952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 1. Agriculture The spotlight on women

Transcription

1 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 1 Agriculture The spotlight on women

2 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 2 Photo credits Cover Pascal Baudy (Ministry of Agriculture) Cover Hugo Miserey (Ministry of Agriculture) Page 7 Bernard Molins (Ministry of Agriculture) Page 7 Clara Beck (M.A.P/Veterinary services) Page 8 DG AGRI photothèque Page 14 DG AGRI photothèque Page 17 L. Kourcia (Ministry of Agriculture) Page 19 N & M. Brokensha (Ministry of Agriculture) Page 21 Frédéric Behar (Ministry of Agriculture) Page 23 Nuria Munarriz Page 24 Silvana Reggiardo (Ministry of Agriculture) Note For technical reasons a decimal comma has been used in some figures and tables. A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server ( Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2002 ISBN European Communities, 2002 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. Printed in Belgium

3 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 3 Contents Preface Women make up more than one in three of the workforce on agricultural holdings Together, women account for nearly one third of total labour Part-time work has become more widespread: one woman in two works less than one-quarter time Women on specialist farms One holding in five is managed by a woman % of women are under One woman in two is the spouse of a holder Permanent employees provide two thirds of female labour Women in rural areas in two Member States Women farmers in some of the candidate countries Annex: Statistical tables Acknowledgements

4 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 4 4 Preface It is important that the role played by women both on agricultural holdings and in rural society be highlighted. It is important too to ensure equality between men and women, which is one of the fundamental principles of the European Union. For that reason we attach the greatest importance to this booklet which looks at the situation of women farmers from a statistical point of view and in the light of specific examples. Without the presence and input of women, agriculture in Europe would not exist. Women make up 37 % of the total workforce on European farms and account for 31 % of working time. One holding in five is managed by a woman. As farm managers, spouses, family members or simply employees, women are involved in all systems of production. Their role is particularly important, however, in non-specialist mixed cropping and mixed livestock rearing and horticulture. While the work they perform on farms in most cases is part-time, their presence and contribution help bind the fabric of society in which their families and holdings operate. They give a boost to many additional activities such as agritourism and direct sales of farm products. They also provide services associated, for instance, with local transport and home help, contributing in this way to the life of the countryside and making it possible for them to maintain a link with the outside world. There is much that remains to be done, however, to promote equal opportunities in agriculture and rural life. Closer attention needs to be focused on certain areas. For example, the level of training of women working on farms is low. Unless improvements are made rapidly, agriculture runs the risk of an uncertain future just at a time when responsible and skilled farm managers are needed. Conditions need to be created or maintained that encourage women to remain in this sector of the economy or at least to continue living on farms.

5 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 5 5 Pedro Solbes Mira Commissioner for Economic and Monetary Affairs Franz Fischler Commissioner for Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries The question of status crops up again and again and is at the heart of the problem. Having a clear and unambiguous status opens up prospects for women, not only from the point of view of recognition and self-esteem but also in terms of independence at work, access to day-to-day decision-making and representation in professional agricultural organisations where the systems of reference are predominantly male. We would like to focus attention as well on the need for improvements in our statistics in order to be better able to grasp the present situation and take the decisions that are most appropriate. Data which are unavailable for some Member States need to be obtained so that comparable information is at hand about fundamental matters such as levels of income, multi-tasking, and occupational status. The more the multifunctional aspect of farming gains in importance, the greater the role women will have to play, and the more statistics will have to provide appropriate data, incorporating the male/female dimension in their results. The booklet, lastly, contains information about and gives examples especially for countries that have applied for membership. Here, too, the work done by women and the part they play are very important, above all in countries such as Poland and Romania, despite the fact that the number of people working in agriculture has declined significantly. It is not yet possible to provide data of the same quality or level of comparability as for the EU countries but special efforts will be made. Community programmes under which equal opportunities have to be taken into account are starting to be implemented in those countries. Being able to examine our present social and economic situation in closer detail will mean that we are in a better position to apply the Community policies that have been adopted and will be a source of considerable advance for society as a whole. Franz Fischler Pedro Solbes Mira

6 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 6 6 Women make up more than one in three of the workforce on agricultural holdings ( 1 ) The letters FSS are used throughout this publication to indicate the farm structure survey. ( 2 ) Seasonal work is recorded in terms of volume, not numbers of people. It accounts for 7 % of total labour and is not included in this booklet. ( 3 ) EU-15 = Community of 15; EU-12 = Community of 12; EU-9 = Community of 9. Traditionally, farms in Europe have been run as family concerns worked by a couple, with the wife frequently assisting her husband with numerous day-to-day tasks. The 1997 farm structure survey (FSS( 1 )) put the number of people working on farms as family and permanent salaried employees ( 2 ) in EU-15 ( 3 ) at million. Of these, 5.44 million, i.e. 37 %, were women. Women s relative share has remained stable over time, even with the various enlargements. The percentage of the agricultural workforce made up of women was 37 % in 1980 (EU-9) and again in 1990 (EU-12). By contrast, it varies considerably from one member country to another, at over 40 % of those in permanent employment in Portugal (47 %), Greece and Austria but less in countries such as the United Kingdom (26 %), and Denmark, Spain and Ireland where it is around 30 % (Figure 1). In terms of numbers of women working on farms in Europe, one in three is Italian and two out of three are from the southern European countries (I, E, EL, P). Eight other Member States of the fifteen together account for only 10 % of the total female workforce (UK, NL, FIN, IRL, S, B, DK, L). This breakdown is consistent with the distribution of the male population and of agricultural holdings. The geographical differences between the areas in which these women work (Map 1) clearly have an impact on the general characteristics (working time, rhythm of work, age, etc.) examined in the pages that follow. B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UK 50% 40% 30% 37% EU 15 (1997) 20% 10% 1979/ / Figure 1: Changes in the share of the permanent female labour force in agriculture, by Member State % women

