Lentil Production Manual

Transcription

1 Lentil Production Manual

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3 Index 2 Plant Description 5 Adaptation 8 Variety Selection 13 Field Selection and Preparation 17 Production 18 Method of Seeding 18 Seed Quality 22 Seed Treatment 20 Inoculation 24 Fertility 27 Seeder (Equipment) Setup 27 Seeding Rate 27 Row Spacing 28 Seeding Depth and Time of Seeding 28 Rolling 30 Disease and Pest Control 31 In-crop Weed Control 32 Disease Management 43 Insect Management 45 Non-Pest Disorders 49 Harvest Management 54 Post-Harvest Storage and Handling 3

4 Quick Facts Lentil plants are typically short, but can range from 20 to 75 centimetres (cm) in height, depending on growing conditions. Lentil plants have an indeterminate growth habit. This indeterminate growth habit is most predominant in late maturity group varieties. Up to five aerial branches may develop on the main stem. 2

5 Plant Description Lentil plants are typically short, but can range from 20 to 75 centimetres (cm) in height, depending on growing conditions. The lentil cotyledons remain under the ground after germination. The first two nodes on the stem develop below, or at the soil surface and are known as scale nodes (Figure 1). If young lentil seedlings are injured by late spring frost, heat canker, or wind damage, the plants will re-grow from a scale node below the soil surface. The third node on the stem is the usual site of the first leaf development. Lentil seedlings can produce a new node every four to five days under good growing conditions. Leaves are about 5 cm long with nine to 15 leaflets. Just prior to flowering, new leaves will develop a short tendril at the leaf tip. At this time, the first flower clusters can be seen developing at the base of the leaves. produce two or more primary shoots from the base of the stem. However, the main contribution to seed yield is made by secondary (aerial) branches that arise from the uppermost nodes of the main stem just below the first flowering node. Up to five aerial branches may develop on the main stem. When growing conditions are suitable for extremely high yield, the secondary branches also produce additional seed-bearing branches. Flowers that form after the first week of August may not produce filled seeds by harvest. Lentil plants have an indeterminate growth habit. Plants continue to flower until they encounter some form of stress, such as drought, heat, frost, nitrogen deficiency, mechanical damage, or chemical desiccation. This indeterminate growth habit is most predominant in late maturity group varieties, but all current lentil varieties have indeterminate growth habit. Flowers are self pollinated. The first few flowers on the main stem may abort. This can occur if conditions favour excessive vegetative growth over seed production, for example, good moisture combined with high nitrogen fertility. Flower stalks produce one to three flowers, which develops pods. Pods are less than 2.5 cm in length and usually contain one or two seeds. Vigorously growing lentil plants with adequate space will 3

6 Figure 1. Lentil seedling Source: Pulse Production Manual

7 Quick Facts Lentil is a cool season crop with a relatively shallow root system (0.6 metres [m]) and is moderately resistant to high temperature and drought. In Saskatchewan, lentil is best adapted to the Brown and Dark Brown soil zones. Excess moisture aggravates disease problems and greatly delays maturity. Lentil plants do not tolerate waterlogged soils and will die if flooded. 7 5

8 Adaptation Lentil is a cool season crop with a relatively shallow root system (0.6 metres [m]) and is moderately resistant to high temperature and drought. Lentil requires at least moderate moisture; 15 to 25 cm during the growing season to produce a full seed set. Due to its indeterminate growth habit, lentil will often continue to flower as long as growing conditions remain favourable for vegetative growth. Therefore, low moisture or low nitrogen stress is required to encourage seed set and hasten maturity. Excess moisture before the plant is in full bloom can delay and reduce seed set. Excess moisture near the time of harvest encourages the spread of fungal diseases. Lentil does best on level or slightly rolling land in soil with ph levels of 6.0 to 8.0, and will not tolerate water-logging, flooding, or soils with high salinity. In Saskatchewan, lentil is best adapted to the Brown and Dark Brown soil zones. With the introduction of new market classes and breeding of more determinate varieties (red and small green varieties), lentil production has extended into the Thin Black and Black soil zones. In the Brown, Dark Brown, Moist Dark Brown, and Thin Black soil zones, lentil grown on stubble tends to receive sufficient moisture stress needed to reduce the time to maturity, prevent excessive vegetative growth, and reduce the risk of damage from early fall frost. In the Moist Black and Grey soil zones it is often too wet for consistent production of high quality lentil. Excess moisture aggravates disease problems and greatly delays maturity. The shorter growing season can also be a limitation, especially for late maturing varieties. Irrigated lentil production requires knowledge of dryland lentil production, as well as specific knowledge of irrigation requirements. A variety with a strong indeterminate growth habit often results in excess vegetative growth and low seed yields. Early maturing varieties are more determinate, and more suited to irrigated production. Lentil plants do not tolerate waterlogged soils and will die if flooded. Dense lentil canopies favour the spread of several diseases and increase the severity of disease. The highest lentil yields are obtained with an application of 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 in) of total water, the exact amount depending on rainfall and the rate of evaporation. It is important to avoid water accumulation on the surface and water logging of the soil, especially at seeding time. Irrigation of 2 cm to 3 cm in early June may be used to prevent stunting (short plants), and lower yield from drought stress. Irrigation is usually avoided between late June and mid-july, as slight moisture stress for a brief period after the onset of flowering encourages seed set. Irrigation should be avoided for at least two weeks after spraying with metribuzin to avoid leaching it into the lentil rooting zone where it can cause damage. Yield reductions are usually associated with excessive vegetative growth and delayed maturity. When grown under irrigation, lentil should be seeded early and shallow to promote early emergence. Seeding rate and row spacing recommendations for dryland production are suitable for irrigated production. Higher seeding rates increase the risk of disease. Irrigation increases 86

9 disease pressure and risk of diseases such as ascochyta, anthracnose, and sclerotinia stem rot. Lentil planted in rotation with mustard, canola, lentil, pea, sunflower, or faba bean in the previous four years will have increased chance of being infected by sclerotinia. 7

10 Quick Facts Lentil is classified into two groups by seed size. The large seeded type has a seed size that averages 50 grams or more per 1000 seeds. The small-seeded type has a seed size which averages 40 grams or less per 1000 seeds. Early lentil production in Saskatchewan focused on the large green market class. Green lentil market classes typically have yellow cotyledons with green seed coats and are described as large, medium, and small. Red lentil varieties typically have grey seed coats with red cotyledons and are described as extra small, small, and medium Varieties with the Clearfield trait are a recent development. This trait allows use of imidazolinone herbicides that cause injury to conventional lentils. Maturity becomes very important in areas where moisture is abundant, temperatures are cooler, and the growing season is shorter. Herbicide tolerance is another varietal characteristic to consider. Crop insurance coverage may also influence variety choice.

