PRINTED CIRCUITS HANDBOOK

Transcription

1 PRINTED CIRCUITS HANDBOOK Clyde F. Coombs, Jr. Sixth Edition Me Graw New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

2 CONTENTS List of Contributors Preface xxiii xxi Part 1 Lead-Free Legislation Chapter 1. Legislation and Impact on Printed Circuits Legislation Overview / Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) / Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) / RoHS' Impact on the Printed Circuit Industry / Lead-Free perspecives / Other Legislative Initiatives / 1.10 Part 2 Printed Circuit Technology Drivers Chapter 2. ELECTRONIC PACKAGING AND HIGH-DENSITY INTERCONNECTIVITY Introduction / Measuring the Interconnectivity Revolution (HDI) / Hierarchy of Interconnections / Factors Affecting Selection of Interconnections I ICS and Packages / Density Evaluations / Methods to Increase PWB Density / 2.16 References / 2.21 Chapter 3. Semiconductor Packaging Technology Introduction / 3.1 ^ 3.2 Single-Chip Packaging / Multichip Packages / Optical Interconnects / High-Density/High-Performance Packaging Summary / Roadmap Information / 3.21 References / 3.21 Chapter 4. Advanced Component Packaging Introduction / Lead-Free / System-on-a-Chip (SOC) versus System-on-a-Package (SOP) / 4.3

3 4.4 Multichip Modules / Multichip Packaging / Enabling Technologies / Acknowledgment / 4.18 References / 4.18 Chapter 5. Types of Printed Wiring Boards Introduction / Classification of Printed Wiring Boards / Organic and Nonorganic Substrates / Graphical and Discrete-Wire Boards / Rigid and Flexible Boards / Graphically Produced Boards / Molded Interconnection Devices / Plated-Through-Hole (PTH) Technologies / Summary / 5.73 References / 5.14 Part 3 Materials Chapter 6. Introduction to Base Materials " Introduction / Grades and Specifications / Properties Used to Classify Base Materials / Types of FR-4 / Laminate Identification Scheme / Prepreg Identification Scheme / Laminate and Prepreg Manufacturing Processes / 6.18 References / 6.24 Chapter 7. Base Material Components Introduction / Epoxy Resin Systems / Other Resin Systems / Additives I Reinforcements / Conductive Materials / 7.18 References / 7.25 Chapter 8. Properties of Base MateriaJs Introduction / Thermal, Physical, and Mechanical Properties / Electrical Properties / 8.13 References / 8.16 Chapter 9. Base Materials Performance Issues Introduction / Methods of Increasing Circuit Density / Copper foil / Laminate Constructions / Prepreg Options and Yield-Per-Ply Values / 9.9

4 9.6 Dimensional Stability / High-Density Interconnect/Microvia Materials / CAF Growth / Electrical Performance / 9.22 References / 9.33 Chapter 10. The Impact of Lead-Free Assembly on Base Materials Introduction / Rohs Basics / Base Material Compatibility Issues / The Impact of Lead-Free Assembly on Base Material Components / Critical Base Material Properties / Impact on Printed Circuit Reliability and Material Selection / Summary / References / Chapter 11. Selecting Base Materials for Lead-Free Assembly Applications Introduction / Pcb fabrication and Assembly Interactions / Selecting the Right Base Material for Specific Application / Example Application of this Tool / Discussion of the Range of Peak Temperatures for Lead-Free Assembly / Lead-Free Applications and Ipc-4101 Specification Sheets / Additional Base material Options for Lead-Free Applications / Summary / References / Chapter 12. Laminate Qualification and Testing Introduction / Industry Standards / Laminate Test Strategy / 12.4 VIA Initial Tests / Full Material Characterization / Characterization Test Plan / Manufacturability in the Shop / Part 4 Engineering and Design Chapter 13. Physical Characteristics of the PCB Classes of PCB Designs / Types of PCBs or Packages for Electronic Circuits / Methods of Attaching Components / Component Package Types / 7J Materials Choices / Fabrication Methods / Choosing a Package Type and Fabrication Vendor / Chapter 14. The PCB Design Process Objective of the PCB Design Process / Design Processes / 14.1

