Cytology: Cells: Living Units

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2 Cytology: Cells: Living Units 79

3 Cells: Living Units Unit Front Page 80

4 Cells: Living Units, Part A This checklist will serve as your study guide to help you prepare for your exams. At the end of this unit, you will: Cell Part A: Name and explain the three main jobs of cells. Describe the structure of organelles and their functions in eukaryotic cells. You will determine which organelles must work collaboratively to complete the three main jobs and the role of these organelles in their task. Define stem cells and explain its role in differentiation in producing and maintaining complex organisms. Explain HOW cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes and not others Describe how DNA is packaged and stored in the nucleus. Explain the various forms of DNA from histone to chromosome. Explain how differential gene expression is dependent upon the packaging of DNA at different levels. Explain how DNA further packages into structures called chromosomes to prepare for cellular division, or more specifically, mitosis. What is happening in interphase to prepare cells for mitosis? What are the phases of mitosis and what is happening to the chromosomes in each of the phases to prepare for the division of genetic material? Explain the central dogma of molecular biology. Explain the processes of DNA replication, mrna transcription, and translation of mrna into a polypeptide chain. What enzymes or organelles are involved in each process? Describe the way in which polypeptides fold into a functional, actively working protein. How does the structure of a folded protein, such as an enzyme, enable it to do work for the cell? (Hint: consider the induced-fit model of enzyme function). Discern the difference between proteins made from free ribosomes versus that of the bound, attached ribosomes. Explain how proteins are made, and the process of proteins processed through the endomembrane system. Be able to use content learned from this notebook to solve problems related to diseases associated with protein dysfunction. Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes I will understand and recognize in words are: Crist-, Cyto-, Desm-, Dia-, Differ- Dys-, Flagell-, mito-, nucle-, onco-, osmo-, permea-, phag-, philo-, phobo-, tono- -plasm, -troph, -villus 81

5 Composite/Generalized Cell vs. Differentiated/Diverse Cell Definition of Composite Cell: Basic Illustrated Example of Composite Cell: Three illustrated examples of diverse/differentiated cells: Explanation: Explanation: Explanation: 82

6 Reading Guide: Chapter 3 Cells, Living Units Instructions: The specific instructions for various activities in the reading guides can be found in your reference pages you saved in your backpack on edmodo. Refer to these pages carefully, as you will be completing reading guides all throughout this year. Since reading guides are a type of formative assessment, they are graded on completion, follow-through with guidelines, and quality. 1. Read pgs : 1 st column on Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life a) On the left page 82 of your interactive notebook, define a composite or generalized cell and draw (in color) your own interpretation of this cell based on its definition. LABEL the three main parts of this composite cell that all human cells have. b) Contrast your composite cell with cells that have diverse shapes and functions by drawing three examples of cells (in color) that differ from your composite cell. Label aspects of its anatomy that are the similar to the composite cell. Explain the different shape of the cell and how this shape alters the function of the cells you chose to draw. Figure 3.1 may help. 2. You will review cells by opening up a Powerpoint on Edmodo called Cell Review. You may need to download the ppt in order to see it properly animated. If you are in class, you can also access this Powerpoint on the ipad s dropbox. If you are using an ipad, open the Powerpoint in an application called Keynote. As you go through the PowerPoint a) take notes off of the Powerpoint using Cornell Note format on pages 85 and 87 of your intnb. Use additional lined paper, if necessary. Make sure to write out questions or key terms/concepts in the left-hand cue column. Do not use the Cornell Notes to fill out structure and function of individual organelles. Do these notes in the foldable -- see section (b) below b) fill in structure and function of each of the organelles on the back of the Cell Layered Book that you created in class. Not all of the pages of the foldable will be complete after the Powerpoint. Look for additional information on organelles on pages of your textbook to complete the layered book. Make sure to attach the layered book onto page 84 of your intnb. c) Complete the table on page 89 of your intnb. Color and label the image of the cell and the plasma membrane on page 88 of your intnb. Use your textbook pages to help you. 3. Read pages on Protein Synthesis. a) Complete the activity on pages of your intnb. 83