11 Variety Selection Historically, lentil is classified into two groups by seed size. The large seeded type has a seed size that averages 50 grams or more per 1000 seeds. The small-seeded type has a seed size which averages 40 grams or less per 1000 seeds. Seed coat colours range from clear to green, tan, brown, grey, blotched purple, or black. The cotyledons can be yellow, red, or green. The different combinations of seed coat and cotyledon colours determine specific market classes preferred by consumers. Early lentil production in Saskatchewan focused on the large green market class. Crop breeding and market development efforts have evolved to the point where there are now many different sizes and market classes. Visit for the most up to date variety listing. Green lentil market classes typically have yellow cotyledons with green seed coats and are described as large, medium, and small. About 75 per cent of the green lentils are large-seeded and about 20 per cent are classified as small greens. Green lentil is mostly sold as whole seed. Red lentil varieties typically have grey seed coats with red cotyledons. Red lentil is sold as whole seeds, dehulled seeds, or as dehulled split seeds, and described as large, small, and extra small market classes. Figure 2. Large green lentils Photo: David Stobbe Figure 3. Medium green lentils Photo: David Stobbe 9

12 Figure 4. Small green lentils Photo: David Stobbe Figure 6. Medium red lentils Photo: David Stobbe Figure 5. Dehulled green lentils Photo: David Stobbe Figure 7. Small red lentils Photo: David Stobbe 10

13 Figure 8. Extra small red lentils Photo: David Stobbe Figure 10. Black lentils Photo: David Stobbe Figure 9. Split red lentils Photo: David Stobbe Figure 11. French lentils Photo: David Stobbe 11

14 Varieties with the Clearfield trait are a recent development. This trait allows use of imidazolinone herbicides that cause injury to conventional lentils. Although a Clearfield variety usually has a conventional variety that is almost identical, the Clearfield variety may mature sooner because it will not be set back by herbicide application, as compared to the conventional variety. Specialty market classes of lentils are grown in much of Saskatchewan in small volumes. Indianhead is a black-seeded lentil originally intended for use as a green manure or plow down crop, and more recently has been marketed as a Beluga Lentil. King Red (CDC KR-1) is a specialty red lentil market class with a large seed size. Small quantities of varieties of the French green, Spanish brown (CDC SB-s), and green cotyledon (Queen Green) market classes are produced. A type of lentil known as zero tannin (CDC Gold) has occasionally been produced in very limited quantities. Determining market demand is the first step in variety selection. Market demand for a particular class or variety can change over time. Check with buyers to determine their needs. Smaller niche markets exist for specific lentil varieties and not all buyers are interested in handling all varieties. Maturity becomes very important in areas where moisture is abundant, temperatures are cooler, and the growing season is shorter. Keep in mind that actual days to maturity is strongly affected by environmental conditions. Most large green varieties require early seeding because they are relatively late maturing and indeterminate. They produce tall plants that can be prone to lodging, and are susceptible to sclerotinia and botrytis (grey mould) infestations in high rainfall areas. Herbicide tolerance is another varietal characteristic to consider, although only one herbicide tolerant trait is currently available (Clearfield ). The present convention for these varieties is to have a CL suffix. Clearfield lentil varieties have resistance to Odyssey, Odyssey DLX, and Solo herbicides. Yield is an obvious consideration within a market class. However, other characteristics such as disease tolerance, maturity, or harvestability can quickly overshadow potential yield gains if the plant is limited in reaching its full potential. Disease resistance is an extremely important factor in variety selection. Ascochyta and anthracnose are the two diseases with the potential to cause the highest yield and quality loss. Good is the best rating assigned in the variety table, but even this is an intermediate level of resistance. The resistance rating assigned for anthracnose is only for Race 1. An integrated approach to disease management is required as the crop will still become infected with these diseases if spores (inoculum) are present. Lodging in lentil can lead to increased disease, reduced yield, and lower crop quality and is particularly important in environments that experience cool, wet weather during the growing season. More recent varieties have improvements in lodging tolerance, resulting in better harvestability and disease avoidance (sclerotinia, botrytis). Research conducted at the Crop Development Centre (CDC) has developed a screening protocol for lodging selection in breeding nurseries to assist when lodging is not well expressed. This will improve consistency of selections for lodging resistance. Crop insurance coverage may also influence variety choice. Saskatchewan Crop Insurance Corporation offers coverage for lentil production provided that varieties selected appear in the current recommended list. Your area must have a sufficient number of frost-free days after the seeding date for coverage to be offered. 12

15 Quick Facts Fields that are relatively rock free with level terrain are ideally suited to lentil production. Lentil is susceptible to soil residues of many herbicides commonly used (in-crop and pre-seed) in Saskatchewan. Perennial weeds such as Canada thistle, dandelion, perennial sow thistle, and quackgrass are very competitive in any crop and even more so in a noncompetitive crop like lentil. Crop rotation goes beyond disease considerations and weed control (including volunteer crop). Crop rotation can influence both the lentil crop and the crop(s) following lentil. Remember to consider volunteer crops as weeds. Disruption of disease cycles is critical. 13

