Hans Berns Werner Theisen. Ferrous Materials. Steel and Cast Iron. Translated by Gillian Scheibelein, B.Sc. (Hons.)

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1 Ferrous Materials

2 Hans Berns Werner Theisen Ferrous Materials Steel and Cast Iron Translated by Gillian Scheibelein, B.Sc. (Hons.) 123

3 Professor em. Dr.-Ing. Hans Berns Professor Dr.-Ing. Werner Theisen Ruhr-Universität Bochum Lehrstuhl Werkstofftechnik Bochum ISBN e-isbn DOI / Library of Congress Control Number: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The authors do not warrant the actuality, correctness, completeness or quality of the provided information. The authors disclaim reliability for material as well as ideal damages that result from the use or disuse of the provided information or the use of deficient or incomplete information, as far as they are not demonstrably the result of an intended or wantonly negligent fault committed by the authors. Production: le-tex publishing services ohg, Leipzig, Germany Cover design: estudiocalamar S.L., F. Steinen-Broo, Girona, Spain Printed on acid-free paper springer.com

4 Preface The annual global production of ferrous materials has risen by more than 60 % in the last ten years to a total of about 1300 million tons. This exceeds the sum of all other metallic materials by more than one order of magnitude. The importance of ferrous materials is based on their variety of different properties that can be customised by alloying and processing. These relationships are discussed for steel and cast iron conjointly. Part A discusses the fundamental principles in the Chapters Constitution, Microstructure, Heat treatment and Properties. The much larger Part B discusses processing and applications of European standard materials as well as recent developments. It deals with unalloyed and high-strength materials, materials for surface layer treatment and for tools, aswellaschemically resistant, creep-resistant and functional materials. This book is intended for engineers working with ferrous materials who wish to deepen their understanding or who are looking for advice. The necessary practical relevance arises from the authors first-hand knowledge gained during many years of industrial experience. Students are also avid readers of the three German editions. Harmonisation of European standards has enabled publication of an English edition. We extend our thanks to Ms Gillian Scheibelein B.Sc. for translating the German text and to SCHMOLZ + BICKENBACH for financial support of this task. We thank Dr.-Ing. Markus Karlsohn from the Chair of Materials Technology for editing and preparing the printable L A TEXversion. Our appreciation also goes to further contributors: Dipl.-Ing. Stephan Huth, Dipl.-Ing. André Oppenkowski, Dipl.-Ing. Tanja Macher and cand. ing. Marius Weber. Bochum, Spring 2008 Hans Berns Werner Theisen

5 Note: Unless stated otherwise, the alloy contents given in % are mass percentages.

6 Contents A Fundamentals of ferrous materials 3 A.1 Constitution A.1.1 Pure iron A.1.2 Iron-carbon A The iron-cementite system A The iron-graphite system A.1.3 Alloyed iron A.2 Microstructure A.2.1 Near-equilibrium microstructure A Steel A Cast iron A.2.2 Non-equilibrium microstructure A Shaping A Austenite transformation A Post-quenching morphology A Reheating of quenched microstructures A.2.3 Morphology of cementite and graphite A.3 Heat treatment A.3.1 Annealing processes A Baking A Stress-relief annealing A Soft annealing of steel A Soft annealing of cast iron A Normalising A Temper annealing of cast iron A Solution annealing A Homogenising A.3.2 Hardening and related processes A Hardening A Tempering A QT treatment A Transformation in the bainite range A.3.3 Surface layer treatment/coating

7 VIII Contents A.3.4 Side-effects A Thermal side-effects A Thermochemical side-effects A.4 Properties A.4.1 Mechanical properties A Loading A Behaviour of steel A Behaviour of grey cast iron A Behaviour of white cast iron A.4.2 Tribological properties A Friction A Wear A.4.3 Chemical properties A Wet corrosion A High-temperature corrosion A.4.4 Special physical properties A Magnetic properties A Thermal expansion A Conductivity B Ferrous materials and their applications 125 B.1 Materials for general applications B.1.1 Unalloyed structural steels B Properties B Grades and applications B.1.2 Cast iron W. Theisen B Composition of grey cast iron B Cast iron with flake graphite B Cast iron with spheroidal graphite B Cast iron with vermicular graphite B Malleable cast iron B Processing and applications of cast iron B.2 High-strength materials B.2.1 Weldable rolled steels B Fine-grain steels B Multi-phase steels B Applications of weldable steels B Lightweight steels B Pearlitic rolled steels B.2.2 Steels treated from the forging temperature B Martensitic steels B Ferritic-pearlitic steels

8 Contents IX B.2.3 Structural steels for full heat treatment B QT steels B Ultrahigh-strength steels B Hard steels B.2.4 Cast iron for full heat treatment W. Theisen B Quenching and tempering B Transformation in the bainite range / ADI B.3 Materials for surface layer treatments B.3.1 Materials for surface-hardening B Process engineering aspects of surfacehardening 217 B Materialsandthesurfacelayer B Applications B.3.2 Nitriding steels B Process engineering aspects of nitriding B Materialsandthesurfacelayer B Applications B.3.3 Case hardening steels B Process engineering aspects of case hardening. 234 B Materialsandthesurfacelayer B Applications B.4 Tools for processing minerals W. Theisen B.4.1 Loading and material concepts B Hard phases B Metal matrix B.4.2 Tools made of hot-formed steel B.4.3 Cast tools B Pearlitic white cast iron B Martensitic nickel white cast iron B Martensitic chromium white cast iron B.4.4 Coated tools B Hard-facing B Powder metallurgical coatings B Composite casting B.5 Tools for processing materials W. Theisen B.5.1 Cold-work tools B Properties B Coated tools B Applications of cold-work tools B.5.2 Tools for processing plastics B.5.3 Hot-work tools B Properties

9 X Contents B Applications B.5.4 Tools for machining applications B Properties B Applications B.6 Chemically resistant materials B.6.1 General information B Alloying concept B Matrix properties B.6.2 Stainless steels B Properties B Applications B.6.3 Heat-resistant steels B Properties B Applications B.6.4 Cast iron B Ferritic cast iron B Austenitic cast iron B White cast iron / carbide-rich steels B.7 Creep-resistant materials B.7.1 Properties B Normalised as well as QT steels B Austenitic steels B Cast iron B.7.2 Applications B Steam power plants B Gas turbines B Estimation of the service life B Petrochemistry B Valves B.8 Functional materials B.8.1 Magnetically soft materials B.8.2 Magnetically hard materials B.8.3 Non-magnetisable materials B.8.4 Materials with a special thermal expansion B.8.5 Materials with a shape memory B.8.6 Electrical resistance heating alloys C Appendix 383 C.1 Designation systems for steel and cast iron W. Theisen C.1.1 Standardisation C.1.2 Designations for steels and cast steels

10 Contents XI Unalloyed steels Alloyed steels High-alloy steels High-speed tool steels C.1.3 Designation of cast irons C.2 A brief discourse on the history of iron C.2.1 From a bloomery to a shaft furnace C.2.2 The spread of iron-making C.2.3 Cast iron and the fining process C.2.4 Mild steel C.2.5 Ferrous materials C.3 Bibliography for figures and tables Keyword Index 403 List of alloying and tramp elements 416