5 14.3 Design Tools / Selecting a Set of Design Tools / Interfacing Cae, Cad, and Cam Tools to Each Other / Inputs to the Design Process / Chapter 15. Electrical and Mechanical Design Parameters Printed Circuit Design Requirements / Introduction to Electrical Signal Integrity / Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility / Noise Budget / Designing for Signal Integrity and Electromagnetic Compatibility / Mechanical Design Requirements / 75.9 References / Chapter 16. Current Carrying Capacity in Printed Circuits Introduction / Conductor (Trace) Sizing Charts / Current Carrying Capacity / Charts / Baseline Charts / Odd-Shaped Geometries and the "Swiss Cheese" Effect / Copper Thickness / References / Chapter 17. PCB Design for Thermal Performance Introduction / The PCB as a Heat Sink Soldered to the Component / Optimizing the PCB for Thermal Performance / Conducting Heat to the Chassis / PCB Requirements for High-Power Heat Sink Attach / Modeling the Thermal Performance of the PCB / References / Chapter 18. Information Formating and Exchange Introduction to Data Exchange / The Data Exchange Process / Data Exchange Formats / Drivers for Evolution / e Acknowledgment / References / Chapter 19. Planning for Design, Fabrication, and Assembly Introduction / General Considerations / New Product Design / Layout Trade-off Planning / PWB Fabrication Trade-off Planning / Assembly Trade-Off Planning / References / 79.27

6 Chapter 20. Manufacturing Information, Documentation, and Transfer Including CAM Tooling for Fab and Assembly Introduction / Manufacturing Information / Initial Design Review / Design Input / Design Analysis and Review / The CAM-Tooling Process / Additional Processes / Acknowledgment / Chapter 21. Embedded Components Introduction / Definitions and Example / Applications and Trade-Offs / Designing for Embedded Component Applications / Materials / Material Supply Types / 27.9 Part 5 High Density Interconnection Chapter 22. Introduction to High-Density Interconnection (HDD Technology Introduction / Definitions / HDI Structures I Design / Dielectric Materials and Coating Methods / HDI Manufacturing Processes / References / Bibliography-Additional Reading / Chapter 23. Advanced High-Density Interconnection (HDD Technologies Introduction / Definitions of HDI Process Factors / HDI Fabrication Processes / 23.3 " 23.4 Next-Generation HDI Processes / References Part 6 Fabrication Chapter 24. Drilling Processes Introduction / Materials / Machines / Methods / Hole Quality / Postdrilling Inspection / Drilling Cost Per Hole / 24.20

7 Chapter 25. Precision Interconnect Drilling Introduction / Factors Affecting High-Density Drilling / Laser versus Mechanical / Factors Affecting High-Density Drilling / Depth-Controlled Drilling Methods / High-Aspect-Ratio Drilling / Innerlayer Inspection of Multilayer Boards / Chapter 26. Imaging Introduction / Photosensitive Materials / Dry-Film Resists / Liquid Photoresists / Electrophoretic Depositable Photoresists / Resist Processing / Design for Manufacturing / References / Chapter 27. Multilayer Materials and Processing Introduction / Printed Wiring Board Materials / Multilayer Construction Types / ML-PWB Processing and Flows / Lamination Process / Lamination Process Control and Troubleshooting / Lamination Overview / ML-PWB Summary References / Chapter 28. Preparing Boards for Plating Introduction / Process Decisions / Process Feedwater / Multilayer PTH Preprocessing / Electroless Copper / Acknowledgment / References / Chapter 29. Electroplating <? Introduction / Electroplating Basics / High-Aspect Ratio Hole and Microvia Plating / Horizontal Electroplating / Copper Electroplating General Issues / Acid Copper Sulfate Solutions and Operation / Solder (Tin-Lead) Electroplating / ,-Tin Electroplating / Nickel Electroplating / Gold Electroplating / Platinum Metals / Silver Electroplating / 29.29

8 29.13 Laboratory Process control / Acknowledgment / References / Chapter 30. Direct Plating Direct Metallization Technology / 30.7 References / Chapter 31. PWB Manufacture Using Fully Electroless Copper Fully Electroless Plating / The Additive Process and its Variations / Pattern-Plating Additive / Panel-Plate Additive / Partly Additive / Chemistry of Electroless Plating / Fully Electroless Plating Issues / References / Chapter 32. Printed Circuit Board Surface Finishes Introduction / Alternative Finishes / Hot Air Solder Level (Hasl or Hal) / Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold (ENIG) / Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) / Immersion Silver / Immersion Tin / Other Surface Finishes / Assembly Compatibility / Reliability Test Methods / Special Topics / Failure Modes / Comparing Surface Finish Properties / References / ' Chapter 33. Solder Mask Introduction / Trends and Challenges for Solder Mask / Types of Solder Mask / Solder Mask Selection / Solder Mask Application and Processing / VIA Protection / Solder Mask Final Properties / & 33.8 Legend and Marking (Nomenclature) / Chapter 34. Etching Process and Technologies Introduction / General Etching Considerations and Procedures / Resist Removal / Etching Solutions / Other Materials for Board Construction / Metals Other than Copper / Basics of Etched Line Formation / 34.20