16 Field Selection and Preparation Given the lentil plant s short stature and the need to cut near ground level to capture all the pods, the physical condition of the field is important. Fields that are relatively rock free with level terrain are ideally suited to lentil production. However, land rollers and harvesting equipment modifications of adding cutter bar flexibility now allow lentil production on land that may not be considered ideal. Newer varieties have increased height and improved lodging tolerance. Lentil does not handle water saturated soils well so be sure to choose a field with good drainage. Perennial weeds such as Canada thistle, dandelion, perennial sow thistle, and quackgrass are very competitive in any crop and even more so in a non-competitive crop like lentil. Herbicides currently registered in lentil have little to no effect on most of these weeds. It is very important to control perennial weeds in the year(s) prior to seeding lentil. Good weed control in lentil requires a long-term strategy involving the entire crop rotation. A pre-harvest glyphosate application, in years when the crop and timing allows, is a key component of long-term perennial weed control. Ensure herbicides are available to control non-perennial weeds expected to be competing with the crop. This requires knowledge of the field s weed history including herbicide resistance weeds if they are present. Few herbicides are registered for broadleaf weed control in lentil and in-crop control options may not exist for certain weeds. Remember to consider volunteer crops as weeds as well. Lentil is not a competitive crop and if a certain weed is likely to be present in high numbers and cannot be controlled, field selection may have to change. The introduction of Clearfield lentil has been a great asset for post-emergent weed control, but the herbicides registered in this system still have limitations. In addition to pre and post-harvest glyphosate for perennial weed control, fall weed control options should be reviewed to determine if they offer any advantages. Late fall application of a phenoxy herbicide such as 2,4-D or MCPA to control winter annual weeds such as flaxweed, stinkweed and shepherd s purse. The maximum rate applied should be 280g ai/ha or 113g ai/ac (8 active ounces). Since lentil is seeded early and spring application of glyphosate is common, application of a phenoxy in the fall prior to seeding lentil is no longer a common practice. 2,4-D may be cheaper compared to glyphosate and also offers a way of diversifying the herbicide mix on a particular field over time. This practice may fit in fields where seeding is delayed or in fields where very early spring weed growth is expected. Edge and trifluralin products are Group 3 herbicides and provide control of some annual broadleaf and grassy weeds. Labels of these products state they must be applied as granular formulations in the fall only and must be incorporated at least once in the fall according to product labels. Non-herbicide weed management practices should be integrated where possible. Chaff collection has a significant effect on seed dispersal. For example, over 70 per cent of wild 16 14

17 oat seeds are ejected from the combine in chaff. Chaff collection should be considered as part of an integrated weed management program to slow the spread of weed invasions. Lentil is susceptible to soil residues of many herbicides commonly used (in-crop and pre-seed) in Saskatchewan. The Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture s Weed Control Guide provides a listing of re-cropping restrictions for residual herbicides in lentil. Always follow label recommendations. If the possibility exists that a soil residual product might affect lentil growth, a test plot should be planted the year before lentil is grown in that field. The plot should be grown to maturity to ensure that there are no late season herbicide effects on yield or crop quality. Another option is to submit soil samples to a lab for a bioassay. However, bioassay results from laboratories are only as good as the sampling protocol used to collect the soil samples and 100 per cent accuracy cannot be guaranteed. False positive results do no harm, but a false negative could mean crop damage or failure. Disruption of disease cycles is critical. Lentil is especially susceptible to ascochyta blight and anthracnose. Careful consideration must be given to crop rotation to reduce the risk of these diseases. Anthracnose is easily transferred on wind-blown dust and residue. Lentil should not follow lentil, even for resistant varieties, as this can result in a severe infection of ascochyta blight and anthracnose and hasten the breakdown of varietal resistance. Lentil seedling diseases, such as root rots and seedling blights, are more common in fields where pulse crops have been grown more frequently. Sclerotinia may be a problem if lentil follows canola, mustard, pea, sunflower or faba bean. The anthracnose isolates attacking lentil in Saskatchewan also cause disease symptoms on field pea and faba bean pea under field conditions. Therefore, rotation to these host crops is not an alternative in breaking the cycle of lentil anthracnose disease. Lentil should be included in the crop rotation no more than once every three to four years. This becomes more critical when moisture is more abundant, as the current year s environment significantly influences disease severity. Crop rotation goes beyond disease considerations and weed control (including volunteer crop). Crop rotation can influence both the lentil crop and the crop(s) following lentil. Volunteer cereals, such as barley or durum, may be difficult to separate from large-seeded lentil during the cleaning process. Likewise, smaller seeded lentil is difficult to separate from red spring wheat. Volunteer flax, canola, or mustard may be difficult to control in some years. Experienced lentil growers refrain from growing red and yellow cotyledon lentil in rotation on the same field for at least four years to avoid market class contamination. Many producers designate specific fields for only red or only yellow cotyledon lentil. Lentil production is most successful when grown in rotation with cereals, such as spring or durum wheat. Crop rotation research conducted by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) shows yields of cereal crops grown on stubble were best following lentil or pea crops. Lentil rooting depth was found to be about 0.6 m (2 ft). This allows the following wheat crop, with a rooting depth to 1.8 m (6 ft) to extract water from a greater depth and produce higher yield and protein. Straw and residue from the previous crop should be finely chopped and evenly spread to ensure uniform lentil stands. Lentil seedlings are capable 15

18 of emerging through heavier crop residue. However, lentil seedlings emerging through poorly spread crop residue will have variable emergence. Good residue management is also necessary to ensure maximum efficacy of pre-seed herbicides. Lentil sown into standing stubble or heavy crop residue is more prone to late spring frost injury than lentil grown under near-residue free conditions. This is because bare soil absorbs more heat from the sun during the day and then releases it at night. Straw residue must be spread evenly to minimize potential frost injury. The overall agronomic benefits of standing stubble usually outweigh the late spring frost risk. 16