7 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 7 7 Female population in agriculture persons persons persons Less than persons Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Map 1: Permanent female labour force on holdings in 1997

8 952037_Binnen_EN :57 Pagina 8 8 Together, women account for nearly one third of total labour ( 4 ) The letters AWU are used throughout this publication to indicate annual work unit. The working time of all who work on farms is recorded in the FSS. It can range from full time (one annual work unit or AWU( 4 )) to various kinds of part time (three-quarter time, half-time, one-quarter time). In 1997, the volume of work done on Europe s 7 million holdings by family workers and permanent salaried employees amounted to 6.5 million AWUs. Of this, women accounted for almost 2 million AWUs, or 31 % of recorded working time (family and permanent employees), a rate that has remained very stable over time. In the 1989/90 survey, women s working time represented 32 % (EU-12) of agricultural work recorded on holdings (not including seasonal work) and in the 1979/80 survey, 31 % (EU-9). Within individual countries, the rate has remained relatively steady also, rising over the ten-year period by 4.5 % at most (NL, DK) or falling by under 3 % (P, D, IRL). Between Member States, on the other hand, including between neighbouring countries, the volume of work carried out by women differs very significantly. In the southern European countries, women s share is very high in Portugal (45 %), Greece (37 %) and the southern regions of Italy, but considerably less in most regions of Spain (20 % on average). Farms in the northern and north-western parts of the European Union, with the exception of Finland and northern Sweden, rely to a lesser extent on female labour: United Kingdom (21 %), Ireland (24 %), Sweden and Denmark (25 %) and differ from those in Austria (38 %) and Finland (35 %), where women play a much greater role (Map 2). 0,75 0,50 B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UK Women: EU-15: 0.37 AWU Men: EU-15: 0.48 AWU EU 15 (1997) 0,37 AWU 0,25 Figure 2: Work carried out on agricultural holdings in 1997

9 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 9 9 In 1997 women worked on farms just over one-third time on average (0.37 AWU) whilst men worked almost half time (0.48 AWU). Productivity gains are bringing these averages down. In 1980 (EU-9) each woman accounted for 0.43 AWU and each man for 0.56 AWU (Figure 2). The averages vary also with status. Permanent women employees work threequarter time on average (0.73 AWU) but women classified as another member of the family provide only 0.29 AWU. Women spouses provide on average 0.38 AWU. Female agricultural labour force European average 31% 9% 22% 26% 31% 35% 41% 22% 26% 31% 35% 41% 52% Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Map 2: Share of women in permanent labour force in agriculture in 1997

10 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Part-time work has become more widespread: one woman in two works less than one-quarter time In the EU, the working time declared by 47 % of family members or permanent employees on farms is low, at under one-quarter time, while 22 % work full-time. This is the case mainly in the Mediterranean area: 60 % of Italian farmers and over 50 % of Greek and Spanish farmers declare that they work less than one-quarter time in farming. By contrast, over 50 % of Danish, Irish and Belgian farmers work full-time. Two European farmers in three work less than half-time. Farming is therefore chiefly a part-time occupation. Part-time work is more common among women than among men. In 1997, 12 women in 100 were working full-time on farms and 54 less than onequarter time. Twenty seven men in 100 were working full-time and 43 less than one-quarter time (Figure 3). Here, too, the situation varies appreciably from one country to another (Maps 3 and 4). Only a small percentage of Greek (4 %), Austrian (6 %) and Italian (7 %) women on farms were working full-time. In some Member States the percentage was considerably higher at 40 % in Denmark, 32 % in Ireland, 30 % in Finland, 27 % in Belgium and 26 % in the United Kingdom. The shortest working time devoted to farming (less than one-quarter time) was declared by eight out of 100 women on farms in Luxembourg but by the majority in Italy (68 %), Spain (62 %), Greece (58 %) and Sweden (57 %). 27% Full-time working 12% 6% Less than full-time working 6% 8% 3/4 working time 10% 16% 1/2 working time 18% 43% 100% 1/4 working time 20% 20% Figure 3: Working time, women compared with men in EU-15 in % 100%

