PROPERTIES OF ADHESIVES AND CPVC MATERIALS PROPOSED FOR STEEL TANK LINING
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1 PROPERTIES OF ADHESIVES AND CPVC MATERIALS PROPOSED FOR STEEL TANK LINING T. K. HASSAN Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Eng. Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, J. D. VIKERY AND S. H. RIZKALLA North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on the behavior of structural adhesives used in tank lining applications. The experimental program addresses the fundamental material properties and bond characteristics of adhesives when subjected to normal and severe environmental conditions. A total of 132 adhesive and CPVC tension coupons were examined under severe environmental exposure to determine the influence of these conditions on the tensile strength. Double-lap shear tests were conducted to evaluate the shear strength of the adhesive using fifty CPVC-to-steel specimens. The overall composite behavior of the proposed lining for steel tanks was investigated using three small-scale test specimens to simulate the conditions of a typical tank lining. The specimens were subjected to extreme temperature changes to examine the thermal gradient distribution and the composite interaction of the CPVC liner to the steel wall. Research findings provide better understanding of the performance of adhesives when subjected to severe environmental conditions and different sustained load levels. Keywords: Adhesives, bond, environmental conditions, lining, steel, tanks INTRODUCTION Environmental conditions and corrosive environments can significantly reduce the service life of steel tanks. Tank linings and coatings have been used for decades to extend the service life of steel tanks and also to avoid replacement of damaged tanks. In the past few years, thermoplastic sheet linings have garnered attention as tank lining materials. Excellent corrosive characteristics and low installation cost make the material ideal for several applications. Structural adhesives are commonly used as the bonding agent of this lining material to tank walls. Nevertheless, the susceptibility of adhesive joints to aggressive environments has not been supported by fundamental research. In typical tank lining applications, the adhesives act not only as a connection, but also as a buffer between the two surfaces. Therefore, the demands required from the adhesives are usually extreme for most service conditions. When subjected to cyclical heating and cooling conditions, the demands become much more complex due to the differences in coefficients of thermal expansion of various materials To date, limited research is available on the bond characteristics of adhesives under severe environmental conditions. One of the earliest studies on structural adhesives 1 demonstrated a consistent degradation in bond strength of adhesives under hostile environment. It was observed 1
2 that the degradation was progressive, beginning at the edges and proceeding inwards until total failure of the joint took place. A study 2 using wedge-test specimens showed that hot water was the most aggressive environment, causing severe breakdown of the bond between steel and FRP adherends. The influence of thermal stresses on the bond behavior of adhesives was studied using finite element analysis 3. The study showed that the thermal residual effect could lead to 25% reduction in the effectiveness of the bonded joint. The durability of lap-shear joints (steel-frp) was investigated by different researchers 4. As a result of environmental exposure, a significant drop in the lap-shear strength by approximately 25% was observed. The strength of all joints was controlled by the adhesive-frp interface. A recent study 5 highlighted the effect of temperature and ph level of the immersing solution on the bond behavior of different adhesives. The study showed that the surface preparation of the steel is quite significant to the performance of adhesives under severe exposure conditions. The proposed thermoplastic tank lining material used for the current study is Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC). The material has excellent chemical resistance and has been shown to endure thermal conditions up to 90 o C. The ability to bend, shape and weld the sheets made from CPVC enable its use in a wide variety of applications including bleach tanks, scrubbers, and ventilation systems. This paper provides in-depth understanding of the fundamental behavior of adhesives used in lining typical bleach tanks. Extensive analyses for some of the challenges facing the adhesive/cvpc tank liner are presented. General guidelines of the composite behavior of the adhesive used in the current study under severe environmental conditions are also proposed. