Measuring Job Satisfaction of Volunteers in Public Parks and Recreation

Transcription

1 Journal of Park and Recreation Administration Volume 19, Number 791 Spring 2001 pp Measuring Job Satisfaction of Volunteers in Public Parks and Recreation Kenneth E. Silverberg Elizabeth K. Marshall Gary D. Ellis ABSTRACT: Approximately 50% of American adults volunteer their time in non-profit organizations with an estimated 150 billion dollars worth of services being provided annually (Independent Sector, 1990). Public parks and recreation agencies are some of the many public organizations that rely on volunteers. With such a heavy reliance upon volunteer workers in public recreation, measuring volunteers satisfaction becomes a serious concern. Previous studies have typically studied volunteer satisfaction by modifying scales designed for use with paid employees (Hershey, 1998; Pearce, 1983; Ronen, 1977). However, this research has generally proceeded without evaluation of the modified scales. The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of inferences that can be made about public parks and recreation volunteers job satisfaction from scores on a modified employee job satisfaction scale. Scale items addressed six satisfaction dimensions: nature of the work, contingent rewards, supervision, operating procedures, coworkers and communication. Participants included volunteers in the City of Phoenix, Arizona s Parks, Recreation and Library Department (n=583). Results suggest that an overall satisfaction score on the volunteer satisfaction scale can provide a useful measure of satisfaction among parks and recreation volunteers. Results also suggest that volunteer satisfaction is a function of both job setting and psychological functions met by volunteering. For example, coaches in youth sports programs typically volunteer so that their children may participate in the program; results confirm that coaches experience high levels of volunteer job satisfaction when people they know (e.g., their children) are receiving benefits of participation. Because job satisfaction is a key factor in the retention of volunteers, as well as in the ultimate success and stability of recreation programs, park and recreation managers should consider the usefulness of evaluating the satisfaction of their volunteers. Obtaining measures of volunteer satisfaction can give managers a sense of whether or not the needs of the volunteers are being met. Examination of specific items or dimensions on the volunteer satisfaction scale can help managers pinpoint areas of concern. Finally, matching job setting and individuals reasons for volunteering can help increase satisfaction among parks and recreation volunteers. Taking the time to understand why people are volunteering can help when placing them in specific volunteer positions. KEYWORDS: Job satisfaction, volunteers, measurement, public parks and recreation management.

2 80 AUTHORS: Kenneth E. Silverberg is an assistant professor, Elizabeth K. Marshall is a doctorate candidate, and Gary D. Ellis is a professor at the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism at the University of Utah. Introduction The attitudes of volunteers toward the tasks they perform are a vitally important concern for managers of public agencies. Approximately 50% of American adults volunteer their time in non-profit organizations with an estimated 150 billion dollars worth of services being provided annually (Independent Sector, 1990). Public recreation agencies are clearly included among the diverse public organizations that rely on volunteers. The past two decades have pointed to clear evidence of the vital importance of volunteer contributions to public recreation; severely impacted jurisdictions like New York City, Los Angeles, and Atlanta, have not been able to provide many of their public recreation services until a sufficient match of voluntary effort was forthcoming from the community (Ferris, 1988). With such a significant reliance upon volunteer workers in public recreation, measuring volunteers job satisfaction (Schoeny, 1997; Spector, 1997; Tyler & Cushway, 1998; Vinokur-Kaplan, 1991) becomes a serious concern. Volunteer job satisfaction and employee job satisfaction likely share a number of dimensions, such as the challenge of the work, opportunities for personal growth and relations with co-workers (Pearce, 1983; Schoeny, 1997; Vinokur-Kaplan, 1991). However, it is also quite likely that satisfaction of paid and volunteer workers differs with regard to other dimensions such as pay and opportunities for advancement. Although such concerns are of central interest to many employees, they are either irrelevant to most volunteers or they may serve only as long-term goals. To measure level of volunteer job satisfaction, scales designed to measure the job satisfaction of paid employees have frequently been modified. Typically, this research has proceeded without evaluation for the modified scales. Examples of such research include Hershey (1998), who used the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967) to assess the job satisfaction of volunteer and career firefighters; Ronen (1977), who investigated the job satisfaction of unpaid kibbutz members working in industrial firms, using the Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall & Hulin, 1969); and Pearce (1983), who examined the job satisfaction of volunteers in four different types of organizations using a previously developed job satisfaction scale designed for use with paid employees. However, proceeding without evaluating the modified scales makes drawing inferences about volunteer job satisfaction tenuous, due to differences in the dimensions between paid employees and volunteers. Measurement of job satisfaction is not an easy task. The variety of tools used to measure paid employee job satisfaction indicate that many different conceptualizations of this construct exist. The Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall & Hulin, 1969), for example, identifies five key facets of