7 Cell Organelle Layered Book Create a pocket to store your Cell Organelle Layered Book on this page. 84

8 Cell Review and Notes 85

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10 Cell Review and Notes 87

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14 DNA Coloring - Transcription & Translation Transcription RNA, Ribonucleic Acid is very similar to DNA. RNA normally exists as a single strand (and not the double stranded double helix of DNA). It contains the same bases, adenine, guanine and cytosine. However, there is no thymine found in RNA, instead there is a similar compound called uracil. Transcription is the process by which RNA is made from DNA. It occurs in the nucleus. Label the box with the X in it near the nucleus with the word TRANSCRIPTION and proceed to color the bases according to the key below Thymine = orange Adenine = dark green Uracil = brown Guanine = purple Cytosine = yellow Color the strand of DNA dark blue (D) and the strand of RNA light blue (R). Color the nuclear membrane (E) gray. Translation Translation occurs in the cytoplasm, specifically on the ribosomes. The mrna made in the nucleus travels out to the ribosome to carry the "message" of the DNA. Here at the ribosome, that massage will be translated into an amino acid sequence. Color the ribosome light green (Y) and note how the RNA strand threads through the ribosome, like a tape measure and the amino acids are assembled. The RNA strand in the translation area should also be colored light blue, as it was colored in the nucleus. Label the box with the X in the translation area with the word TRANSLATION. Important to the process of translation is another type of RNA called transfer RNA (F) which function to carry the amino acids to the site of protein synthesis on the ribosome. Color the trna red. A trna has two important areas. The anticodon matches the codon on the RNA strand. Remember that codons are sets of three bases that code for a single amino acid. Make sure you color the bases of the anticodon the same color as the bases on your DNA and RNA strand - they are the same molecules! At the top of each trna is the amino acid. There are twenty amino acids that can combine together to form proteins of all kinds, these are the proteins that are used in life processes. When you digest your food for instance, you are using enzymes that were originally proteins that were assembled from amino acids. Each trna has a different amino acid which link together like box cars on a train. Color all the amino acids (M) pink. Questions: 1. How many different kinds of bases can be found on DNA 2. What base is found on RNA but not on DNA? 3. How many bases are in a codon? In an anticodon? 4. How many amino acids are attached to a single transfer RNA? 5. Transcription occurs in the ; translation occurs in the. 6. The process of making RNA from DNA is called and it occurs in the 7. The process of assembling a protein from RNA is called and it occurs in the 91

15 Exploring Stem Cells and Differentiation (Activity 1) You will be guided through a series of activities that involve stem cells and cell differentiation. As you go through the activities, try to answer the following questions. You will later be asked for your personal position about stem cells in a class discussion, socratic, or debate. If you need more space, go to the following blank page. What are stem cells? How does differentiation occur? Jot down notes on how the cells highlighted in this activity are different in structure and function. For example in what way(s) are brain cells differentiated from a blood cells? 92

16 Pros Stem Cell Research and Applications Cons 93

17 Exploring Stem Cells and Differentiation For additional notes, brainstorm, ideas 94

18 Stem Cell Quick Reference Are you confused about all the different types of stem cells? Read on to learn where different types of stem cells come from, what their potential is for use in therapy, and why some types of stem cells are shrouded in controversy. Researchers are working on new ways to use stem cells to cure diseases and heal injuries. Somatic Stem Cells Somatic stem cells (also called adult stem cells) exist naturally in the body. They are important for growth, healing, and replacing cells that are lost through daily wear and tear. Potential as therapy Stem cells from the blood and bone marrow are routinely used as a treatment for blood-related diseases. However, under natural circumstances somatic stem cells can become only a subset of related cell types. Bone marrow stem cells, for example, differentiate primarily into blood cells. This partial differentiation can be an advantage when you want to produce blood cells; but it is a disadvantage if you're interested in producing an unrelated cell type. Special considerations Most types of somatic stem cells are present in low abundance and are difficult to isolate and grow in culture. Isolation of some types could cause considerable tissue or organ damage, as in the heart or brain. Somatic stem cells can be transplanted from donor to patient, but without drugs that suppress the immune system, a patient's immune system will recognize transplanted cells as foreign and attack them. Ethical considerations Therapy involving somatic stem cells is not controversial; however, it is subject to the same ethical considerations that apply to all medical procedures. Embryonic Stem Cells Embryonic stem (ES) cells are formed as a normal part of embryonic development. They can be isolated from an early embryo and grown in a dish. Potential as therapy ES cells have the potential to become any type of cell in the body, making them a promising source of cells for treating many diseases. Special considerations Without drugs that suppress the immune system, a patient's immune system will recognize transplanted cells as foreign and attack them. Ethical considerations When scientists isolate human embryonic stem (hes) cells in the lab, they destroy an embryo. The ethical and legal implications of this have made some reluctant to support research involving hes cells. In recent years, some researchers have focused their efforts on creating stem cells that don't require the destruction of embryos. 95