19 Quick Facts Lentil fits well into a direct seeding crop production system. Use of high quality seed is the first step in establishing a rapidly emerging, vigorous stand and producing a high quality, profitable crop. Different fungicides control different species of fungal organisms, so it is important to know what organism is infecting your seed. Lentil inoculated with the proper rhizobium (bacterial) strain has the potential to fix up to 80 per cent of its nitrogen requirement through nitrogen fixation. In addition to fixing a substantial quantity of nitrogen during the growing season, lentil makes a positive contribution to the overall soil nitrogen level over multiple years. Inoculants are available in different formulations including liquid, powdered, and granular. A soil test should be used to plan a fertility program for lentil. Generally, nitrogen fertilizer is not required if nitrogen fixation is optimized. In fields where lentil is grown for the first time, starter-nitrogen may be useful, particularly on low nitrogen soils. The recommended plant population for lentil is 130/m2 (12/ft.2). Lentil should be seeded early, as soon as the soil temperature at seeding depth is 5 C or greater, and the soil is not excessively wet. Seeding depth of 2.5 to 7.5 cm is advised. Following application of the inoculant, plant the inoculated seed into moist soil as soon as possible

20 Production Method of Seeding Lentil fits well into a direct seeding crop production system. Lentil seedlings can emerge through crop residue because of their strong seedling vigour and ability to emerge from greater soil depths. Studies conducted at Swift Current demonstrated the benefits of producing lentil on untilled stubble and the influence of the previous crop stubble height. Lentil yield increased significantly as the stubble height of the previous crop increased. Pre-worked fields produced the lowest yields. Seeding lentil into tall standing stubble helped reduce soil moisture evaporation, particularly during the period prior to flowering. This resulted in greater water use efficiency (amount of grain produced per unit of water used) by the crop, an extremely important factor in dryland production. As stubble height increases, the height of the lowest pod also increases, which can make swathing or combining easier and possibly reduce shattering losses. Seed Quality Use of high quality seed is the first step in establishing a rapidly emerging, vigorous stand and producing a high quality, profitable crop. Proper inoculation, fertilization, pest control or any recommended practice will be of limited value if planted seeds do not produce a healthy, vigorous stand. Planting high quality seed should: Increase tolerance to seedling diseases. Promote rapid and uniform stand establishment. Enhance tolerance to early season stresses such as adverse temperature and moisture conditions. Promote rapid root development leading to improved nutrient and water use efficiencies. Result in enhanced disease, weed, and insect control. Provide a more uniform stand with more uniform maturity, allowing improved harvest efficiencies and more uniform product. Produce higher yields and superior seed quality. Seed quality includes genetic and mechanical purity, germination and vigour, and levels of seedborne disease. Seed purity is determined by the nature and amount of unwanted contaminants in the pure seed. Impurities include unwanted crop seed, weed seeds, and inert material. They can adversely impact crop yield and quality, as well as increase production costs. Seed germination tests assess the ability of the seed to produce a healthy plant under favourable growing conditions. These tests are generally conducted under controlled conditions that provide ideal moisture, temperature, and light for a prescribed period of time. Unfortunately, these tests often overestimate actual field emergence. Seed lots with low germination often lack the ability to produce strong, healthy seedlings. Seed vigour tests, conducted by some seed testing labs, are conducted under more adverse conditions than a germination test. Vigour tests are not standardized and conditions imposed 18

21 upon the seed may vary from lab to lab. Vigour tests are an attempt to more realistically predict field seedling emergence. Seed vigour can decrease due to mechanical damage, immaturity at harvest, seed age, pathogen (disease) infection, wet harvest conditions, and seed handling during cleaning and seeding operations. Although not standardized, vigour tests can provide useful seed quality information. Lentil seeds are susceptible to mechanical damage during harvesting, handling, storage, and seeding. Dry lentil seed (14 per cent or less seed moisture) is brittle and difficult to handle without chipping and splitting the seed. All handling should be done as gently as possible. Even nearly invisible seed cracks can result in a reduction in germination. Seed damaged after a sample is submitted for germination and/or vigour testing will not perform as expected based on the results of the test(s). The final cleaned seed lot should be re-tested if handling damage is suspected. Application of certain herbicides prior to harvest can also effect seed germination and/or vigour. Seed from fields treated with pre-harvest glyphosate should be avoided. The seed may contain residue that can reduce germination, vigour, and normal root development. Any lentil crop having a pre-harvest herbicide applied, whether it is for weed control or crop drydown, has the potential for reduced germination. Contamination from seed-borne diseases should be as low as possible. Table 1 summarizes guidelines for seed disease levels when considering a lot for seed. The use of certified seed assures high quality seed with respect to purity, germination, and disease level. A listing of Saskatchewan Pedigreed seed growers by variety is available in the Saskatchewan Seed Guide available on line at Seed treatment Historically, seed treatment of lentil for fungal diseases was not considered necessary to ensure good stand establishment. However, one or more of the following trends may increase the value of seed treatment, compared to past recommendation: Shortened crop rotations. Earlier seeding due to increased farm size (cooler soil temperatures). More crop residue with minimum-till and no-till practices results in slower soil warming. Improved efficacy and handling of newer seed treatment products. Different fungicides control different species of fungal organisms, so it is important to know what organism is infecting your seed. For example, there is currently no treatment available for anthracnose infection on lentil seed. Seed treatment for control of insect pests in lentil is much more limited compared to treatments available for disease. Refer to the current Guide to Crop Production for current seed treatment options. Certain fungicides and insecticides may be harmful to inoculants. Check the label of both the inoculant and the seed treatment to ensure compatibility. Review treatment procedures to ensure maximum bacteria survival. If no reference is made to compatibility, check with both the seed treatment and inoculant manufacturer for advice. The use of granular inoculant will avoid any problems with direct contact between seed treatment and inoculant. 19