11 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 11 Women working less than one-quarter time European average 54% 11 Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Women working three-quarters time and over European average 18% 2% 8% 12% 18% 29% 37% 8% 12% 18% 29% 37% 68% Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Maps 3 and 4: Working time, women, 1997

12 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Women on specialist farms ( 5 ) The letters FT are used throughout this publication to indicate type of farming. Because of their numbers and variety, European agricultural holdings are complex. To meet the needs of the common agricultural policy and ensure that they are given proper coverage, a typology based on economic criteria has been devised which identifies 17 main types of farming (FT s ( 5 )). The breakdown of holdings by number and economic size demonstrates the economic importance of certain types of farming (Figure 4). Women make up on average 37 % of the permanent workforce (family workers and employees), but the percentage varies significantly depending on the production system mainly applied on holdings (Figure 5). They are more heavily represented in four types of farming: mixed grazing livestock (71), mixed crops (60), specialist horticulture (20) and olivegrowing (33). While they provide on average 31 % of the volume of labour recorded, their contribution is greater in these four types of farming (36 % to 39 %) and it is here that the gap between men and women (in terms of per capita volume of labour) is narrowest (Figure 6). By contrast, fewer women work on holdings specialising in cereals, oilseeds and protein plants (13), mixed cattle (42), sheep and goats (44) and pigs and poultry (50). In these types of farming their contribution in terms of volume of labour supplied is below the average (ranging from 22 % to 28 %). Part-time working is not uniformly spread but is concentrated primarily in permanent crops (farm types 31 to 34) and field crops. While women provide on average 0.37 AWU on farms on which they are recorded (slightly over one-third time), their contribution is only 0.19 AWU on those specialising in olive-growing (33), 0.23 AWU on fruit farms (32) and 0.29 AWU on wine-growing holdings (31). On cereal farms they work on average one-quarter time (13). Pig and poultry farming (farm type 50), dairying (41) and horticulture (20), on the other hand, require additional labour, on average over 0.66 AWU per person recorded. However, while women work more than half-time (0.55 AWU to 0.60 AWU), their contribution is well below that of men ( 0.10 AWU per head in horticulture and 0.18 AWU per head on specialist holdings).

13 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 13 Cereals - 13 Field crops - 14 Horticulture - 20 Quality wine - 31 Dairy cattle - 41 Beef cattle - 42 Dairy and beef - 43 Small grazing stock - 44 Mixed granivore livestock - 72 Mixed field crops-grazing livestock - 81 Mixed arable-livestock % Fruit and citrus fruit - 32 Olive cultivation - 33 Various permanent crops - 34 Non-grazing livestock - 50 Mixed crops - 60 Mixed grazing livestock - 71 Specialising in: crop production (CP) Specialising in: animal production (AP) Non-specialist holdings 13 Number of holdings Economic size 12% 6% 0% Figure 4: Number and economic size of holdings in 1997 % of total holdings 45% 35% EU 15 (1997) 37% 25% Figure 5: Distribution of the female labour force on different types of holding in 1997 % women Women 0,75% Men 0,50% 0,25% 0% Figure 6: Volume of work provided per person on agricultural holdings in 1997 AWU/person

14 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina One holding in five is managed by a woman ( 6 ) Eight Member States (DK, D, E, NL, A, FIN, S, UK) failed to provide data in 1997 for the distribution between men and women. ( 7 ) The letters ESU are used throughout this publication to indicate economic size unit. In 1997, 1.3 million women were managing farms in EU-15, i.e. one holding in five was managed by a woman. Over 10 years the increase in EU-12 was only +1 % (up from 18 % to 19 %). In Austria 29 % of holdings and in Italy 24 % were managed by women, as against only 7 % in Denmark and 6 % in the Netherlands (Figure 7). Holdings managed by women are noticeably different from others. They are much smaller in economic size than those managed by men (Figure 8). In EU-15( 6 ), the large majority of holdings may be classified as small (under 4 ESUs( 7 )). Out of 100 women managing farms, 68 are responsible for small holdings and only three for large holdings of over 40 ESUs. The numbers for farms managed by men are 52 and 9 respectively (Table 1). Nevertheless, the general tendency towards larger farms also involves women farm managers. Out of 100 holdings of over 40 ESUs, 8 % were managed by women in 1997 as against only 6 % in % B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UK 20% EU 15 (1997) 19% 10% 0% Figure 7: Share of female farm managers in 1997 % women

15 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 15 Economic size < 4 ESU >= 40 ESU Farm managers Women ( 6 ) 68% 14% 8% 6% 3% Men ( 6 ) 52% 15% 12% 11% 9% Table 1: Distribution of farm managers, % 15% 0% EU 15 (1997) 19% = 40 ESU Figure 8: Economic size of holdings managed by women in 1997 ( 6 ) % women 15 Women farm managers European average 19% 4% 10% 14% 19% 23% 28% 10% 14% 19% 23% 28% 41% Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Map 5: Share of women managing holdings in 1997