19 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Induced pluripotent stem (ips) cells are created artificially in the lab by "reprogramming" a patient's own cells. ips cells can be made from readily available cells including fat, skin, and fibroblasts (cells that produce connective tissue). Therapeutic Cloning Therapeutic cloning is a method for creating patient-specific embryonic stem (ES) cells. Potential as therapy Mouse ips cells can become any cell in the body (or even a whole mouse). Although more analysis is needed, the same appears to be true for human ips cells, making them a promising source of cells for treating many diseases. Importantly, since ips cells can be made from a patient's own cells, there is no danger that their immune system will reject them. Special considerations ips cells are much less expensive to create than ES cells generated through therapeutic cloning (another type of patient-specific stem cell; see below). However, because the "reprogramming" process introduces genetic modifications, the safety of using ips cells in patients is uncertain. Ethical considerations Therapy involving ips cells is subject to the same ethical considerations that apply to all medical procedures. Potential as therapy Therapeutic cloning can, in theory, generate ES cells with the potential to become any type of cell in the body. In addition, since these cells are made from a patient's own DNA, there is no danger of rejection by the immune system. Special considerations In 2013, for the first time, a group of researchers used therapeutic cloning to make ES cells. The donor nucleus came from a child with a rare genetic disorder. However, the cloning process remains time consuming, inefficient, and expensive. Ethical considerations Therapeutic cloning brings up considerable ethical considerations. It involves creating a clone of a human being and destroying the cloned embryo, and it requires a human egg donor. 96

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21 Packaging of DNA into Chromosomes In the figure below, label the following: DNA, Nucleosome, Euchromatin, Heterochromatin, Looped Domains, and Chromosome 98

22 Date Differential Gene Expression 99

23 Differential Gene Expression 100

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25 Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Levels of Protein Structure Induced Fit Model Enzyme Substrate Complex 102

26 Date Protein Synthesis 103

27 Endomembrane System 104

28 Engineering Practices: Cystic Fibrosis You and your group will be brainstorming and designing a solution for the treatment of cystic fibrosis. A defect in the CFTR gene causes cystic fibrosis (CF). This gene makes a protein that controls the movement of salt and water in and out of your body's cells. In people who have CF, the gene makes a protein that doesn't work well. This causes thick, sticky mucus and very salty sweat. Consider all the material from this lecture. What possible solutions can you think of for this problem? What is plausible about your solution? What problems might you encounter? We will share out our solutions in a Socratic discussion. Use the whiteboard provided and the blank spaces in the following pages to brainstorm ideas and/or take down notes. Take these notes with you to the Socratic discussion. Part 1: Understanding the Problem of Cystic Fibrosis As you explore the link, take notes about Cystic Fibrosis in the space below to better understand the disease, the causes of the disease, and the mechanism. 105

29 Part 2: The Vector Toolbox Explore the Viruses in the Vector Toolbox. You will be using this information to design a treatment/cure for Cystic Fibrosis. 106

30 Intentionally Left Blank for Additional Notes or Brainstorming on The Vector Toolbox 107

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32 Cells: Living Units, part B This checklist will serve as your study guide to help you prepare for your exams. At the end of this unit, you will: Going Beyond Plasma Membrane and the Cytoskeleton: Explain the structure of the three types of cytoskeleton and relate how their structure affects their function. Describe the structural and chemical properties of the plasma membrane and relate how these properties enable it to regulate what enters and leaves the cell. For example, what are permeable or not permeable to the phospholipid? If it is not permeable across the phospholipid, is it permeable through other means? If so, how? Explain the role of the plasma membrane in maintaining homeostasis Differentiate between osmolarity and tonicity. Describe how you would calculate osmolarity, and convert between osmolarity and tonicity. How would osmolarity and tonicity affect passive transport of substances across semi-permeable membranes? Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions and predict which tissues might have higher concentrations of these junctions and why. Explain active and passive transport mechanisms of the plasma membrane while differentiating the transport processes relative to energy source, substances transported, direction, and mechanism. 109