9 34.8 Equipment and Techniques / References / Chapter 35. Machining and Routing Introduction / Punching Holes (Piercing) / Blanking, Shearing, and Cutting of Copper-Clad Laminates / Routing / Scoring / Acknowledgment / Part 7 Bare Board Test Chapter 36. Bare Board Test Objectives and Definitions Introduction / The Impact of HDI / Why Test? I Circuit Board Faults / 36.6 Chapter 37. Bare Board Test Methods Introduction / Nonelectrical Testing Methods / Basic Electrical Testing Methods / Specialized Electrical Testing Methods / Data and Fixture Preparation / Combined Testing Methods / Chapter 38. Bare Board Test Equipment Introduction / System Alternatives / Universal Grid Systems / Flying-Probe/Moving-Probe Test Systems / Verification and Repair / Test Department Planning and Management / Chapter 39. HDI Bare Board Special Testing Methods Introduction / Fine-Pitch Tilt-Pin Fixtures / Bending Beam Fixtures / Flying Probe / Coupled Plate / Shorting Plate / Conductive Rubber Fixtures / Optical Inspection / Noncontact Test Methods / Combinational Test Methods / 39.7 &

10 Part 8 Assembly Chapter 40. Assembly Processes Introduction / Through-Hole Technology / Surface-Mount Technology / Odd-Form Component Assembly / Process Control / Process Equipment Selection / Repair and Rework / Conformal Coating, Encapsulation, and Underfill Materials / Acknowledgment / Chapter 41. Conformal Coating Introduction / Types of Conformal Coatings / Product Preparation / Application Processes / Cure, Inspection, and Finishing / Repair Methods / Design for Conformal Coating / References / Part 9 Solderability Technology Chapter 42. Solderability: Incoming Inspection and Wet Balance Technique Introduction / 42.3' 42.2 Solderability / Solderability Testing a Scientific Approach / The Influence of Temperature on Test Results / Interpreting the Results: Wetting Balance Solderability Testing / Globule Testing / PCB Surface Finishes and Solderability Testing / Component Solderability / Chapter 43. Fluxes and Cleaning Introduction / Assembly Process / Surface Finishes / 43.3» 43.4 Soldering Flux / Flux Form Versus Soldering Process / Rosin Flux I Water-Soluble Flux / Low Solids Flux / Cleaning Issues / Summary / References / 43.72

11 Part 10 Solder Materials and Processes Chapter 44. Soldering Fundamentals Introduction / Elements of a Solder Joint / The Solder Connection to the Circuit Board / The solder Connection to the Electrical Component / Common Metal-Joining Methods / Solder Overview / Soldering Basics / 44.9 Chapter 45. Soldering Materials and Metallurgy Introduction / Solders / Solder Alloys and Corrosion / PB-Free Solders: Search for Alternatives and Implications / PB-Free Elemental Alloy Candidates / Board Surface Finishes / References / Chapter 46. Solder Fluxes Introduction to Fluxes / Flux Activity and Attributes / Flux: Ideal Versus Reality / Flux Types / Water-Clean (Aqueous) Fluxes / No-Clean Flux / 46, Other Fluxing Caveats / Soldering Atmospheres / References / Chapter 47. Soldering Techniques Introduction / Mass Soldering Methods / Oven Reflow Soldering / Wave Soldering / Wave Solder Defects / Vapor-Phase Reflow Soldering / Laser Reflow Soldering / Tooling and the Need for Coplanarity affd Intimate Contact / Additional Information Sources / Hot-Bar Soldering / Hot-Gas Soldering / Ultrasonic Soldering / References / Chapter 48. Soldering Repair and Rework Introduction / Hot-Gas Repair / 48.7

12 48.3 Manual Solder Fountain / Automated Solder Fountain / Laser / Considerations for Repair / 48.6 Reference / 48.7 Part 11 Nonsolder Interconnection Chapter 49. Press-Fit Interconnection Introduction / The Rise of Press-Fit Technology / Compliant Pin Configurations / Press-Fit Considerations / Press-Fit Pin Materials / Surface Finishes and Effects / Equipment / Assembly Process / Press Routines / PWB Design and Board Procurement Tips / Press-Fit Process Tips / Inspection and Testing / Soldering and Press-Fit Pins / References / Chapter 50. Land Grid Array Interconnect Introduction / LGA and the Environment / Elements of the LGA System / Assembly / Printed Circuit Assembly (PCA) Rework / Design Guidelines / 50.8 Reference / 50.8 ' Part 12 Quality Chapter 51. Acceptability and Quality of Fabricated Boards Introduction / Specific Quality and Acceptability Criteria by PCB Type / Methods for Verification of Acceptability / Inspection Lot Formation / Inspections Categories / Acceptability and Quality After Simulated Solder Cycle(s) / Nonconforming PCBS and Material Review Board (MRB) Function / The Cost of the Assembled PCB / How to Develop Acceptability and Quality Criteria / Class of Service / Inspection Criteria / Reliability Inspection Using Accelerated Environmental Exposure / 57.32