3 job satisfaction: pay, the work itself, supervisors, co-workers, and promotion opportunities. Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman s (1959) classic argument purports that two factors are central to job satisfaction: motivation factors and hygiene factors. Spector (1997), on the other hand, found evidence for nine factors of job satisfaction: pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, co-workers, the nature of the work, and communication, although he suggests that these nine factors cluster around four areas: rewards, other people, nature of the work, and organizational context. Locke (1976) argued that job satisfaction factors cluster around four main dimensions. He argued that factor analysis procedures have frequently been used to identify constituent elements of job satisfaction, resulting in almost as many different factor structures as there are studies, (p. 1301) and they do not provide a conceptual basis for measuring job satisfaction. Rather, Locke suggests that a more useful way to analyze job dimensions is to identify events or conditions, such as promotions and benefits, as well as agents, such as supervisors and coworkers, that influence attitudes. In examining earlier studies, Locke identified three conditions: nature of work, rewards, and context, and one agent: other people. Ultimately, Locke argues, in identifying both conditions and agents, and it is also useful to explore the interaction between those conditions and agents. Another approach that emphasizes an interaction is functionalist theory (Cantor, 1994; Clary, Snyder, Ridge, Copeland, Stukas, Haugen & Miene, 1998; Clary & Snyder, 1991; Snyder, 1993; Snyder, 1992). Functionalist theory would suggest that volunteers job satisfaction depends on the extent to which the conditions of their work satisfy particular psychological functions that volunteers bring to their work settings. More generally, a functionalist perspective is that job setting interacts with psychological function to determine job satisfaction of volunteers. Consider the youth sport coach job setting, for example. Many coaches of youth sports programs volunteer in order that their children may more fully participate in the program. The volunteer job satisfaction of coaches working in youth sports programs may depend on the extent to which their volunteer work enables their children to more fully participate in the program. Volunteers in libraries, on the other hand, may base their satisfaction more on the degree to which they are able to learn about their local government, and less on whether or not their children can participate in library activities. In the cases of both coaches and library volunteers, when conditions and aspects of the environment are arranged in such a manner that those psychological functions are served, higher levels of job satisfaction would be expected to result. Consistent with this functionalist perspective is the notion that the extent to which functions are adequately being served would influence job satisfaction. Indeed, the level of satisfaction with a person s volunteer experience is positively correlated with the person receiving functionally relevant benefits (Clary, et al., 1998). In the context of volunteerism, it is 81

4 82 possible for people to engage in similar types of volunteer activities which, on the surface, seem similar, yet they may be performing the activities for very different reasons, and may be seeking benefits related to very different psychological functions. Thus, in understanding volunteer job satisfaction, it is necessary to consider both personal and situational variables (Cantor, 1994; Clary, et al., 1998; Snyder, 1993; Snyder & Ickes, 1985). Ultimately, the creation of a survey instrument that can be used to examine volunteer job satisfaction is useful both for managers looking to gain a better understanding of the motivations and goals of their volunteers, as well as being useful in advancing the research of volunteer job satisfaction. This study examined the extent to which a measure of job satisfaction that was developed for use with paid employees could appropriately be applied to a population of volunteers. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of inferences that can be made about volunteers job satisfaction from scores on a modified employee job satisfaction measure. Functionalist theory (Cantor, 1994; Clary, et al., 1998; Clary & Snyder, 1991; Snyder, 1992, 1993) provided a foundation for the development of the scale as well as for the examination of the reliability and validity of inferences that can be drawn from the results of this scale. Method Participants The data reported here represent a secondary analysis of a larger study that examined the psychological functions of volunteering (Silverberg, 1999). The sample for that study included 5,996 volunteers for the city of Phoenix, Arizona, whose addresses were on record with the Parks, Recreation and Library Department (PRLD). Volunteer was defined as an individual who volunteers his or her time to a service organization without monetary compensation (Silverberg, 1999). Approximately 2,500 of the 5,996 questionnaires were not deliverable (42%). Nine hundred twelve responses were received, but complete data for the analyses reported here were available from 583 participants. A modified Dillman (1978) total design method was used to conduct the survey. A large group of respondents (32.9%) were adults 65 years or older, and almost half of the sample (48.8%) were 51 years or older. A majority of participants (55.4%) were female, and 59% of the sample were married. In terms of employment status, the two largest groups were full-time workers (45.1%) and retired individuals (34.4%). With regard to the number of hours per week spent volunteering, 52.1% who responded to the question indicated that they volunteered between two and five hours per week. Instrumentation The questionnaire included measures of several variables related to the volunteer experience. For the present study, three variables were of interest: volunteer job satisfaction, psychological functions served by volunteering (Clary, et al., 1998), and the job setting for volunteer work.