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM The experimental program consisted of three phases. The first phase of the experimental program focused on evaluating the tensile strength of both the CPVC and the adhesive under various environmental conditions including temperature, sustained stress level, soaking solution, and time of exposure. The second phase was conducted to examine the bond characteristics of the adhesive using steel-to-cpvc double-lap shear specimens. Primary considerations in this phase were focused on determining the effect of environmental conditions such as temperature and sustained stress level on the shear strength. The third phase of the experimental program examined a crosssection of a steel tank with an adhesively-bonded CPVC lining. The thermal gradient distribution and the composite interaction as affected by temperature changes were investigated. Materials Methacrylate adhesive was selected throughout this study. The adhesive is produced by one of the private companies in USA and is currently used by industry for bonding composites, metals, and other plastics. The working time of the adhesive is sufficiently high and ranges from 38 to 55 minutes. CPVC sheets of a total thickness of 3 mm were used in the current study. The sheets are produced in USA and are commercially available in thicknesses ranging from 3 to 75 mm. A total of five tension coupons of the CPVC and the adhesive were tested under room temperature (control specimens) to establish the basis of comparison for other specimens tested under severe environmental conditions. The specimens were prepared and tested in accordance to ASTM D Based on test results, the average tensile strength of both the CPVC and adhesive were 55 and 14.5 MPa, respectively. Steel adherends with a total thickness of 1.6 mm were used in the current study. The steel has a yield strength and modulus of elasticity of 400 MPa, and 200 GPa, respectively. 2
3 Phase I: Influence of Environmental Conditions on the Tensile Strength Test Specimens A total of 66 specimens for each of the CPVC and adhesive were tested under various environmental conditions. The main variables included temperature, sustained stress level, type of immersing solution and exposure period as summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Tension test results of the CPVC and adhesive materials Material Solution Sustained Tensile Strength (MPa) * Soak Time stress level (days) T=23ºC T=60ºC T=80ºC (%) Group A 0% CPVC Water 15% % % Water 15% NA** NA Adhesiv e CPVC Adhesive Water 5% NaCl Water 30% NA NA Group B % % % % % NA 10% NA NA NA 5% NaCl 0%
4 Adhesive 5% NaCl 0% NA 10% NA NA NA * The tensile strength is based on the average of two specimens tested at the same environmental conditions. ** The specimens failed during the exposure period. The sustained stress level was determined as a percentage of the tensile strength of the control specimens tested under normal environmental conditions. The specimens were divided into two main groups, namely A and B. Eighteen test specimens of Group A were immersed in water under varying sustained stress levels and temperatures for a constant exposure period of 30 days. To investigate the effect of the exposure period and the type of the immersing solution, the specimens of Group B were immersed in either tap or salt water for different exposure periods. The specimens were subjected to various sustained stress levels and temperatures. Specimens survived the exposure periods, were tested in tension to evaluate the environmental effect on the material characteristics. The dimensions of both the CPVC and adhesive specimens are shown in Figs. 1a and 1b, respectively. Sixteen mm diameter anchorage holes were drilled at each end of the specimen to fasten the specimen to the test setup as will be discussed later. Two aluminum reinforcing tabs were bonded at each end of the specimen to strengthen the specimen at the holes and to ensure failure within the gage length of the specimen. The tabs were bonded with the same adhesive used in this investigation All dimensions are in mm R=8 15 Fig. 1a CPVC test specimen Fig. 1b Adhesive test specimen R=8 15 Environmental Exposure Test Setup In order to execute the environmental exposure tests, the load was applied to the test specimens using a specially designed test setup. Each specimen was placed in a CPVC cylindrical container filled with either tap or salt water. The cylindrical containers were fabricated by securing and sealing J-bolts through a CPVC cap as shown in Fig. 2a. The bolts and caps were secured to wooden beams rested on the floor. The CPVC tubes were sealed to the anchored caps, as shown in Fig. 2b. Immersion heaters wired into thermostats were used to control the temperature of the solution inside the cylindrical containers as shown in Fig. 2c. Acrylic tops with holes cut out were used to hold the heaters and thermostats in place as well as to minimize evaporation of the water. The loading mechanism utilizes a lever system to apply various levels of sustained tensile stress to the specimens. One end of each specimen was hooked onto the J-bolt in one of the CPVC tubes. 4