13 Chapter 52. Acceptability of Printed Circuit Board Assemblies Understanding Customer Requirements / Handling to Protect the PCBA / PCBA Hardware Acceptability Considerations / Component Installation or Placement Requirements / Component and PCB Solderability Requirements / Solder-Related Defects / PCBA Laminate Condition, Cleanliness, and Marking Requirements / PCBA Coatings / Solderless Wrapping of Wire to Posts (Wire Wrap) / PCBA Modifications / References / Chapter 53. Assembly Inspection Introduction / Definition of Defects, Faults, Process Indicators, and Potential Defects / Reasons for Inspection / Lead-Free Impact on Inspection / Miniaturization and Higher Complexity / Visual Inspection / Automated Inspection / Three-Dimensional Automated Solder Paste Inspection / PRE-ReflowAoi / Post-Reflow Automated Inspection / Implementation of Inspection Systems / Design Implications of Inspection Systems / References / Chapter 54. Design for Testing Introduction / Definitions / AD HOC Design for Testability / Structured Design for Testability / Standards-Based Testing / 54.5 References / Chapter 55. Loaded Board Testing Introduction / The process of Test / Definitions / Testing Approaches / In-Circuit Test Techniques / & 55.6 Alternatives to Conventional Electrical Tests / Tester Comparison / References / Part 13 Reliability Chapter 56. Conductive Anodic Filament Formation Introduction / Understanding Caf Formation / 56.3

14 56.3 Electrochemical Migration and Formation of Caf / Factors that Affect Caf Formation / Test Method for Caf-Resistant Materials / Manufacturing Tolerance Considerations / References / Chapter 57. Reliability of Printed Circuit Assemblies Fundamentals of Reliability / Failure Mechanisms of PCBS and Their Interconnects / Influence of Design on Reliability / Impact of PCB Fabrication and Assembly on Reliability / Influence of Materials Selection on Reliability / Burn-in, Acceptance Testing, and Accelerated Reliability Testing / Summary / References / Further Reading / Chapter 58. Component-to-PWB Reliability: The Impact of Design Variables and Lead Free Introduction / Packaging Challenges / Variables that Impact Reliability / 58.5 References / Chapter 59. Component-to-PWB Reliability: Estimating Solder-Joint Reliability and the Impact of Lead-Free Solders Introduction / Thermomechanical Reliability / Mechanical Reliability / Finite Element Analysis (FEA) / References / Part 14 Environmental Issues Chapter 60. Process Waste Minimization and Treatment Introduction / 60.3 " 60.2 Regulatory Compliance / Major Sources and Amounts of Wastewater in a Printed Circuit Board Fabrication Facility / Waste Minimization / Pollution Prevention Techniques / Recycling and Recovery Techniques / Alternative Treatments / Chemical Treatment Systems / Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Treatment Alternatives / 60.26

15 Part 15 Flexible Circuits Chapter 61. Flexible Circuit Applications and Materials Introduction to Flexible Circuits / Applications of Flexible Circuits / High-Density Flexible Circuits / Materials for Flexible Circuits / 67" Substrate Material Properties / Conductor Materials / Copper-Clad Laminates / Coverlay Material / Stiffener Materials / Adhesive materials / Restriction of Hazardous Substances (ROHS) Issues / Chapter 62. Design of Flexible Circuits Introduction / Design Procedure / Types of Flexible Circuits / Circuit Designs for Flexibility / Electrical Design of the Circuits / Circuit Designs for Higher Reliability / Circuit Designs for Rohs Compliance / Chapter 63. Manufacturing of Flexible Circuits Introduction / Special Issues with HDI Flexible Circuits / Basic Process Elements / New Processes for Fine Traces / Coverlay Processes / Surface Treatment / Blanking / Stiffener Processes / Packaging / Roll-to-Roll Manufacturing / Dimension Control / Chapter 64. Termination of Flexible Circuits Introduction / Selection of Termination Technologies ^ Permanent Connections / Semipermanent Connections / Nonpermanent Connections / High-Density Flexible Circuit Termination / Chapter 65. Multilayer Flex and Rigid/Flex Introduction / 'MultilayerRigid/flex / 65.7

16 Chapter 66. Special Constructions of Flexible Circuits Introduction / Flying-Lead Construction / Tape Automated Bonding / Microbump Arrays / Thick-Film Conductor Flex Circuits / Shielding of the Flexible Cables / Functional Flexible Circuits / Chapter 67. Quality Assurance of Flexible Circuits Introduction / Basic Concepts in Flexible Circuit Quality Assurance / Automatic Optical Inspection Systems / Dimensional Measurements / Electrical Tests / Inspection Sequence / Raw Materials / Flexible Circuit Feature Inspection / Standards and Specifications for Flexible Circuits / 67.8 Appendix A.I Glossary G.1 Index 1.1