5 Volunteer job satisfaction. To measure volunteer job satisfaction, a 36- item employee job satisfaction scale developed by Spector (1997) was modified for measurement of satisfaction specific to volunteer job settings. Spector s scale was considered to be appropriate because it is consistent with the functionalist approach. The scale identifies nine components of job satisfaction: pay, promotion, supervision, benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. The scale was modified to 23 items to obtain data related to satisfaction in terms of the respondents volunteer experiences. The 12 items removed from the scale were disregarded due to their specific relationship to pay, promotion, and employee benefits. Examples of items that were modified for the volunteer worker context were: When I do a good job, I receive the recognition for it that I should receive (contingent rewards), I sometimes feel my volunteer work is meaningless (nature of work), and My supervisor shows too little interest in the feelings of the volunteers (supervision). The response format for this scale used a 7-point Likert-type response format. Anchor points on the scale were 1= strongly disagree and 7= strongly agree. No descriptors were used for response options 2 through 6. Consistent with Spector s scale, the resulting volunteer job satisfaction scale produced measures of overall job satisfaction, as well as measures of six different dimensions of volunteer job satisfaction: supervision, contingent rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. Psychological functions. Psychological functions are the reasons and purposes, the needs and goals, the plans and motives that underlie and generate psychological phenomena (Clary, et al., 1998; Snyder, 1993). The Volunteer Function Inventory (VFI) (Clary, et al., 1998) was used to measure volunteer function. The VFI includes 30 Likert-type items and produces scores on six functions: protective, social, understanding, values, career, enhancement. Sample items include: Volunteering helps me work through my own personal problems (protective), Volunteering is a way to make new friends (social), and Volunteering allows me to gain a new perspective on things (enhancement). In the original study, test reliabilities for the function subscales ranged from.80 to.89. Research also indicates that the VFI is suitable for measuring volunteer functions among public parks and recreation volunteers, with subscale reliabilities ranging from.77 for the values and social functions to.87 for the understanding function, with a total scale reliability of.86 (Silverberg, 1999; Silverberg, Ellis, Backman, & Backman,1999; Silverberg, Ellis, & Marshall, 1999). Coproduction. Coproduction refers to the active involvement of citizens, including volunteers in government agencies, in the creation and delivery of public goods and/or services (Brudney & England, 1983; Ferris, 1984; Parks, Baker, Kiser, Oakerson, Ostrom, Ostrom, Percy, Vandivort, Whitaker, & Wilson 1981; Percy, 1984). Previous research indicates that coproduction items tap into other functions of volunteering that are being missed by VFI items (Silverberg, 1999). Thus, coproduction 83