5 The other end of the specimen was hooked onto another J-bolt that was secured to a 1600 mm long hollow structural steel beam. The steel beam pivots about a roller, which was welded to a plate and secured onto a movable wooden support frame. At the other end of the HSS member, another J-bolt was secured, and 10 kg steel plates were hung from that bolt to add weight to the system when necessary. The roller position was varied to achieve the tension force required for a given sustained stress level. The complete environmental exposure test setup is shown in Fig. 3. Test results of Groups A and B for the CPVC and adhesive are given in Table 1. Fig. 3. Environmental exposure test set-up Fig. 2a. Bolts and caps Fig. 2b. Tubes sealed secured in place onto caps Fig. 2c. Heater and thermostat RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Group A CPVC specimens The average tensile strength of the CPVC specimens after surviving the exposure period of 30 days is shown in Fig. 4a at different sustained stress levels and temperatures. At any given sustained stress level, temperatures up to 60 o C did not have any detrimental effect on the tensile strength of the CPVC. The combined effect of high sustained stress level and temperatures started to be pronounced at temperatures greater than 60 o C, causing significant reduction of the tensile strength of the material. Results indicated that the CPVC material could maintain at least 75 percent of its tensile strength quite well throughout all the conditions with the exception of specimens subjected to a temperature of 80 o C and a sustained stress level of 30 percent. Test results showed that the measured tensile strengths of the unstressed specimens tested at 60 o C and 80 o C were even slightly higher than those measured for the stressed specimens tested at 23 o C. This behavior demonstrates the detrimental effect of sustained stress level in comparison to temperature. Brittle failure was observed for all specimens subjected to sustained stresses as shown in Fig. 4b. 5
6 Tensile strength (MPa) CPVC Temperature = 23 degrees Temperature = 60 degrees Temperature = 80 degrees % 15% 30% 0% 15% 30% 0% 15% 30% Sustained stress level (%) Fig. 4a. Average tensile strength of Group A CPVC specimens Tensile strength (MPa) Adhesive Temperature = 23 degrees Temperature = 60 degrees Temperature = 80 degrees Specimens failed during the exposure period at 15% and 30% sustained stress levels Sustained stress level (%) Specimens failed during the exposure period at 15% and 30% sustained stress levels 0% 15% 30% 0% 15% 30% 0% 15% 30% Fig. 5a. Average tensile strength of Group A adhesive specimens Fig. 4b. Typical failure of unstressed CPVC specimens Increasing temperature Fig. 5b. Typical Failure of adhesive specimens Adhesive specimens The average tensile strength of the adhesive specimens after 30 days of exposure is shown in Fig. 5a. Test results showed that sustained stress levels up to 30 percent did not affect the tensile strength of the adhesive tested at room temperature. For unstressed specimens, temperature has a minor effect on the tensile strength of the adhesive. Slight reduction in the tensile strength was measured for the unstressed adhesive specimens tested at 60 o C and 80 o C compared to those tested at room temperature. Specimens subjected to the most extreme conditions of 30 percent sustained stress and 80 o C did not survive more than few minutes. Similarly, specimens subjected to 15 percent sustained stress and 80 o C as well as those subjected to 30 percent sustained stress and 60 o C survived less than one day. Fig. 5b depicts few samples of the adhesive specimens after failure. It was observed that heated water changed the color of the adhesive from black to a yellowish-brown when subjected to 80 o C. Although this color change would apparently indicate a significant change in the material properties, the resulting decrease in the tensile strength due to temperature was within 15 to 20 percent. Group B Based on the results of Group A specimens, the maximum sustained stress level was reduced to 10 percent of the tensile strength of the control specimens to simulate typical field conditions. Test results for Group B specimens are given in Table 1. CPVC specimens In general, no noticeable decrease in the tensile strength was observed for the CPVC specimens under sustained stress level of 10 percent at any given temperature or soaking period as shown in Table 1. Furthermore, the use of 5 percent NaCl showed no detrimental effect on the tensile strength of the material at different temperatures. 6
