gamma-fe 2 O 3 ). They have attracted extensive interest due to their superparamagnetic properties and their potential applications in many fields (although Co and Ni are also highly magnetic materials, they are toxic and easily oxidized). Electrical insulator: The dry Fe 3 was bunched together and the electrical resistance was measured. The resistance is VERY high. This is desirable as a by-product of electrolysis in the ACE cell, because the formation of Fe 3 does not lead to short circuits between the electrodes. This was confirmed by operating the ACE cell in our test vehicle. Page 74

75 Chemistry of Fe 3 Magnetite has an inverse spinel structure with oxygen forming a face-centered cubic crystal system. In magnetite, all tetrahedral sites are occupied by Fe3+ and octahedral sites are occupied by both Fe3+ and Fe2+. Maghemite differs from magnetite in that all or most of the iron is in the trivalent state (Fe3+) and by the presence of cation vacancies in the octahedral sites. Maghemite has a cubic unit cell in which each cell contains 32 O ions, 211/3 Fe3+ ions and 22/3 vacancies. The cations are distributed randomly over the 8 tetrahedral and 16 octahedral sites. Due to its 4 unpaired electrons in the atomic 3d shell, an iron atom has a strong magnetic moment. Ions Fe2+ have also 4 unpaired electrons in 3d shell and Fe3+ have 5 unpaired electrons in 3d shell. Therefore, when crystals are formed from iron atoms or ions Fe2+ and Fe3+ they can be in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic states. In the paramagnetic state, the individual atomic magnetic moments are randomly oriented, and the substance has a zero net magnetic moment if there is no magnetic field. These materials have a relative magnetic permeability greater than one and are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic moment drops to zero when the applied field is removed. But in a ferromagnetic material, all the atomic moments are aligned even without an external field. A ferrimagnetic material is similar to a ferromagnet but has two different types of atoms with opposing magnetic moments. The material has a magnetic moment because the opposing moments have different strengths. If they have the same magnitude, the crystal is antiferromagnetic and possesses no net magnetic moment. The ordering of magnetic moments in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and ferrimagnetic materials decreases with increasing temperature. Production of hydrogen and Fe 3 Lavoisier produced hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire using the following chemical reactions: Page 75

76 We know from results (ACE2.pdf) that most of the reaction product will be Fe3O4, and not Fe2O3. So, for a good engineering estimate, we can concentrate only on the third equation. But, to speed up the reaction rate, we want to add CC and operate the cell at 80C. Then, the primary chemical equation to be used for the research project becomes: 3 Fe + 4 (H 2 O) + CC --> CC + Fe H 2 Double advantage of using iron electrodes in the ACE cell We know from results (ACE2.pdf) that most of the reaction product will be Fe3O4, and not Fe2O3. So, for a good engineering estimate, we can concentrate only on the third equation: and that can be the focus on the students' research project. 1. Oxygen is sequestered in the liquid, therefore the ACE cell produces only hydrogen, and virtually no oxygen (no HHO). 2. The production of Fe 3 can produce hydrogen, as described on the previous page. Page 76

77 APPENDIX G -- Electrode lifetime Page 77

78 Using the ACE cell described in this document, hydrogen input to the test vehicle ranges from 200 to 300 milliliters/minute, when travelling at a velocity of 60 MPH, consuming fuel at a rate of 34 MPG, obtaining a fuel savings of 30%. The fuel consumption rate is 34 MPG divided by 60 MPH = 0.57 gallons/hour. Using CC-HOD, at a hydrogen production rate of 250 milliliters/minute ( = 0.25 LPM ), the calculations performed by Mr. Akshay Moholkar show that the rate of iron consumption is 0.39 g/min, water is consumed at a rate of 0.17 g/min and Fe 3 is produced at a rate of approximately 0.54 g/min. The use of the ACE cell described in this document uses electrolysis with small-area electrodes; not CC-HOD. For the ACE cell, the ratio of electrically-produced hydrogen to chemically produced hydrogen is approximately = E/C = 0.01 = 1%. Therefore, the calculation results of Mr. Moholkar, when applied to the ACE cell, approximates the production of hydrogen at 250 milliliters/minute, corresponding to the following: The rate of iron consumption is g/min, water is consumed at a rate of g/min and Fe 3 is produced at a rate of approximately g/min. Page 78