6 84 items were included in the examination of volunteer job satisfaction. Twelve Likert-type items were added to the VFI items for this study to measure coproduction. For this study, coproduction is defined in terms of consumer production (Ferris, 1984) and self-help (Hatry, 1983; Morely, 1989; Savas, 1987; Shulman, 1982; Valente & Manchester, 1984), where the producers of services or their family members are also the beneficiaries of the services being produced, where the volunteers perceive their help is needed in order for services to be provided and/or where volunteers are seeking a sense of citizenship through knowledge of how the local government works. Prior analysis (Silverberg, 1999) resulted in the creation of three factorbased scales of coproduction: The Department Needs Me, Knowledge of Governmental Operations, and Benefit to People I Know. The Department Needs Me factor is related to the perception that the program for which people volunteer would not continue if they were not volunteering. In addition, this factor is related to the perception that contributing to the community is part of the role of a good citizen. Sample items for this dimension include I volunteer because it helps the department offer higher quality programs, and If I don t volunteer, chances of the program continuing are reduced. The factor Knowledge of Governmental Operations is related to the perception that volunteering allows individuals to learn about governmental and departmental operations. Sample items for this factor include I volunteer because it increases my knowledge of how the department operates, and I volunteer because it helps me learn about local government. The factor Benefit to People I Know is related to the benefits that family and friends receive from the program for which the person is volunteering. A sample item for this factor is I volunteer because someone I know benefits from my service to the program. Alpha reliability testing resulted in alpha coefficients of.73,.65 and.76, for factors, The Department Needs Me, Knowledge of Governmental Operations, and Benefits to People I Know, respectively (Silverberg, 1999). Job Setting. Additionally, participants were asked to describe the job setting for their volunteer work. Participants were given a list of 16 volunteer tasks and were asked to indicate which tasks they performed when they volunteered. From this list a variable was created by collapsing the 16 tasks into five categories: program implementation (class instructors, youth mentors, umpires), coaches, libraries, other operations (drivers, maintenance), and administrative support (fund raisers, clerical workers, board members). Data Analysis Data were analyzed in terms of reliability and validity. To test reliability, Cronbach s alpha was calculated for the entire volunteer job satisfaction scale, as well as for its individual dimensions. Item-total correlations were calculated to determine the quality of individual items. Validity was assessed through statistical analyses that followed from functionalist theory (Cantor, 1994; Clary, et al., 1998; Snyder, 1993;

7 Snyder & Ickes, 1985); a hypothesized interaction between job setting and psychological function, with respect to job satisfaction was tested. Procedures for testing that hypothesis are outlined in Figure 1. First, a discriminant analysis was performed to determine what job settings facilitate specific psychological functions. Next, multiple regression techniques were employed to examine the hypothesized interaction between volunteer job setting and psychological function in predicting job satisfaction. The discriminant functions from the previous analysis were used in predicting job satisfaction. Finally, significant main effects were explored using within group bivariate correlations to examine the relationship between psychological function and job satisfaction, in terms of each of the job settings. Figure 1 Logic of Analytic Approach Narrative Question Research Question Analysis What job settings (JS) facilitate JS PF? Discriminant Analysis what psychological functions (PF)? 2. Do volunteers who work in job S = PF * JS? Multiple Regression settings (JS) that facilitate the psychological functions (PF) that they seek experience greater job satisfaction (S)? 3. What is the nature of the r PF, S for each JS Simple Regression within relationship between each job setting psychological function (PF) and job satisfaction (S) for each job setting (JS), i.e., coaches, program volunteers, library volunteers, volunteers in other operations, administrative volunteers. Results Reliability The alpha reliability estimate of the 23-item volunteer job satisfaction scale was.88. Item-total correlations ranged from.39 to.56. One item with an item-total correlation less than.20 was identified and should be considered for possible revision and replacement (see Table 1). The subscales were also analyzed for internal consistency and compared with the reliability estimates Spector (1997) provided with his Job Satisfaction Scale (see Table 2). Subscale reliabilities ranged from.71 (contingent rewards) to.27 (operating procedures). The subscale measuring

8 86 Table 1 Volunteer Satisfaction Scale Reliability Analysis (N = 583) Item Item-Total Item Item-Total Correlation Correlation 1. I feel I receive a fair amount of recognition 13. My supervisor shows too little interest in the for the volunteer work I do (Contingent rewards).46 feelings of volunteers (Supervision).51* 2. My supervisor is quite competent in doing 14. There are few rewards for volunteers his/her job (Supervision).51 (Contingent rewards).49* 3. When I do a good job, I receive the recognition 15. I have too many responsibilities as a volunteer for it that I should (Contingent rewards).52 (Operating conditions).42* 4. Many of the rules and procedures make doing 16. I enjoy the other volunteers I work with a good job difficult (Operating conditions).39* (Coworkers) I like the people I work with (Coworkers) I often feel that I do not know what is going on 6. I sometimes feel my volunteer experience with the Department (Communication).45* is meaningless (Nature of work).47* 18. I feel a sense of pride as a volunteer with 7. Communications seem good within the Department the Department (Nature of work).45 (Communication) I like my supervisor (Supervision) My supervisor is unfair to me (Supervision).50* 20. I don t feel my efforts are rewarded the way they 9. I do not feel that the work that I do is appreciated should be (Contingent rewards).53* (Contingent rewards).47* 21. There is too much bickering and fighting at the 10. My efforts to do a good job are seldom blocked location where I volunteer (Coworkers).49* by red tape (Operating conditions) My volunteer experience is enjoyable 11. I like doing the things I do during my volunteer (Nature of work).54 experience (Nature of work) Volunteer assignments are not fully explained 12. The goals of the Department are not clear to me (Communication).51* (Communication).46* α =.88 *Items are reverse-scored Note: Permission for the use and modification of Spector s Job Satisfaction Survey for research purposes was obtained before initial research was undertaken.