22 Inoculation for Nitrogen Lentil inoculated with the proper rhizobium (bacterial) strain has the potential to fix up to 80 per cent of its nitrogen requirement through nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation is a symbiotic relationship. Both the rhizobium and the plant benefit from the relationship. Rhizobium enters the root hairs of the plant and induces nodule formation. The plant provides energy and nutrients for the rhizobium living inside the nodules. The rhizobium, in return, converts atmospheric nitrogen from the soil air surrounding the roots into a form that can be used by the plant. Rhizobium are not very mobile so the inoculant must be placed close to the seed for maximum nodulation. Maximum nitrogen fixation occurs if the supply of available soil nitrogen is low and the soil moisture and temperature levels are good at the time of seeding. If the soil plus fertilizer nitrogen level exceeds 40 kg/ha, nodulation may be reduced. If the nitrogen level is 55 kg/ha or higher, nodulation can be dramatically delayed and fixation greatly reduced or eliminated. In addition to fixing a substantial quantity of nitrogen during the growing season, lentil makes a positive contribution to the overall soil nitrogen level over multiple years. Agronomic practices that lead to increased nitrogen fixation in a pulse crop will contribute to nitrogen accumulation in the crop rotation. As well, an inoculated plant is more drought tolerant and higher in protein than one that is not. Lentil requires the rhizobium species for nitrogen fixation. Examine the label of the inoculant to make sure that it is appropriate for lentil. There are many different strains of this rhizobium species and they vary in terms of their effectiveness. Rhizobium leguminosarum strains will nodulate pea, faba bean and lentil. If the rhizobia are actively fixing nitrogen, the nodules will appear visibly red or pink inside if sliced open. Nitrogen fixation is synchronized with plant growth, supplying the crop requirements during rapid vegetative growth. Manufacturers package the inoculant as either: 1) A mixed strain inoculant that contains a mixture of the best strain (or strains) for lentil and the best strain (or strains) for pea or; 2) A single-strain inoculant which contains only the rhizobia that has been identified as the best strain for a specific crop. The best strain for lentil is not necessarily the best strain for pea, even though it would be capable of infecting and nodulating the pea plant. Once the proper inoculant is chosen, steps should be taken to ensure maximum rhizobia survivability. Rhizobium bacteria (either on the seed or in the package) die if they are exposed to stress such as high temperature, drying winds or direct sunlight. Inoculant must be stored in a cool place prior to use and must be used before the expiry date. Following application of the inoculant, plant the inoculated seed into moist soil as soon as possible. Rhizobia bacteria on inoculated seed will die quickly if the seed is placed into a dry seedbed. Inoculants are sensitive to granular fertilizer. Banding fertilizer to the side and/or below the seed is recommended. Never mix inoculant with granular fertilizer. Inoculants are sensitive to some seed-applied fungicides. Check the label of both the inoculant and seed treatment for compatibility. When using 20

23 Table 1. Guidelines for Tolerances of Seed-borne Diseases in Lentil Seed Intended for Planting (These are guidelines only and should be considered along with farming practices and level of disease risk for the situation) Disease (Pathogen) Tolerance and Factors Affecting the Level Ascochyta (Ascochyta lentils) Anthracnose (Anthracnose lentils) Seed Rots and Damping-off (Pythium species) Seed Rots and Seedling Blights (Botrytis, Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium species) Stemphylium Blight (Stemphylium botrosum) Up to five percent ascochyta may be tolerable in the Brown and Dark Brown soil zones of Saskatchewan, if weather patterns are normal. A seed treatment should be used if infection levels are close to or exceed five percent. Seed should be avoided if infection levels exceed 10 per cent. High infection levels are usually indicative of other quality issues. Use seed with zero percent ascochyta infection if planting in the black soil zone of Saskatchewan. Anthracnose is not highly seed-borne and levels are rarely over one percent. Infected lentil stubble serves as a greater inoculum source. Do not use anthracnose-infected seed if it is being planted in a field where lentil has never been grown. Pythium is soil-borne and not tested for at seed testing labs. Most lentil varieties contain tannin in the seed coat, which has fungicidal properties against Pythium. Seed treatment is recommended only for low-tannin lentils. Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia and Fuzarium are primarily soil-borne. Botrytis and Fusarium are also often seed-borne and can be tested for at seed testing labs. Up to 10 per cent infection (Sclerotinia + Botrytis) may be tolerable, but will result in significant seedling blight if a seed treatment is not used. The importance of seed-borne Fusarium in seed rot and seedling blight in pulses is not known. Some labs will notify growers if greater than five percent Fusarium infection occurs. If present, add the Fusarium value to the Sclerotinia + Botrytis value above (not to exceed 10 per cent). A common organism. Stemphylium is ubiquitious and infection is primarily from residues. Seed survival occurs but seed to seed transmission is unknown. 1 New seed treatments are continually being registered. Contact the Ag Knowledge Centre at , your local agri-retailer or industry rep for updated information on seed treatments registered in pulses. SMA s Guide to Crop Protection is available online at Always refer for the product label before applying product to the seed. 2 The level of seed-borne infection is not the only factor to consider in whether or not to apply a seed treatment as most seed treatments are also effective against soil-borne pathogens. Refer to product label for details. Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture (SMA) a combination of fungicide and inoculant, apply the fungicide to the seed first, allow it to dry, and apply the inoculant immediately prior to seeding. Inoculants are available in different formulations including liquid, powdered, and granular. Liquid based products offer convenience and better control of application rate compared to other forms. However, they are more susceptible to damage from environmental extremes prior to seeding than other inoculant forms. Recommended time from application to seeding is as little as six hours for some liquid products. Air velocity settings in air seeders need to be at minimum settings to reduce desiccation of the bacteria. If seeding into dry soils or virgin legume land, double rates should be used. If treated seed is 21