79 If an electrodes is made of 3/4-inch iron pipe, the weight/foot is approximately 1.13 pounds. If the active-area length of the electrode is 8 inches (2/3 foot), the weight of the pipe in the active region is approximately 0.75 pounds. There are grams in a pound, so the weight of the pipe in the active region is approximately 0.75 x 454 = 340 grams. The active area is operated at a 50% duty cycle as an anode, because of polarity switching resulting from the use of AC (not DC). This means the anode will be consumed (as fuel) at the rate of 0.5 x g/min = g/min. We can assume that the anode is worn out when it is 90% consumed, and that will occur when 0.9 x 340 grams = 306 grams of iron anode is consumed. The operating time required to consume 306 grams of iron anode is 306 grams divided by grams/min = minutes = 2500 hours of operation. This is approximately 100 days of operation of the electrodes, if they were operated 24 hours/day to produce hydrogen at a rate of 250 milliliters/minute. At a higher rate of hydrogen production, the result would be a proportionally shorter lifetime of the electrodes. The above calculations for the small-electrode-area ACE cell assumed the ratio of electricallyproduced hydrogen to chemically produced hydrogen to be approximately = E/C = 0.01 = 1%. If E/C is assumed to be approximately = E/C = 0.02 = 2%, the operating time required to consume 306 grams of iron anode is 306 grams divided by grams/min = 1250 hours of operation. 1% < C/D < 2% seems consistent with experimental observation for small-areaelectrode ACE cells such as the one described in this document. Page 79

80 APPENDIX H -- Commercial and novel uses of Fe 3 Fe 3 has commercial value Fe 3 is sold as both a retail and wholesale product. Amazon.com is a seller of Fe 3. Are there uses for Fe 3? Fe 3 can be recycled to produce iron. Fe 3 has found unique uses in a wide ranging field of research. One field of research uses Fe 3 to vary the light transmission through windows, using voltage control, as explained below. Page 80

81 Novel uses of Fe 3 -- Voltage-controlled window research One field of research has shown that Fe 3 nanoparticles can be used to make windows that transmit light (or not) by controlling a voltage that is applied directly to the windows. Fe 3 nanoparticle Figure 15. Transmission vs. wavelength of Fe3O4 nanoparticle device at different voltages. Now, we consider catalytic carbon The information in this Appendix does not involve Catalytic Carbon. Below are some considerations combining Fe 3 and Catalytic Carbon technologies. Page 81

82 Fe 3 and Catalytic Carbon The far-future research field includes the unusual reactions between nanoparticles and carbon. We have not investigated this field of interest, but it seems interesting because we hold the patent for catalytic carbon. The following is a photo and a reference from this field of research. Figure 7. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of Fe3O4 nanoparticle in a carbon shell. During the heating process, carbon forms (light grey color) a shell around the Fe3O4 nanoparticles. This combines the individually smaller Fe3O4 nanoparticles (dark color) into a bigger particle shown. New discovery / invention The ACE cell is a new and less-costly method for fabrication of Fe 3 nanoparticles. In the above voltage-controlled window research, 0.3g of Ferrocene (Fe(C 5 H 5 ) 2 was added to 30g (22ml) of acetone in an ultrasonic bath for 1 minute to ensure particle dispersion. Next, 1.5ml of H 2 O 2 was added to the solution. The solution was then transferred to a Teflon-lined enclosure and afterwards to an autoclave enclosure. The contents were heated at 200 degrees Celsius for 48 hours. The chemical reaction that takes place creates the Fe 3 nanoparticles. This appears to be a much more complex and expensive process for fabricating Fe 3 nanoparticles than if an ACE cell were used. Summary: The ACE cell is a new and less-costly method for fabrication of Fe 3 nanoparticles. This is not the purpose of the cell, but rather a discovery that can make the development of nanotechnology less expensive. Page 82

83 APPENDIX I -- Related Research Page 83

84 Will hydrogen improve the fuel economy on a large truck? Engineering Draft The answer is yes. This work is being done by a colleague, Mr. Duayne Weiler, Tel He attended a hydrogen cell-design conference sponsored by Phillips Company. Soon after that, he began independently experimenting with his own hydrogen cell design on this large truck. Peterbilt Hydrogen unit is in the black box. 30 % mileage improvement experimentally demonstrated using this truck. Duayne wrote to me, saying, This is the Peterbuilt that I am testing and getting 30% plus improvement in mileage. The unit is in the black box. This is not an ACE cell. Duayne has experimented with both conventional membrane separator-cell electrolyzers and with CC-HOD. The experiments have shown that hydrogen is hydrogen, no matter how it is generated. Page 84

85 Peterbilt hydrogen system -- 30% improvement in MPG! Duayne s video is online at Page 85

86 APPENDIX J -- ACE cell design in India ACE cell designs are getting better as the ACE technology evolves. None is better than what the CHES team in India is doing. Advanced ACE cell design. Data provided with permission of the CHES group. Page 86

87 CHES contact information: Page 87

88 APPENDIX K -- Plans for the future Page 88

89 Possible Applications of the ACE cell The ACE cell can be designed to operate in any of the three modes. For more information on each mode, please see Fig A, Fig B, and Fig C on the previous pages. Large Small Medium For ACE cell engineering design and fabrication information: Page 89