16 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina % of women are under 45 The agricultural population is growing older. In 1997 in EU-15, 21 people in 100 working on farms were under 35 and 21 were over 65. In 1980 in EU-9, there were as many young people (21%) but fewer older people (16 %). The percentage of women is not the same as that of men in all age-classes. Proportionally, there are fewer women under 35 and over 65 (Table 2). The under 35-year-olds spend more time with their children. After they reach 65 they give up hard, physical labour sooner than men do. It is between the ages of 35 and 65 that women do most of their work on farms. The agricultural population, female as well as male, is oldest in the southern European countries. Out of 100 women working on farms in the European Union, 42 are over 55. Between countries, the contrasts are significant. While the numbers above that age out of 100 are 46 in Portugal, 48 in Greece and 49 in Italy, they are only 22 in Finland, 23 in the Netherlands and 27 in Denmark (Figure 9). 100% B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UKEU-15 80% 60% 40% 20% >65 years years years years <35 years 0% Figure 9: Share of women by age class (number of persons) in 1997 NL, S, UK: 1995 data % women

17 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 17 By number of persons Farm managers Women % Men % < 35 years years years 18% 18% 22% 22% 17% 19% years 23% 21% >= 65 years 19% 21% Combined 100% 100% Table 2: Distribution, by age class, of population working in agriculture in EU-15 in 1997 Women over 65 European average 19% 2% 11% 13% 19% 23% 27% 11% 13% 19% 23% 27% 37% Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Maps 6: Age of women working in agriculture in 1997 NL, S, UK: 1995 data

18 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina One woman in two is the spouse of a holder Agricultural holdings are operated by holders and their day-to-day management may be entrusted to a farm manager. The majority of farms in the European Union are family enterprises run by a couple. Traditionally, the husband fills the two roles of holder and farm manager. The status of the woman is then that of spouse. The population of spouses is fairly disparate. Out of 3.25 million people declaring themselves as the spouse of a holder, 80 % are women. As a result, nearly one woman in two working in farming (48 %) is recorded as the spouse of a holder. There are historical and cultural reasons for the very high number of women spouses. It is relatively uniform at not less than two thirds across the EU, varying from 66 % (Spain) and 72 % (France) to 94 % (Ireland) and 97 % (the Netherlands). When a husband retires, a woman farmer may be encouraged to become the holder under the social legislation in force in certain countries, and give up the status of spouse. While spouses make up 22 % of the total agricultural workforce, they provide only 18 % of the volume of work recorded. They often work part time. Ten out of 100 spouses work full time and 71 work less than half time. On average, women who are spouses are relatively young. Ten percent are under 35 and 62 % under 55. In six EU countries this proportion is more than 75 % and in Finland, Austria and France it is 85 %. 100% B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UKEU-15 80% 60% 40% 20% >65 years years years <35 years 0% Figure 10: Distribution of female spouses in different age classes (% AWU) in 1997 % Women

19 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Women spouses of holders European average 80% 44% 69% 75% 80% 89% 92% 69% 75% 80% 89% 92% 99% Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Map 7: Share of women spouses of holders in 1997

20 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Permanent employees provide two thirds of female labour The number of people in paid agricultural employment is 1.05 million, i.e. 7.1 % of the total population working on farms. Women make up nearly one quarter of this population (23 %). Women s share of paid employment measured in annual work units (AWUs) is fairly stable over time but varies considerably from country to country. It is small in Greece (4.5 % of employees are women), Ireland (7.7 %), Italy (9.6 %) and Spain (10.3 %). In Portugal it is larger (29.1 %). In Austria, Germany and Denmark it is also around 30 % and in Finland it is over 40 %. The 7.1 % of wage-earners provide 12.2 % of the volume of agricultural work recorded on holdings. Their unit working time is higher on average than for other categories. While holders or family members provide 0.42 AWU on average, permanent employees supply for the farms on which they work, all kinds included, 0.79 AWU. The difference is similar for women s share of the two populations (0.35 AWU and 0.73 AWU respectively). Women employees seldom work part time. In all, 28 % of them work less than half-time. Two employees in three work full-time. Women employees mainly work fulltime (48 %) and provide 67 % of the volume of paid work done by women. 100% B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UKEU-15 80% 60% 40% 20% >65 years years years years <35 years 0% Figure 11: Distribution of women employees in different age classes (% AWU) in 1997 NL, S, UK: 1995 data % women

21 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Compared with women farmers as a whole, women employees are younger; only 11 % of them are 55 or over, and 44 % are under 35. In some countries the differences are greater. In Portugal one woman employee in five is 55 or over, while in seven Member States the majority are under 35 and in two the percentage is over 60 %: Ireland (63 %) and Denmark (65 %). Women permanent employees European average 23% 0% 9% 15% 23% 29% 34% 9% 15% 23% 29% 34% 67% Maps: Eurostat Source: Eurostat Map 8: Share of women permanent employees in agriculture in 1997