24 planted immediately into a moist seedbed, liquid formulations perform well. Limited research to evaluate liquid inoculant applied as a soil treatment when dribbled into the seed row or side-banded has shown positive results. But questions remain about its effectiveness under dry conditions or in low organic matter fields. Using liquid as a soil applied inoculant is not a common on-farm practice at this time. Powdered formulations are more durable and less prone to desiccation and seed treatment damage compared to liquid formulations. The bacteria can still be killed by desiccation so the same precautions should be taken as with liquid. Peat based powder inoculants require the use of a sticker. The application method involves use of a slurry to slightly damp seed. These products are not very convenient to use and are not used in any significant amounts. Ensure stickers are not detrimental to the rhizobia if using this method. Self-sticking powdered peat inoculants are peat based powder inoculants with a sticker incorporated into the formulation. These inoculants are far more convenient than peat based powder formulations and application rates are easier to control. Adhesion to the seed can be enhanced if the seed is slightly damp during inoculation. This can be accomplished with a small backpack type pressure sprayer emitting a very fine mist to the seed during augering and inoculant application. Alternatively, wet the seed in the truck overnight with the deck tilted to facilitate drainage. This allows the seeds to swell and stay slightly moist, assisting in inoculant adhesion. This procedure may also prevent seed splitting and chipping, which may be a problem if the seed moisture content is low (less than 14 per cent). Another method is to apply the inoculant as a slurry. Some growers use a liquid inoculant to dampen the seed when applying the peat based self stick inoculants. Granular formulations are more costly but offer the advantage of ease of use and are the least likely to desiccate. They are available with peat or clay carriers and can be soil applied by side-banding or placed in-row with no yield differences. Granular inoculants are less sensitive to seed applied fungicides than other formulations because the granular product does not have direct contact with the seed treatment. Although granular products offer a number of advantages, they do have to be handled carefully. An additional dedicated seeder tank is required for their use, which should not be filled more than half full in order to avoid compaction. Seed tanks must be emptied each night to avoid compaction and bridging, and flow rates must be carefully monitored on humid days. During application check the meter rollers occasionally for proper flow of the product flowability. Granular inoculant rates can be adjusted with row spacing (Table 2). All inoculant formulations will perform equally well if the inoculant is properly applied and if environmental conditions are ideal because all are simply "carriers" for rhizobia. Under less than ideal conditions (toxic seed treatments, low ph soils, cold soil, dry soil, extended treated storage), the best performing formulation should be granular, followed by peat and then liquid. Strain antagonism results from competition for infection sites. If an inferior strain of rhizobium infects first, it blocks the best crop specific strain from infecting. Generally, native soil strains of Rhizobium leguminosarum are not the optimum strains. This reinforces the recommendation to inoculate each time pea is seeded. Western Canadian research indicated a significant yield response to inoculation of grain legumes in 30 to 22

25 50 per cent of the cases. An updated listing of available innoculants can be found on the Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture website. Pre-inoculated seed is treated with a peat based inoculant and encapsulated with a seed coating. Pre-inoculated seed, treated four weeks prior to planting, has been shown to provide effective nitrogen fixation. Keep in mind that most, inoculant companies do not back the use of their products this way. Lentil crops should be inoculated each time they are grown. This ensures sufficient numbers of the correct strain of highly effective rhizobia are available where they are needed. Inoculation is economical relative to its potential benefits and nitrogen fertilizer replacement. The risk of poor nodulation is too great to not inoculate each time the crop is seeded. The effectiveness of inoculation may also be influenced by previous pulse crops in rotation. Testimonial evidence suggests that, when planting inoculated pulse seed on fields with a repeated history of pulse production, response to inoculation is sometimes limited. It may be that indigenous background rhizobia can effectively nodulate the crop. However, just as different varieties of lentil have slightly different characteristics; different rhizobium strains may differ in their ability to fix nitrogen. Indigenous rhizobia may be very effective in forming nodules on legume plants, but may be inefficient nitrogen fixers. Applying a high quality inoculant at seeding helps ensure that high numbers of efficient nitrogen fixing bacteria will occupy the limited number of infection sites. The effectiveness of inoculation can be checked by examining the lentil crop in early summer. It may take three to four weeks after seed germination before nodulation reaches a point where it can be evaluated. Although lentil is an excellent nitrogen fixer and the nodules can be easily seen when a plant is pulled from the ground, the best way to check for nodulation is to dig a plant and gently remove the soil from the roots by washing in a bucket of water. Nodules are fragile and readily pull off if the roots are pulled out of the soil. Nodules should show as swollen bumps that develop near the stem close to the soil surface. Seed applied inoculant should result in nodules forming on the primary root near the crown. If the inoculant was soil applied (granular), nodules should be found on primary and secondary roots. If nitrogen fixation is active, the nodules will be pink or red on the inside. Lack of nodules indicates rhizobia did not infect the pulse plant. Lack of a pink colour (usually green or cream coloured) indicates the rhizobia are not fixing nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation declines once plants begin pod formation and seed development. Handling and application is critical to ensure maximum survivability of the rhizobia. When applying an inoculant during auguring, operate the auger at half capacity to allow adequate mixing and seed coverage. If using a liquid Table 2. Granular Inoculant Rates with Different Seed Row Row Spacing Rate Source: Gary Hnatowich 23