9 the factor operating procedures displays a particularly low reliability estimate (.27) and should not be considered a reliable subscale. Item-total correlations for this factor range between.08 and.25, indicating that the items do not fit well with one another. Table 2 Subscale Reliability Analysis Alpha Reliability Volunteer Job Spector s (1997) Dimension Satisfaction Scale Job Satisfaction Scale 87 Communication Nature of Work Coworkers Operating Procedures Supervision Contingent Rewards Total Validity Discriminant analysis revealed that one salient discriminant function, Benefits to People I Know vs. Knowledge of Governmental Operations, explained 85% of the shared variance (Λ =.59, Canonical r =.60, p <.001). Regression analyses supported the hypothesis that job satisfaction is, in part, a result of the interaction between this function and job setting. The F ratio resulting from the test of the interaction between job setting and Benefits to People I Know vs. Knowledge of Government Operations was 6.80 (p <.001). Significant interaction effects were followed up with bivariate correlations between psychological functions and job satisfaction, with regard to job setting. The only significant positive bivariate correlation for the Benefits to People I Know vs. Knowledge of Governmental Operations discriminant function (Function 1) was for coaches (r =.162, p <.05) (Table 3). The direction of this relationship suggests that coaches have higher levels of satisfaction when providing benefits to people whom they know, and volunteers in other job settings do not. Significant negative correlations between job satisfaction and Function 1 were found for people working in other operations such as maintenance and groundskeeping (r = -.754, p <.01), people working to implement programs (r = -.312, p <.01), and individuals working in administrative support positions (r = -

10 88.217, p <.05). These results suggest that volunteers in each of these job settings experience satisfaction when they are increasing their knowledge of governmental and/or departmental operations, and not working to benefit others. Table 3 Regression Analysis Results F for Program Coaches Libraries Other Ops. Admin. Interaction Support Benefits to People I Know vs. Knowledge of -.312**.162* ** -.217* 6.80** Governmental Operations (Function 1) *p<.05 **p<.01 Discussion and Conclusions Volunteer job satisfaction is a key concern for managers of agencies relying upon volunteer workers, yet little research has focused on the measure of volunteer job satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of inferences that can be made about volunteers job satisfaction from scores on a modified job satisfaction scale. Scale reliability and validity results suggest that the modification of Spector s Job Satisfaction Scale (1997) can be used to measure job satisfaction of volunteers, as a unidimensional construct. Reliability analysis indicates that the modified scale was reliable for this population of public parks and recreation volunteers. Evidence of validity was found; volunteer job satisfaction was shown to be, in part, a result of the interaction between volunteer function and volunteer job setting. This result is consistent with the tenets of functionalist theory. Thus, results suggest that an overall satisfaction score on the scale can give researchers and practitioners a useful measure of volunteer job satisfaction. Subscale reliability warrants comment. Typically a reliability of.6 or greater is considered necessary for a scale to be considered reliable and thus useful in measurement in research or evaluation contexts (Carmines & Zeller, 1980). This study suggests that certain subscales (communication, nature of work, supervision, contingent rewards) are more reliable for the population of parks and recreation volunteers than other scales (coworkers and operating procedures). Despite the low reliability of some subscales, evaluation of individual items suggests that the responses of participants on particular items may be useful for managers. For example, while the subscale operating conditions may not provide reliable information to