22 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Women in rural areas in two Member States SPAIN Spain has around 5 million women living in rural areas, i.e. around 15 % of the total population. They are concentrated mainly in Galicia, Andalusia and Castile-Leon, the three autonomous communities which together account for 50 % of all Spanish women working in farming. The standard profile is of a married woman of 50 with 2.3 children on average who devotes eight hours a day to household tasks and has around five hours more for her other professional activities. It is important to make a clear distinction between women living in rural areas and those with a job in agriculture. The latter category includes, alongside a million men who are farmers, only women having the legal status of farmer. This figure has remained low in recent years: only 6 % of women who work do so in farming, i.e. a quarter of jobs, according to a labour survey conducted in the first quarter of On the other hand, if the help given on holdings by family members is included, 82 % of women are involved. However, 59 % of them pay no social security, but benefit from their husband s contributions. Fewer than 9 % of holdings are managed by women and these are smaller than those run by men. The numbers owning holdings of under a hectare are 45 women for every 100 men; the rate falls to 18 women for every 100 men for owners of holdings of more than a hundred hectares. Only one in five grants given by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food to modernise holdings goes to a woman and it is those in Galicia who have been the most successful, receiving 27 % of the total allocation. The average grant requested by a woman is ESP 3.5 million, about a half million less than requested by a man. Women modernising their farms invest ESP less than men. Their average age is 40 and the younger they are the higher the amount they apply for. In 1996, the joblessness rate for women working in agriculture was close to 27 %. A feature of women s jobs in farming is their lack of permanence as shown by the high rate of temporary and part-time work (17 % for women as against 2.7 % for men).

23 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Official statistics do not reflect the work done by women on farms. As they have no proper legal or official social status, they cannot receive a wage or qualify for appropriate social cover, or receive unemployment, accident or maternity allowances. In France, Austria, Finland and Sweden these women receive legal recognition through the status of spouse-collaborator. This remains one of the ongoing claims of women in rural life areas of Spain. AMFAR Nacional, 2000 FRANCE Training for women playing an active role in rural development On the basis of an understanding of the needs of the countryside and the potential of the women living there, various types of training schemes have been organised for 10 years in the Picardy region (northern France). The women in question were not looking for jobs or an income. They had time on their hands and know-how and were seeking a more intensive social life, greater responsibility or a change of direction after the years devoted to rearing children. A video on Working women was made in In all 400 copies were circulated in France and stimulated demand. They were partly responsible for the setting up, in 1993, of a training agency, ASTER (Actrices sociales des territoires européens ruraux), a testing ground for regional training schemes to run projects fostering local development but also a European network for exchanges of practice making it possible for women in rural areas to become development operators, in association with the fourth Community action programme on equal opportunities for men and women.

24 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina Training for women at Thiérache took shape in 1998 as part of a regional project targeting a population of spread across 68 municipalities in Picardy and covering social, economic and cultural development. An adult training centre, the Collège coopératif de Paris, and ASTER provided back-up for the training of women playing an active role in rural development by bringing together 15 women aged between 20 and 60 with an idea they wished to develop as a project. The main aims were: to alert the institutional partners to the issues raised by the role of women in local development; to renew local élites using female potential, to respond to emerging social demands for services and activities as well as the personal aspirations of volunteers; to break the habit of always acting in emergencies, by encouraging leaders who are able to be independent, responsible and liberated. Training sessions alternated with thematic days and workshops devoted to drafting projects focusing mainly on tourism, agricultural diversification and making the most of the natural and historic heritage. Explaining the original idea and developing it as a project called for greater understanding of oneself, of one s abilities and experience, of the institutions and of the local partners. Most of the women, many of whom had not done well at school, will go on to act as project leaders and be able at the same time to validate their experience by obtaining a Higher Diploma in Social Studies. In addition to providing training for individuals and validating the women s experience, the training gave a collective impetus which will enrich the region. The experiment encouraged women to become more mobile in spatial, social and mental terms, and to make the switch from working within the home to working outside it. It contributed at the same time to personal and regional development.

25 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 25 Women farmers in some of the candidate countries 25 POLAND In Poland, farms are operated by individuals and are almost entirely family-run (99 % of labour is provided by family members). In 2000, the Farm Structure Survey put the number of women working on farms at 2.4 million, or 47 % of the total agricultural workforce, as against 37 % for the European average in Almost one woman in two working on farms is the spouse of the farm manager, compared with one man in 10 (Table 3). The total volume of labour provided is 2.3 million AWUs, with women supplying nearly half. Women s share of work is smaller on large holdings (ranging from 51 % for farms of under 1 ha to 34 % for those of over 100 ha). In EU-15 in 1997, women s share represented 39 % for holdings of under 2 ha and 18 % for those over 100 ha. Only 14 % of women and 22 % of men work full-time. More women work less than one-quarter time (61 % as against 54 %). Three women in 10 are farm managers compared with two in 10 in EU-15 in The share falls with the size of farms. Over 40 % of women manage farms of under 1 ha. Fewer than 4 % manage holdings of over 50 ha (Figure 12). Three-quarters of women managers are responsible for holdings of under 3 ha. 100% 80% Women Men 60% 40% 20% Average = 29.5 % women 0% < 1 ha >= 100 ha Figure 12: Holders by economic size of holdings % number of persons