7 Adhesive specimens Test results indicated that the tensile strength of the adhesive exposed to a sustained stress level of 10 percent and a temperature of 60 o C was 25 percent less than that of the control specimen tested at normal environmental conditions. The results clearly demonstrated the poor performance of the adhesive when subjected to the combined effect of high temperature of 80 o C and any sustained stress level. The soaking period has a minimal effect on the tensile strength of the adhesive. Results suggest that the maximum temperature exposure should be less than 60 o C with a sustained stress level in the range of 10 percent of the tensile strength of the material tested under normal environmental conditions. Phase II: Double-lap Shear Tests Test Specimens A total of 50 CPVC-to-steel, double-lap shear specimens were tested to evaluate the shear strength of the adhesive under various environmental conditions. The specimens were prepared according to ASTM D However, the dimensions and layout of the specimens were slightly altered to account for the inferior strength of the CPVC compared to steel and also to fit the specimens in the environmental test setup. The specimens were divided into two main groups, A and B. In Group A, an overlap bond length of mm was provided between the CPVC and steel. The specimens were subjected to varying temperatures and sustained stress levels for 30 days. An overlap bond length of 25 mm was used for Group B specimens. The specimens were soaked in either tap or salt water for 30 days and subjected to varying sustained stress levels and temperatures. At least two specimens were tested at the same environmental condition. Specimens that survived the 30 days exposure period were tested in tension up to failure to evaluate the influence of the environmental conditions on the bond strength. The dimensions of the specimens of Groups A and B are shown in Figs. 6a and 6b, respectively. For both groups, the thickness of the CPVC tab at the end was reduced in order to fit the grips of the tension testing machine. Prior to bonding, the steel tabs were grinded, sandblasted, and wiped with acetone. The bonding surface of the CPVC was visually inspected and wiped with a dry paper towel to remove any debris. During bonding, 0.8 mm glass beads were placed in the adhesive layer to ensure consistent bond thickness. Approximately 14 kg steel plates were applied over each set of five specimens during the curing process of Group A specimens. For Group B, the specimens were subjected to a temperature of 80 o C for one hour as recommended by the adhesive s manufacture to increase its bond characteristics. Five control specimens were tested from each group under normal environmental conditions to establish the basis of comparison for other specimens tested under severe environmental conditions. Based on test results, the average shear strength for specimens of Groups A and B was 9.4 and 9.6 MPa, respectively. The test matrix as well the results for the double-lap shear specimens are given in Table R= R=8 15 CPVC Steel All dimensions are in mm Fig. 6a Dimensions of double-lap shear specimen for Group A Fig. 6b Dimensions of double-lap shear specimen for Group B 7
8 Table 2. Test results of double-lap shear specimens Temp (ºC) Test conditions Average shear Sustained Solution strength (MPa) stress level (%) Group A # of specimens Days survived 0% ºC Water 15% % NA** 2 1 0% ºC Water 15% NA % NA % ºC Water 15% NA % NA 2 0 Group B 0% ºC Water 8% % % ºC Water 8% % NA ºC Water 0% % % NA 4 4 8
9 0% ºC 5% NaCl 15% Test Results 30% ** The specimens failed during the exposure period. Group A A substantial loss of the adhesive s shear strength was observed when exposed to high temperatures in water. The only specimens survived the 30 days exposure period were the unstressed specimens and those subjected to a sustained stress level of 15 percent at a temperature of 23 o C. The remaining specimens failed within the first two days. The specimens survived the exposure period were tested in tension as discussed previously. Test results showed that the temperature could significantly affect the bond characteristics and failure mode of bonded CPVCto-steel joints. Typical cohesive failure was observed for the specimens tested at a room temperature of 23 o C. The failure occurred in the adhesive layer as shown in Fig. 7a. The adhesive fracture surfaces had numerous ragged edges indicating good interfacial adhesion. Conversely, adhesive failure was observed for specimens subjected to 60 o C and 80 o C as shown in Fig. 7b. The failure surface of the steel was smooth and clean indicating poor adhesion. This behavior could be attributed to the ingress of hot water throughout the joint, which degraded the interfacial zone. The shear strength of the adhesive at 60 o C was 20 percent less than that of the specimens tested at room temperature. Increasing the temperature to 80 o C decreased the shear strength of the adhesive by an additional 36 percent. Group B Environmental conditions were less severe for Group B specimens compared to Group A. The maximum sustained tensile stress level was reduced to 15 percent instead of the 30 percent used for Group A specimens. The maximum exposure temperature was also reduced to 60 o C and additional specimens were tested at a temperature of 50 o C. The number of the specimens tested at each environmental condition is given in Table 2. Test results showed that the shear strength of the adhesive could not survive combined sustained stresses of 15 percent at temperatures of 50 o C or 60 o C. Specimens loaded with 15 percent