26 inoculant, shake the inoculant bag aggressively to evenly disperse the rhizobia before adding the inoculant to the seed in the auger. If seeding is delayed more than one day for peat based inoculants, check manufacturer's recommendation for re-inoculating. Some liquid inoculant manufacturers suggest re-inoculation if delays from the time of application to when the seed is planted exceed six hours. Inoculated seed flows through seeding equipment more slowly so calibration of the seeder is more accurate if it is done using inoculated seed. Anything that negatively impacts plant growth will also restrict nitrogen fixation. If the crop is harmed by such things as herbicide residue, inappropriate herbicide application, or poor timing of post-emergent herbicide applications, nitrogen fixation will decline. If the legume crop is not supplied with adequate plant nutrients, especially phosphorus, fixation will be reduced. If seed contains residual traces of glyphosate, root development (particularly root hair development) will be abnormal and nodules are unlikely to develop. Cool, cloudy weather early in the growing season will delay nodulation. Rhizobia do not tolerate saline soils, contact with damaging fertilizers (primarily due to the fertilizer salt effect), or extremes in soil ph. Fixation of some pulses can be dramatically reduced in soils where soil ph levels are near 5.5. On low ph soils, increasing the inoculation application rate or using a granular inoculant is recommended. Inoculation for Phosphorus JumpStart contains the fungus Penicillium bilaii and is also available in the dual inoculant Tag- Team. This fungal inoculant enhances phosphorus solubility and uptake by plants. The fungus colonizes along the root system of the plant, and through the production of organic acids, increases the solubility of soil, or fertilizer phosphorus. Keep in mind that JumpStart will normally replace approximately 11 kg/ha (10 lb/ac) of P 2 O 5 fertilizer; therefore, JumpStart should be used in conjunction with phosphorus fertilizer, particularly in cool, spring conditions. JumpStart has no residual effect. Pre-inoculated seed containing JumpStart can be purchased from authorized seed processors or the seed can be treated on-farm with a wettable powder application. It is compatible with all nitrogen fixing rhizobial inoculants and some seed applied pesticides. JumpStart does not create phosphorus, but rather mines it out of your soil. Your long-term fertilizer plan must ensure you are replacing phosphorus removed by the grain you sell off your farm. Fertility As with other crops, a soil test should be used to plan a fertility program for lentil. A few points specific to lentil that can be revealed through a soil test include: If soil nitrogen levels are unusually high, nodulation and nitrogen fixation may be adversely affected. High moisture, coupled with high soil nitrogen in fallow will produce excessive vegetative growth at the expense of pod set and seed production. Maturity will also be delayed, especially for late maturing varieties. Lentil does not tolerate saline soils and should only be grown on non-saline soil. Low ph can inhibit nodulation, reducing nitrogen fixation and plant growth. Sufficient soil phosphorus is required for nitrogen fixation and promotes earlier maturity. 24

27 If using nitrogen for maturity management, it is critical to know starting soil nitrogen levels to increase success rates (discussed in more detail later). Other macronutrients (potassium, sulphur) may be limiting optimal yields. Micronutrients are not likely to limit lentil yield, but should be measured periodically. Any abnormal growth should be noted and if symptoms point to a possible micronutrient deficiency, it should be investigated thoroughly. Generally, nitrogen fertilizer is not required if nitrogen fixation is optimized. Well nodulated lentil plants can derive 50 to 80 per cent of their nitrogen requirement through fixation under favorable growing conditions. The remainder comes from soil nitrogen available in the soil at seeding plus nitrogen released from the soil during the growing season. Low levels of available nitrogen should have little impact on nodulation and nitrogen fixation. However, when the combined levels of soil and fertilizer nitrogen reach 28 to 40 kg nitrogen/ha, any additional nitrogen will reduce nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Combined levels of soil and fertilizer nitrogen greater than 55 kg nitrogen/ha can dramatically delay nodulation and reduce or eliminate nitrogen fixation. It can take up to three to four weeks after planting before nodules are fully functioning. In soils with nitrogen levels less than 11 kg nitrogen/ha, early plant growth may be poor and plants may appear yellow for a period of time due to a nitrogen deficiency. This early nitrogen deficiency can be corrected by adding low levels of starter-nitrogen at seeding. Similarly, if nitrogen fixation is not optimized due to unfavourable growing conditions (e.g. relatively dry seedbed), lentil may benefit from low rates of starter-nitrogen in some years. If the available soil nitrogen level is very low (less than 17 kg nitrogen/ha) at planting, a small amount (20 kg nitrogen/ha) of starter-nitrogen fertilizer may benefit the crop in some years. Although high levels of starter-nitrogen may appear to help the crop overcome a nitrogen deficiency during early crop growth stages, final seed yield may not increase. Consider the following points when deciding if starter-nitrogen should be used: In fields where lentil is grown for the first time, starter-nitrogen may be useful, particularly on low nitrogen soils. In the dry soil zones this should not cause excess growth. Lentil is sensitive to seed placed nitrogen so starter-nitrogen should be kept away from the seed, especially with narrow seed openers. Since the growing season is too short to allow conversion of extra biomass to seed yield, maximizing vegetative growth with nitrogen fertilizer is of little to no benefit. Low temperatures, drought, or excessive moisture can inhibit nodulation. Addition of fertilizer nitrogen in excess of 34 kg/ha will likely reduce biological nitrogen fixation. Starter-nitrogen usually enhances vegetative growth and in a wet year this can lead to increased disease pressure because of a more favorable environment for fungal diseases. It may also delay maturity. These risks are a bigger factor in the Moist Dark Brown, Black and Thin Black soil zones, or in years where excess moisture is received. Side-banded or seed-placed monoammonium phosphate (example ) provides small amounts of starter-nitrogen needed for early plant growth. This may provide all the starter- 25