26 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 26 30% Women 26 Holders Spouses Other family members Employees Total Women 28.6% 46.6% 24.1% 0.7% 100% Men 61.6% 10.3% 26.7% 1.4% 100% Total 46.0% 27.5% 25.5% 1.0% 100% 20% 10% < >= 65 years Men Table 3: Polish labour force Figure 13: Age of holders by gender % number of persons Only two women in 10 have received full agricultural training compared with almost six men in 10. The percentage of the workforce that has received agricultural training rises with the size of the holding, and the proportion of women remains smaller than that of men. Up to the age of 55, male farm managers are relatively more numerous than female (Figure 13). After 65, the share of women is almost double that of men (27 % against 14 %). HUNGARY In 2000, according to the general farm survey, one person in five worked in agriculture (full- or part-time). The agricultural workforce comprised nearly 2 million people, made up almost exclusively of family members. Half of these were women, as against 37 % for the European Union in Almost half of this agricultural workforce (47 %) consisted of farm managers, one quarter of them women. The average age of these women farmers was 60, or seven years more than for men. The other half of the workforce consisted of spouses (almost exclusively women), other family members (one in two a woman) and a small number of paid employees (Table 4). The volume of work provided by women was AWUs, or 45 % of the total. In EU-15 in 1997, women s share of the volume in AWUs was 31 %. Agricultural labour is relatively well balanced among the different age classes for both men and women (Figure 14). 23 % of women and 25 % of men are under 35, as against 22 % and 19 % respectively over 65. Almost one woman in three has no professional training 30% compared with 27 % of men. Most male and female Women farm managers have received basic agricultural training Men (64 % and 66 % respectively). Secondary-level and 20% university education are rare although slightly more common among men (Table 5). The years 1993 and 1994 saw a widespread and rapid 10% decline in the agricultural workforce, especially in the case of men. < >= 65 years Figure 14: Age of population working in agriculture % number of persons

27 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 27 Women Men Total Women Men Holders Spouses Other family members Employees Total 23% 55% 20% 2% 100% 71% 4% 22% 3% 100% Table 4: Agricultural labour force 47% 29% 21% 3% 100% No experience Basic training Second-level training University-level training 31% 66% 2% 1% Table 5: Training of holders 27% 64% 7% 2% 27 From 1994 to 1997, the job situation for men improved slightly, while the number of women in work fell. It has risen since 1998 as a result of new jobs being created in other sectors of the economy. SLOVENIA In June 2000, Slovenia had a workforce of almost working on holdings. The size of these farms is very small: 60 % cover an area of less than 5 ha and the economic size of over half of them is less than 2 ESUs. Their importance, nevertheless, to the economy of rural areas is considerable since 3.7 people on average live on them and 2.9 people are employed there. The majority of Slovenian holdings specialise in livestock farming, in particular the rearing of dairy cattle and the production of fodder for their own needs. Women assisting a farm manager make up 48 % of those employed in agriculture but only 19 % are managers in their own right. Women s share of total agricultural labour is 60 %, as against 37 % for EU-15 in One in two women farm managers works half time, while 12 % of women, including managers, work full time. The holdings of women managers are smaller than those of men: 56 % of them manage farms of under 2 ESU compared with 44 % of their male counterparts. Only 5 % of women manage large holdings (farms of over 8 ESUs) compared with 12 % for men (Figure 15). Practical experience Basic training Full agricultural training No reply UAA < 10 ha M (%) W (%) Table 6: Training of managers UAA 10 ha M (%) W (%) % 40% 20% Women Men 9.5 0% < >= 40 UDE 1.8 Figure 15: Farm managers by gender and economic size class % managers

28 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina % 30% 20% 10% Women Men < >= 65 years Figure 16: Age of managers by gender % number of persons The majority of holders have practical training only (Table 6). On holdings of less than 10 ha, nine women managers in ten have only practical experience and no agricultural training. As a rule, managers with holdings of 10 ha or over have received a higher level of training. Overall, however, the level of training is low. Women with university or higher-level training make up 10 % of women managers of large holdings but only 3 % in the case of smaller ones. The age of farm managers is relatively high (Figure 16). Those over 65 account for 32 in 100 (28 in the case of men and 43 for women). The share of young farm managers (under 35) is only 5.2 % (6 % for men and 4 % for women). In the EU in 1997, the percentages for those under 35 and those over 65 were 20 % and 21 % respectively of the total agricultural population. BULGARIA In 2000, the population of Bulgaria was 8.15 million. 3.5 million people lived in rural areas, half of them women. In 2000, the Bulgarian Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry recorded 1.4 million people working on farms, of whom 39 % were women. The volume of work done by women amounted to AWUs, or 30 % of the total. In EU-15 in 1997, 37 % of women provided 31 % of the total volume of labour. One-quarter declared agriculture as their main or only activity and only 3 % received payment. Women account for 16 % of farm managers as against 19 % in EU-15 in The large majority (84 %) have no agricultural training. The status of most women working on farms is that of holder s spouse. Small holdings, producing for their own needs, on average employ two people (as a rule a farm manager and spouse). Two out of three women working on these farms are aged over 55. Only 5 % of women with jobs in agriculture work on professional holdings (producing for the market) managed by individuals. In most cases they receive no remuneration. On production units organised as legal persons (including cooperatives), women make up one quarter of total labour and receive payment in 80 % of cases. Nearly one woman in four working on professional holdings is aged between 50 and 54 but after 55 their numbers decline rapidly (Figure 17). 30% natural persons legal persons or others 20% Retirement age 10% 0% < >= 70 years Figure 17: Women on Bulgarian holdings by age class % women