sustained stress and heated to 50 o C survived an average of 11 days, while specimens heated to 60 o C survived an average of 4 days. The results clearly indicated that the adhesive could sustain a stress of 15 percent at room temperature without any sign of degradation. At a sustained stress level of 8 percent, the maximum temperature that can be used without significant reduction of the shear strength is 50 o C. Therefore, field use of the adhesive at temperatures greater than 50 o C could potentially be hazardous. All the test specimens soaked in salt water at room temperature survived the 30 days exposure period without a significant sign of deterioration. Typical cohesive failure was observed for all specimens tested at room temperature. Increasing the temperature to 50 o C or 60 o C weakens the interfacial zone and adhesive failure controlled the behavior of the bond joint. 9
10 Fig. 7a Typical cohesive failure of double-lap shear specimens at 23 o C Fig. 7b Typical adhesive failure of double-lap shear specimens at 60 o C and 80 o C Phase III: Thermal Gradient Tests Test Specimens This phase of the experimental program was conducted to evaluate the thermal gradient distribution and the composite interaction as affected by temperature changes. Small-scale specimens were prepared to simulate the proposed tank lining, including the steel, adhesive, and CPVC lining. Each specimen consisted of a 100x200x6 mm steel plate bonded to a CPVC plate of dimensions 110x220x3 mm. Both plates were bonded together with the same adhesive used in this investigation. Three specimens were constructed with adhesive thicknesses of 1.1, 1.3 and 2 mm, respectively. Glass beads were used as spacers to ensure uniform distribution of the adhesive thickness. The test setup was designed to determine the thermal gradient from the liner to the steel wall and to evaluate the induced strains at the interface layers at different temperatures. For thermal expansion measurements, both plates were instrumented by Vishay Micro-Measurement 350 Ohm electric resistant strain gauges attached on both sides of each plate in the short (X) and long (Y) directions. For temperature measurements, Omega 36-gage wire, calibration type-k thermocouples were attached on each of the outer surfaces of the steel and CPVC plates as well as on the adhesive layer for a total of three thermocouples to measure the temperature distribution within the composite specimen. A square stainless steel box (300x300 mm) with a depth of 250 mm was used as the testing container. The box was filled with water and was heated to expose the material surfaces to a temperature range of 23 o C to 80 o C. To maintain a fairly constant temperature, 50 mm thick Styrofoam Scoreboard insulation was taped around the sides and the bottom of the box. Another piece of insulation was used as the top cover. A rectangular opening, slightly smaller than the specimens, was cut out of the cover. During testing, the specimens were rested on top of this opening so that they were only supported in the vertical direction at their outer edges. A Lindberg/Blue immersion heater with a dial thermostat was placed inside at the bottom surface as shown in Fig. 8. An insulating cover was used to protect the specimen and to subject the bottom surfaces of the steel and CPVC to the desired temperature. The first phase of the thermal strain gradient tests was to experimentally characterize the thermal expansion behavior of individual materials used in the current study. Three tests were conducted on each of the steel and CPVC plates to measure their coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) in both the long and short directions. Each test was repeated three times and the CTE was calculated based on the average of all tests. The steel plates were then bonded to the CPVC plates using different adhesive thicknesses. The specimens were subjected to a temperature range of 23 o C to 10
11 80 o C while strains and temperatures were continuously recorded using a data acquisition system. Once the bottom surface of the specimen reached 80 o C, the heat was maintained for several minutes to allow stabilization of the data. The insulating cover was then detached and the hot water in the bath was replaced with cooler water. The complete heating and cool down cycle lasted around four to five hours. Coefficients of Thermal Expansion The measured coefficients of thermal expansion for the steel and CPVC are shown in Fig.9. Difference in temperature ( o C) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (PPM/ o F) CPVC in short (Y) direction CPVC in long (X) direction X X Y Y Steel (in both short and long directions) Difference in temperature ( o F) ` Steel CPVC Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (PPM/ o C) Fig. 8 Test setup for thermal gradient tests Fig. 9 Coefficients of thermal expansion of different materials In general, the measured CTE is influenced by the rate of temperature increase. Increasing the rate of temperature increase increases the measured CTE. Based