11 managers, high scores on the item I have too many responsibilities as a volunteer may help managers evaluate the work loads given to volunteer workers. Wording of other items in the operating conditions subscale, such as My efforts to do a good job are seldom blocked by red tape, may need to be reworked, due to possible ambiguities. Red tape is an idiom that has potential to be interpreted literally or metaphorically. Reliability evidence from the current study suggests that it may be appropriate to treat volunteer job satisfaction as a unidimensional construct. In contrast, other literature suggests that job satisfaction is multidimensional (e.g., Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969; Spector, 1997), or a rather complex interaction between different conditions and agents (Locke, 1996). Significant additional research is needed to assess the merits and usefulness of these paradigms. Locke s hypothesized interaction between conditions of work (nature of work, rewards, context) and agents (other people) represents a potentially fruitful direction for future research. The volunteer job satisfaction scale reported here might prove useful in such an investigation. Depending on the research design, summative scores on that instrument might serve as the outcome variable, which would be hypothesized to vary as a function of select conditions and agents. Alternatively, interactions among select subscales of the volunteer job satisfaction scale might be evaluated in terms of Locke s model. Volunteer job satisfaction subscales that seem to be related to Locke s conditions include nature of work, contingent rewards, and operating conditions while the dimensions coworkers, communication, and supervision would seem to be agents within Locke s model. In addition to examination of Locke s model, analyses of factor structures to determine dimensionality of volunteer job satisfaction is also a relevant direction for research, as is cross-cultural examination of the measurement, and causes, and effects of volunteer job satisfaction. Ultimately, volunteer job satisfaction may prove to be much more complex than the absence of pay and promotion dimensions from the construct of paid employee job satisfaction. By providing a scale from which reliable and valid inferences about volunteer satisfaction can be drawn, this study opens the door for further research into the construct of volunteer job satisfaction. The results of this study have key implications for recreation managers relying upon volunteer support. Retention of volunteers is crucial to the success and stability of recreation programs, and thus volunteer managers must work with volunteers to do everything possible to ensure that volunteer satisfaction levels remain high. One way to do this is to engage in regular meetings with volunteers in which volunteers can discuss their needs and the degree to which their needs are being met. Another way to help keep volunteer satisfaction levels high is to ensure that an appropriate match exists between volunteers volunteer job settings and their motives and psychological functions. Parents who want to volunteer at a community center in order that their children can play in a basketball league at that center will not experience high levels of satisfaction if their volunteer 89

12 90 experience does not result in basketball league participation for their children. Similarly, an individual who volunteers in order to learn more about the local government may not be satisfied in an assignment outside the main office, where she or he has few opportunities to learn about the local government. Ensuring optimal matches between job settings and functions points to the importance of using some mechanism for assessing the motives and functions of new volunteers and for monitoring changes in those functions as volunteers work within the system. The volunteer job satisfaction scale produced by this research provides a potentially useful resource in that process. Managers might periodically administer the scale to volunteers in select job settings that are known or thought to facilitate particular psychological functions. In this manner, volunteers for whom mismatches are present might be identified and job assignments of volunteers for whom good matches exist might be affirmed. Based on these results, managers might explore opportunities for reassignment of some volunteers or they might identify ways of increasing volunteers involvement in job settings that are particularly successful for particular volunteer workers. The scale might also be useful in the process of screening and placement. Interviews with new volunteers might be conducted, and a portion of those interviews might be directed at identifying volunteers preferences with respect to dimensions of volunteer job satisfaction: contingent rewards, nature of supervision, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work itself, communication, and psychological functions to be served by the volunteer experience. Information from such interviews could be useful in identifying optimal job settings as well as in the effective management of volunteers. Ultimately, volunteer satisfaction is a key component in effective management of volunteers. Obtaining measures of volunteer satisfaction can give a manager a sense of whether or not the needs of the volunteers are being met. By examining satisfaction levels within individual job settings, it is possible to determine the effectiveness of policies relating to volunteer workers. Recognizing satisfaction concerns and possible volunteer setting-function mismatches may help managers minimize morale problems, as well as allow managers to avoid costly recruitment and training processes. References Brudney, J.L., & England, R.E. (1983). Toward a definition of the coproduction concept. Public Administration Review, 43, Cantor, N. (1994). Life task problem solving: Situational affordances and personal needs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, Carmines, E.G., & Zeller, R.A. (1980). Reliability and validity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Clary, E.G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R.D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A.A., Haugen, J., & Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6),

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