The Crisis Behind The Crisis? Forced Migration and its Consequence as a Result of Environmental Change and Natural Disaster in ASEAN

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1 The Crisis Behind The Crisis? Forced Migration and its Consequence as a Result of Environmental Change and Natural Disaster in ASEAN 15 th December 2011, at hrs. Chumpot - Pantip conference room 4 th floor of Prajadhipok Rambhai - Barni building Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

2 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND MIGRATION AMONGST FISHING COMMUNITIES AROUND THE TONLE SAP LAKE, CAMBODIA AND IMPACTS ON HUMAN SECURITY Naruemon Thabchumpon, Carl Middleton, and Borin Un

3 Our Research questions Has environmental change driven migration amongst subsistence fisher communities around Tonle Sap Lake? If so, what are the human security impacts, in particular on economic security?

4 Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia UNESCO biosphere reserve since million live in the Tonle Sap Biosphere reserve 4.4 million live in the Tonle Sap basin Tonle Sap is one of the most productive, and intensively fished, inland fisheries in the world The Tonle Sap Lake Basin covers 44% of Cambodia and is the most economically important region (76% agricultural land, 40% of forest area, inland fisheries) Tonle Sap is crucial to Cambodia s food and income security, as well as culture

5 The heart beat of Cambodia Annual cycle of expansion and contraction is the reason for the lakes high productivity from 2500 km 2 to 15,600 km 2 Students going to primary school, Tamol Leur village, Kampong Chhnang province

6 Field sites (visited November 2011) Ansong Sork and Rohal Suong villages, (on Steung Sangke) Norint commune, Aek Phnom District, Battambang Province Tamol Leur and Tamol Kraom villages, Koh Thkov commune, Chhul Kirri District, Kampong Chhang Province Kampong Kor Leur and Kamong Kor Kraom villages, (on Steung Sen) Kampong Kor commune, Kampong Svay District, Kampong Thom Province

7 Fishing-farming communities Living in flood plains, villages flooded for approximately 6 months per year Family scale fishing in wet and dry season Dry season rice agriculture (families own between 1 and 3 ha of land) Resources available include: agricultural farming; wild capture fisheries; natural lakes, rivers and streams; flooded forest; and firewood and other non-timber forest products Kampong Kor Kroam, Kampong Thom Province

8 Wild capture fisheries Wild-capture fish stocks gradually declining in 1990s, and more rapidly in 2000s Catch composition changing and giant fish species disappearing Fish decline attributed to: Increasing village population Extensive illegal fishing Modern fishing gear in use Loss of flooded forest to agriculture Other ecosystem changes Inequitable access from competition with commercial fishing lots Inappropriate / incomplete laws 2009 fish catch very poor

9 Fisheries reform in 2001 and 2011 In February 2001, 56% of the commercial fishing lot area released to community fisheries with varied success Regulation 01 and 02, issued in May and August 2011 by Prime Minister Hun Sen, cracked down on illegal fishing and disbanded commercial fishing lots respectively. Access to 2011 bumper-fishing season partially limited by risk/ lack of long-term investment in fishing gear

10 Flood plain agriculture Before 2000, floodplain land famously fertile One subsistence rice crop per year, using traditional seeds, cattle, and natural fertilizer Increasing mechanization, chemical inputs, and highyielding seed varieties Partially driven by decreasing fish catch and increasing population/ smaller land holdings Demand for more cash for inputs Unregulated flooded forest clearing Land grabbing by private individuals for irrigated dry season rice Affects soil erosion in to water bodies

11 Declining soil fertility drought over past 10 years Increasing intensity of chemical fertilizer and pesticide use Shift to two crops per dry season (Nov-Feb; March- June) Loss of flooded forest Flood plain agriculture Rising risk of debt due to crop failure Depletion of local natural water sources (lakes and streams), also affecting fish stocks Flooding has affected rice crop in 2011

12 Changing Economic Security Over past years, farming has become the primary livelihood in all villages visited In past fishing the primary livelihood occupation Fish processing had been an important source of income Declining fish stock has required more expensive investments in fishing gear, funded by borrowing, and risking debt and poor catch Viability of farming, however, depends on land availability and water reliability Land holdings range from less than 1 ha to up to 3 ha, and occasionally more Processes of land accumulation occur via indebtedness, especially since Land Law (2001) Only landlessness would lead to fishing being the primary occupations Farming is increasingly capital intensive, funded by borrowing, and risking debt

13 Market access and Role of Middlemen Role of middlemen, traders, collectors, and wholesalers is significant for farmers and fishers Price depends on ability to negotiate: Indebtedness to middlemen Inability to act collectively Need to sell fish/ rice immediately to meet needs/ pay off debts but for rice traders, may arrive in village months past harvest

14 Key push factors from village Lack of work Declining fish stock offers less fishing work Growing population with land limitations limit opportunities for young people in agriculture Family debt Migration Most often due to agricultural failure, and linked to more capital intensive farming heightening risks Partially linked to environmental degradation and environmental change Not all members in the family migrate to work in other areas. Family members who are young and unmarried or married but no children.

15 Migration destinations: Migration Approximately 10% of village migrate to work in other countries, mainly Thailand and Malaysia, and increasingly South Korea. About 15%-20% of village migrate to other places in Cambodia, such as Pailin, Phnom Penh and Provincial towns, or along Cambodia-Thai borders, such as Poipet. Migration become more significant since early 2000s For those with some land, migration is seasonal During agricultural off-season, now that fishing is not so good If agricultural conditions are not good Migration is more likely to be permanent for landless Many told us that they would prefer not to migrate, (but must) Traditional seasonal migrations from uplands to lowlands have declined, due to declining fish stocks

16 Mechanisms of migration to Thailand: Brokers and Private Agencies Most migrants to Thailand travel through private brokers. Fee is US$ Work is in construction, as agricultural laborers, sea fishers sea, or in stores/ shops. No permanent work contract, no guarantee of work, and average daily wage is baht / day. Some migrant workers to Thailand travel via private agencies. Fee charged for passport, visa, and services is US$ USD. Works is in food/ chicken processing and plate manufacture factories. Permanent employment contract and job security Monthly salary is 7,000-9,000 baht. Significant risks for migrant workers For successful migrant workers, remittances help pay debt/ improve living of their family. For unsuccessful migrant workers, debt increases

17 Conclusions Livelihoods are changing around Tonle Sap Lake, with tendency towards farming over fishing Environment socio-economic well-being nexus is important Fisheries Catch per unit of effort declining and variable year to year Agriculture Faces land limitations, requires increasing levels of investment to be viable, and is facing challenge of soil degradation Agriculture development linked to fisheries decline Migration driven by Lack of livelihood options in fishing and farming Debt due to various shocks (crop failure, health ) Environment is an important underlying factor in the decision to migrate, but not the only one (political, social, economic.) Migration is somewhere between environmentally forced and environmentally motivated and involves family members rather than entire families