on test results, the average CTE for the steel in both short and long directions of the plate was 12.1 ppm/ o C. Results clearly demonstrated the anisotropic nature of the CPVC material. The measured CTE for the CPVC in the short (Y) direction was 98 ppm/ o C, which is 26 percent higher than that in the long (X) direction. Divergence of the measured CTE values at higher temperatures was observed for the CPVC specimens. Such a behavior could be attributed to different material characteristics of the samples used in testing. Despite the specimens being cut from the same sheet, these differences are likely attributed to the inconsistent thermal characteristics of the CPVC, which is common for many plastic materials. Similar tests conducted on an adhesive sample showed that the average CTE for the adhesive used in the current study was 68 ppm/ o C. Test Results of Bonded Specimens Three bath tests were conducted on specimen 1 with a nominal adhesive thickness of 2 mm. As expected, the maximum temperature occurred on the bottom of the CPVC, which was directly exposed to the heat and moisture generated by the water bath. The strain behavior in both the long (X) and short (Y) directions of specimen 1 is shown in Figs. 10a and 10b, respectively. Similar behavior was observed for specimens 2 and 3 with nominal adhesive thicknesses of 1.1 and 1.3 mm, respectively. The figures clearly show the interaction between the steel and CPVC. Results indicated an immediate distinction in the dissimilar behavior of CPVC in the short and long directions. Steel, however, remained linear and behaved as expected with the bottom surface 11
12 expanding more than the top surface. A non-linear behavior was observed in the straintemperature relationship of the CPVC. The non-linearity was highly pronounced in the short direction of the specimen. This behavior could be attributed to the anisotropic behavior of the CPVC with the CTE value in the short direction is 26 percent higher than that in the long direction. Furthermore, the selected rectangularity of the specimen (l long /l short = 2.0) could increase the measured strains in the short direction. Finite element analysis confirmed the above observation, as will be discussed later in this paper. Results clearly indicate that as temperature increases the bond between the steel and CPVC deteriorates significantly. Such a phenomenon was evidenced by the highly non-linear behavior of the CPVC material. Consequently, the CPVC is allowed to expand more freely at these high temperatures, preventing the full composite action. Nevertheless, the maximum measured strains in the CPVC were significantly less than those measured in the individual tests conducted on an unbonded CPVC plate. This behavior suggests that the adhesive, though much less effective at high temperatures, still has a restraining effect Steel Top CPVC Bottom CPVC Top Steel Top Steel Bottom CPVC Bottom Temperature ( o F) Steel Bottom Specimen 1 Adhesive thickness = 2 mm Temperature ( o C) Temperature ( o F) CPVC Top Specimen 1 Adhesive thickness = 2 mm Temperature ( o C) Tensile strain x Tensile strain x 10 6 Fig. 10a Typical strain behavior in long (X) direction Fig. 10b Typical strain behavior in short (Y) direction At relatively low temperatures, around 40 o C, minimal strains existed in both the X and Y directions and linear strain distribution over the thickness was observed. A considerable increase in the induced strains was observed at temperatures greater than 70 o C. The tensile strains at the top and bottom of the steel plate were almost identical in the X and Y directions. However, the measured strains in the CPVC were much higher in the Y direction compared to the X direction. The induced shear strain within the adhesive layer is strongly influenced by the strain difference between the top of the CPVC and the bottom of the steel plates, Δε, and the thickness of the adhesive, t a. It should be highlighted that the strains are not uniform across the width of the specimen due to the restraints provided along the perimeter of the specimen. The shear strain, γ within the adhesive layer is directly proportional to Δε / t a as expressed by Eq. (1) Δε γ (1) t a Test results of different specimens showed that increasing the thickness of the adhesive increases the shear strain within the adhesive layer and weakens the interfacial zone considerably. At a temperature of 60 o C, a 61 percent increase in the shear strain was observed by increasing the thickness of the adhesive from 1.3 to 2 mm. Test results showed that such an increase in shear strain attenuates at high temperatures. 12