33 Membrane Junctions: Color each individual junction with different colors and use the same colors on the larger image to the left. Type of Junction: Function and Characteristics: Type of Junction: Function and Characteristics: Type of Junction: Function and Characteristics: During lecture, you will be labeling specific characteristics of each junction in the above image. 110

34 Reading Guide Cells, Living Units, Part B Instructions: The specific instructions for various activities in the reading guides can be found in your reference pages you saved in your backpack on edmodo. Refer to these pages carefully, as you will be completing reading guides all throughout this year. Since reading guides are a type of formative assessment, they are graded on completion, follow-through with guidelines, and quality. 1. Read pgs. 66 Pg. 69 on the Fluid Mosaic Model Write a GIST on page 112 of your intnb 2. Read pg. 69 and figure 3.5 on page 70 of your textbook on Specializations of Plasma Membrane. a) Identify the three types of junctions on the illustration on page 110 of your intnb. Color each individual junction using different colors and use the same colors to color only the junctions in the larger graphic. b) Identify each junction, then explain its function and identifying characteristics. 3. Read pages on Membrane Transport Complete a 4-column T-chart on page 114 of your intnb that contrasts the following passive transport mechanisms: simple diffusion, carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion, channel-mediated facilitated diffusion, and osmosis. List at least FOUR facts for each. Complete a 3-column T-chart on page 114 of your intnb that contrasts the three main active transport mechanisms: primary active transport, secondary active transport, and vesicular transport. List at least FOUR facts for each. 4. Read pages on Cell to Environment Interactions Write a GIST on page 113 of your intnb. 111

35 GIST 1 Fluid Mosaic Model 112

36 GIST 2 Cell to Environment Interactions 113

37 Passive Transport Simple Diffusion Carrier-Mediated facilitated diffusion Channel- Mediated facilitated diffusion Osmosis Active Transport Primary Active Transport Secondary Active Transport Vesicular Transport 114

38 Date Cytoskeleton 115

39 Structure of Centrioles (9 sets of 3) Basal Body vs. Flagella (9 sets of 3) vs. (9 + 2) 116

40 Date: Plasma Membrane 117

41 Polarity of Water Properties of Phospholipids 118

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43 Plasma Membrane Properties 120

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47 Membrane Transport Label each of the following transport methods as either 1) active or passive then 2) specify the specific type of membrane transport: 1) 1) 2) 2) 1) 1) 2) 2) 124

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51 Sodium-Potassium Pump Third, draw in the Na/K pump and use arrows to show how the Na/K pump creates an electrochemical gradient. Lastly, draw in some Na and K channels. Demonstrate how an action potential would occur as Na and K leak into and out of the cell, respectively. 128

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55 Diffusion and Osmosis Pre-lab Read the Diffusion and Osmosis Lab on the following pages and complete the pre-lab PRIOR to lab day. Introduction: Dialysis tubing allows molecules to diffuse through microscopic pores in the tubing. Molecules smaller than the pores can diffuse through the dialysis membrane along their concentration gradients, while molecules larger than the pore size are prevented from crossing the dialysis membrane. Answer the following questions. For problems, show equations and work with units and appropriate significant figures. Part 1A: Predict whether or not each of these is expected to pass through the dialysis membrane. Water Glucose I 2 KI Starch How will you know if the iodine solution (I 2 KI) has crossed the dialysis membrane? Part 1B: In the following situations, assume that sucrose cannot diffuse through the dialysis membrane. 1. If a dialysis bag containing a.20 M solution of sucrose is placed in a beaker of distilled water. Will the dialysis bag gain or lose mass? Explain why. 2. A dialysis bag has an initial mass of 30.2 g and a final mass of 26.3 g. Find the % change in mass. CAREFULLY read the procedure on pages lab 1B. In the space below, DRAW how the beakers will be set up in the space below. Label the contents of each dialysis bag and the contents in each beaker in your illustration. To help you, see Figure 1.1 on page 138, which provides an example of one of the beakers. 132

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66 Use Figure 3.1 to answer the following: 143

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68 Use Figure 3.2 to answer the following: 145

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72 Cells: A Living Unit Unit Concept Map 149

73 Summary of One Objective Choose one student objective from the start of the unit (page 81 and page 109) and thoroughly explain the objective question in your writing. Be specific with your language to communicate your understanding of the unit. Underline or highlight vocabulary words that were incorporated in your summary. 150

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