29 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 29 CZECH REPUBLIC 29 In 2000, the number of people with jobs in agriculture was , of whom 35.3 % were women. Technically speaking, one woman in three managed a holding (as holder or manager). Only 4 % of women were the spouse of a holder, unlike in the EU where the share of spouses is close to 50 %. By contrast, six women in ten have the status of permanent employee compared with just over one man in two. These comparisons with the EU need to be treated with caution, however, as the definitions have not yet been standardised (Table 7). Women working in farming under the age of 35 and especially over 55 are fewer in number than men. By contrast, 46 % of women are aged between 45 and 54 as against 36 % of men (Figure 18). 25% 20% Women Men 15% 10% 5% 0% < >= 65 years Figure 18: Age of population working in agriculture by gender % number of persons Holders and farm managers Individual holders Spouses Other family members Employees Total Women 31.7% 3.6% 4.2% 1.0% 59.5% 100% Table 7: Agricultural labour force Men 34.3% 11.4% 0.4% 1.6% 52.3% 100%

30 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina LITHUANIA In 2000, women played a major role in Lithuanian working life, making up half of the total workforce. The agriculture sector employs people, or 19.6 % of the total workforce for all sectors. It comprises agriculture, hunting, forestry and fisheries. Women with jobs in farming produce 40 % of the volume of labour (Figure 19). According to the register of holdings, almost half are managed by women (47 %). 1,8 1,5 1,2 0,9 0,6 0,3 0 Women Men Agriculture All sectors Figure 19: Lithuanian labour force Number of persons (million) ROMANIA In 2000 in Romania, the workforce survey put the number working in agriculture at 4.5 million, or 42 % of the total labour force. For women the percentage was 45 %. 2.3 million women are employed on farms, i.e. half the total workforce. Almost two thirds of them work as family members and only 3 % have the status of employee (Table 8). More than half of women working in agriculture are over 50 and only 11 % are under 25 (Table 9). Women Women Employee Holder Family member Member of holding 3% 32% 64% 1% years years years years 65 years and over 11% 15% 20% 30% 24% Table 8: Professional status Table 9: Age

31 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 31 MALTA 31 Agricultural holdings in Malta are traditionally family run. Between 1990 and 2000, the percentage of women working on farms remained relatively stable. Women accounted for 13 % of the volume of labour in AWUs, against 31 % in EU-15 in In that period, women s contribution fell from AWU to 945 AWU, a fall of 7.3 % compared with one of 7.7 % for men. One-quarter of women employed on farms work full-time and three-quarters work part-time. Only 13 % of women do seasonal work and 3 % are unpaid (Figure 21). In the European Union in 1997, only 12 % of women worked full time and 72 % preferred half-time or quarter-time work. In 2000, almost 30 % of women who worked did so full-time compared with one quarter in In agriculture, the volume of work done by women working full-time declined from 264 AWU to 237 AWU. In relative terms, however, one in four of them are still working full-time. The percentage of men working full-time, on the other hand, is slightly up (Figure 20). The ratio between women working full-time in agriculture and in the economy as a whole fell from 0.85 % in 1990 to 0.57 % in Full-time work declined in agriculture but rose in other branches of the economy. 32% 30% 3,1% 13,1% 58,8% Full time 28% 27% 25% Women Men Part time Seasonal labour 23% 22% ,1% Unpaid labour Figure 20: Changes in full-time work in agriculture % full-time labour Figure 21: Female employment in agriculture in Malta in 2000

32 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina CYPRUS Women have traditionally played an important role in agriculture in Cyprus where farms for the most part are family run. Labour provided by family members accounts for 80 % of the total compared with 93 % in EU-15 in Women are involved principally in the growing of field crops and livestock rearing. In 1999, they made up 16.5 % of the total workforce and supplied 15 % of the volume of labour in AWUs. Women working in agriculture made up 3 % of the working population of the country. Almost people worked on farms. The female workforce, whether made up of family members or employees, represented over a third of the total population working on farms (Figure 22). Paid labour 11,7% 7,9% 50,8% Women Men Women Men 29,5% Family labour Figure 22: Distribution of labour in Cyprus (number of persons)