13 Temperature ( o F) DEVELOPMENT OF A FINITE ELEMENT MODEL To gain better understanding of the test results, a linear elastic finite element model was developed using Strand7, Version The model was created using 10,368 8-node brick elements. Each node has 3 translational degrees of freedom. Three layers were used within the thickness of the steel, adhesive and CPVC materials. The mesh dimensions were selected to provide adequate aspect ratio for all elements. The CPVC was modeled as an orthotropic material with different properties in both the long (X) and short (Y) directions. Vertical restraints were assigned to all the nodes along the perimeter of the bottom surface of the CPVC plate, thus allowing free expansion in the horizontal plane. The maximum temperature gradient measured for specimen 1 with an adhesive thickness of 2 mm, was selected to verify the analytical model. All the nodes at the interface as well as those at the top and bottom surfaces were subjected to varying temperatures. The analysis showed that the CPVC material expands at a higher rate than the steel, resulting in warping of the composite section. Higher shear strains were predicted within the adhesive layer in the Y direction than the X direction, which matched the observed behavior during testing. The predicted strains in the steel and CPVC plates compared to the measured values are plotted in Fig Steel Top Steel Bottom (EXP) Experimental FEA Adhesive thickness = 2 mm Temperature ( o C) Temperature ( o F) Initial slope (EXP) CPVC Bottom (FEA) CPVC Top (FEA) CPVC Bottom (EXP) CPVC Top (EXP) Temperature ( o C) Tensile strain x Tensile strain x 10 6 Fig. 11 Predicted and measured strains in the steel and CPVC in the short direction The predicted strains compared well with the measured values for the steel plate at the top and bottom surfaces. However, due to non-linear behavior of the CPVC material, less agreement was observed at temperatures greater than 50 o C. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of this investigation, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. The combination of high temperature and high sustained stress level has a significant effect on the tensile strength of the tank lining materials used in the current study. 2. Temperatures up to 60 o C did not have any detrimental effect on the tensile strength of the CPVC provided that the sustained stress level is less than 30 percent of the tensile strength of the material tested under normal environmental conditions. The combined effect of high sustained stress level and temperatures started to be pronounced at temperatures greater than 60 o C. 13
14 3. The maximum temperature exposure for the adhesive considered in the current study should be less than 60 o C with a sustained tensile stress level in the range of 10 percent of the tensile strength of the material tested under normal environmental conditions. 4. Temperature significantly affects the bond characteristics and failure mode of bonded CPVC-to-steel joints. Typical cohesive failure was observed for the specimens tested at a room temperature of 23 o C. Increasing the applied temperature deteriorates the interfacial zone and results in an adhesive-type failure due to the ingress of hot water. 5. The adhesive could sustain a stress level of 15 percent at room temperature without any sign of degradation in the bond strength. At a sustained stress level of 8 percent, the maximum temperature that can be used without significant reduction of the bond strength of the CPVC-to-steel joints is 50 o C. 6. The adhesive thickness affects the performance of the tank lining materials. Increasing the adhesive thickness results in a corresponding increase in the induced shear strains within the adhesive and accelerates debonding-type failure. Such an increase in the shear strains is highly dependent on the surrounding temperature. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project was conducted while Dr. Hassan was a visiting scholar at North Carolina State University. The authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF) Industry/University Cooperative Research Center (I/UCRC) for the Repair of Buildings and Bridges with Composites (RB2C) and the support provided by IPS Corporation, CA, USA. REFERENCES 1. Krieger, R. B. Evaluating structural adhesives under sustained load in hostile environment. 5 th International Sampe Technical Conference 1973: Karbhari, V. M. and Shulley, S. B. Use of composites for rehabilitation of steel structures-determination of bond durability. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 1995;7(4): Tsamasphyros, G. J., Kanderakis, G. N., and Marioli-Riga, Z. P. Thermal analysis by numerical methods of debonding effects near the crack tip under composite repairs. Applied Composite Materials 2003;10: Hahn, O. and Ewerszumrode, A. P. Influence of the setting conditions on the property profile of adhesive-bonded joints between adherends with different coefficients of expansion. Welding and Cutting 1998;50(3): Smith, G., Hassan, T. and Rizaklla, S. Bond characteristics and qualifications of adhesives for marine applications and steel pipe repair. Proceedings of the third International Conference on Construction Materials 2005: CD-ROM. 6. ASTM American Society for Testing Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA; Strand 7 Finite Element Software version Theoretical manual, Australia;
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