33 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 33 Annex: Statistical tables 33 Permanent labour force ( ooo persons) O Women P Men 1979/ / /2000 ( 8 ) O P O P O P O P %O O P %O EU % EU % EU % B % % DK % % D % % EL : : % % E : : % % F % % IRL % I % L % % NL % % A : : : : : : % % P : : % % FIN : : : : : : % S : : : : : : % % UK % % Volume of work provided by permanent labour force ( ooo AWU) 1979/ / /2000 ( 8 ) O P O P O P O P %O O P %O EU % EU % EU % B % % DK % % D % % EL : : % E : : % % F % % IRL % I % L % % NL % % A : : : : : : % % P : : % % FIN : : : : : : % S : : : : : : % % UK % ( 8 ) Data for 1999/2000 are mainly provisional

34 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 34 Farm managers L01+L01a: farm managers manager and non manager ( ooo persons) / /2000 ( 8 ) O P O P O P %O O P %O EU % EU % EU % B % % DK % % D % % EL % % E % % F % % IRL % I % L % % NL % % A : : : : % % P % % FIN : : : : % S : : : : % % UK % % Permanent labour force by age class L01+L04: ( ooo persons) <35 years years years years >= 65 years Total 1997 O P O P O P O P O P O P EU EU EU B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL : : : : : : : : : : A P FIN S : : : : : : : : : : : : UK : : : : : : : : : : : : 1999/2000 ( 8 ) DK : : : : : : : : : : : : F L NL : : : : : : : : : : P S : : : : : : : : : : : :

35 952037_Binnen_EN :58 Pagina 35 Permanent labour force by working time class L01 to L04: ( ooo persons) >0-<25 >25-<50 50-<75 75-< Total 1997 O P O P O P O P O P O P EU EU EU B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UK /2000 ( 8 ) B DK D E F L NL A P S UK Permanent female labour force by type of farming L01 to L04 ( % number of persons) EU-15 31% 37% 40% 37% 35% 41% 39% 37% 32% 38% 33% 34% 41% 42% 36% 36% 37% 37% B 29% 30% 41% : 32% : 25% 36% 33% 36% 29% 40% 36% 38% 41% 34% 37% 35% DK 21% 24% 56% : 41% : 49% 26% 31% 29% 31% 22% 24% 27% 22% 25% 23% 28% D 25% 30% 50% 37% 34% : 34% 39% 32% 37% 31% 38% 34% 37% 36% 34% 35% 35% EL 40% 44% 42% 41% 41% 46% 44% 36% 37% 38% 41% 38% 45% 46% 43% 43% 43% 44% E 19% 25% 32% 30% 27% 33% 30% 42% 32% 44% 30% 24% 33% 44% 27% 36% 32% 30% F 30% 31% 39% 34% 31% 37% 29% 37% 34% 36% 34% 35% 35% 36% 36% 34% 33% 34% IRL 21% 20% 14% : 0% : : 31% 28% 31% 29% 27% 29% 29% 28% 28% 25% 29% I 37% 40% 37% 38% 39% 42% 40% 36% 32% 37% 34% 33% 41% 38% 35% 38% 38% 39% L 33% 33% 41% 37% 0% : 23% 37% 38% 37% 34% 33% 25% 33% 33% 36% 33% 36% NL 23% 27% 38% : 36% : 27% 33% 31% 30% 27% 35% 36% 32% 34% 28% 35% 33% A 40% 41% 53% 45% 41% : 40% 43% 40% 42% 37% 42% 42% 43% 42% 42% 42% 42% P 37% 47% 49% 46% 45% 47% 47% 47% 45% 48% 44% 46% 49% 48% 48% 47% 46% 47% FIN 30% 35% 45% : 43% : 41% 39% 34% 38% 42% 39% 43% 42% 41% 37% 39% 37% S 27% 31% 43% : 37% : 40% 35% 33% 32% 38% 35% 36% 34% 35% 35% 30% 33% UK 18% 21% 46% 40% 39% : 35% 23% 25% 24% 30% 28% 32% 23% 30% 21% 22% 26% 1999/2000 ( 8 ) B 29% 29% 41% : 33% : 27% 35% 32% 35% 28% 40% 37% 38% 42% 33% 37% 31% DK 22% 22% 10% : 24% : 10% 23% 26% 22% 33% 18% 22% 23% 22% 25% 21% 21% D 29% 33% 50% 38% 36% : 36% 41% 33% 40% 34% 40% 36% 39% 38% 36% 36% 30% F 30% 31% 35% 39% 34% 30% 30% 36% 33% 35% 34% 36% 34% 35% 35% 32% 29% 43% L 33% 40% 38% 38% 0% : 17% 37% 36% 37% 36% 33% 33% 40% 33% 36% 20% 36% NL 26% 29% 39% : 36% : 27% 35% 32% 30% 27% 33% 34% 34% 35% 28% 35% 33% A 42% 43% 53% 44% 45% : 43% 45% 43% 44% 39% 45% 44% 45% 44% 44% 44% 31% P 39% 48% 50% 46% 45% 48% 47% 46% 43% 46% 44% 46% 48% 49% 48% 47% 47% 43% S 27% 32% 42% : 38% : 37% 34% 33% 33% 39% 35% 35% 34% 33% 35% 31% 32%