28 nitrogen required. Harvest operations may be improved if starternitrogen promotes the growth of a taller plant with lower pods a bit higher off the ground. Phosphorus is an important plant nutrient for lentil and it has a relatively high requirement for the nutrient. Phosphorus promotes the development of extensive root systems and vigorous seedlings. Encouraging vigorous root growth is an important step in promoting good nodule development. Phosphorus also plays an important role in the nitrogen fixing process and in promoting earlier, more uniform maturity. Lentil grown on soils testing low in available phosphorus may respond to phosphate fertilizer. However, dramatic yield responses are not always achieved. Even if seed yield increases are not achieved every year, a lentil crop may benefit from improved stress tolerance as a result of phosphorus application. The maximum safe rate of actual phosphate applied with the seed is 16.8 kg P 2 O 5 /ha in a 2.5 cm spread and 22.5 cm row spacing under good to excellent moisture conditions. This assumes use of monoammonium phosphate, the most common source of phosphate fertilizer used in Saskatchewan. Diammonium phosphate is much more toxic to seedlings and caution is needed if used. Rates of seed-placed fertilizer must be reduced if the seedbed has less than ideal moisture. Higher rates of P 2 O 5 fertilizer placed with the seed can damage the emerging seedlings and reduce the stand. If higher P 2 O 5 rates are required, banding the fertilizer away from the seed (side-band or mid-row band) is recommended. Even low rates of P 2 O 5 fertilizer can reduce the stand, but the benefit due to increased seed yield usually outweighs the loss due to stand reduction. To minimize the chance of seed injury, some growers apply extra phosphorus with the crop seeded the year before lentil. They will then either not apply phosphorus the year of seeding lentil or reduce the amount of phosphorus the year of seeding lentil to reduce the chance of seedling injury. If soil levels of phosphorus are higher due to previous years applications, Jumpstart may be able to solubilize enough early season phosphorus to provide the starter effect in the absence of phosphorus fertilizer. Potassium is usually not required in most soils, but deficiencies may exist, especially in sandy Black and Grey soils found in northern Saskatchewan. Soil tests should indicate whether a shortage exists. Even if deemed adequate, the crop may not access the potassium due to other factors. Over 84 kg K2O/ha (75 lb K2O/ac) of potassium is needed to grow a 30 bu/ac (2016 kg/ha) lentil crop. Generally, potassium fertilizer should be used any time soil tests show levels are too low. When soil test levels are very low, at least a small amount should be seed-placed. It is important to note that seed-placing potassium may cause seedling damage. As with phosphate, a wider opener may allow for slightly higher safe seed-placed rates. The sum of seed-placed potassium (K2O) plus P 2 O 5 must not exceed the recommended safe seed placed rate for P 2 O 5. Sulphur is required in a relatively significant amount. A 30 bu/ac lentil crop requires approximately the same amount of sulphur as a 40 bu/ ac wheat crop (9 to 11 kg/ha (8 to 10 lb/ac). Soils testing low in available sulphur should have this deficiency corrected by side-banding, mid-row banding, or broadcasting ammonium sulphate which contains sulphur in a plant available form. Adding fertilizer sulphur for lentil is not a common practice in Saskatchewan. 26

29 Micronutrient deficiencies for lentil production have not been identified as widespread. If a micronutrient deficiency is suspected, it is advisable to analyze soil and plant samples within the suspect area and compare the analysis to soil and plant samples collected from a non-affected area of the same field. If the analysis confirms a micronutrient deficiency at a relatively early growth stage, a foliar application of the appropriate micronutrient fertilizer may correct the problem. Seeder Setup Lentil seed is susceptible to mechanical damage during harvest, handling, or seeding. Dry seed (less than 14 per cent moisture) is brittle and can easily crack or chip, leading to reduced germination. The Prairie Agricultural Machinery Institute (PAMI) has produced a fact sheet, Moisturizing Pulses to Reduce Damage, on this subject. Seed bounce should be minimized. Use the lowest possible air speed setting for fans, while still allowing movement of seed through the hoses. It may be of benefit to have air release opener designs to reduce damage to lentil seed. Physical injury, either through handling or the seeding operation, can result in up to 30 per cent seed damage. Reduced speed while seeding often results in better lentil stands. On row packing to ensure good soil contact with the seed is recommended. Seeding Rate The recommended plant population for lentil is 130/m2 (12/ft.2). Crop stands of this density provide good competition against weeds and result in higher yields compared to thinner stands. This applies to all lentil varieties. Higher plant populations rarely offer an advantage and in some situations may negatively affect lentil yield (eg. higher disease levels during the growing season). The optimum seeding rate for each seed lot varies depending on its seed size. Larger seeded lentil varieties (higher 1000 seed weight) will require a higher seeding rate to achieve placement of the same number of seeds per unit area compared to a small seeded variety. Survival percentage is calculated by subtracting expected field mortality from the germination rate. The germination per cent should be obtained through a germination test at an accredited lab. Field mortality is commonly 10 to 30 per cent depending on harshness of spring seedbed conditions. A seed lot with 95 per cent germination and an expected field mortality of 15 per cent would have an expected emergence or survival of 80 per cent. Table 3 provides the approximate seeding rate for each lentil of different seed weights and market classes. Row Spacing It is not necessary to adjust seeding rates when using wider row spacing. The wider rows will have more plants per foot, but this has not been shown to have a negative effect. Row spacing in general has little impact on lentil because of their non-determinate growth habit. Lentil will compensate if light, water and nutrients are adequate. Lentil is a poor competitor with weeds and narrower row spacing may be an advantage in competing with weeds. Seeding rate recommendations are not influenced by row spacing. Narrower row spacing will result in faster canopy closure and reduced soil moisture loss through evaporation between the rows, while also encouraging quicker rooting exploitation of the soil between the rows and subsequent use of mid-row soil moisture. Narrower 27

30 rows leave less standing stubble and residue clearance is more of an issue. Wider rows disturb less soil and preserve more standing stubble. Wider row spacing can also be used in high moisture regions to reduce the risk of a thick crop canopy leading to poor pod set and lodging. Wider row spacing may also reduce disease pressure if the micro-climate within the crop is kept drier due to the wider spacing. Seeding Depth and Time of Seeding Lentil should be seeded early, as soon as the soil temperature at seeding depth is 5 C or greater, and the soil is not excessively wet. Early seeding may help avoid flower blast caused by high temperatures during flowering. Early seeding may also increase the height and size of the plant at time of first bloom, allowing the lower pods to develop further above ground to ease harvest. The longer the maturity (less determinate varieties), the more important it is to seed early. Lentil seedlings have survived temperatures of -4 C to -6 C. Frost survival depends on how low the temperature gets, how long the freezing conditions last, how much cold conditioning the crop received, soil moisture content, and the growth stage of the crop when frost hits. Even if the frost is severe enough to kill the main shoot, the lentil plant can re-grow from one of the scale nodes at or below the soil surface. On a standard year seeding up to May 25th for the larger seeded lentil varieties and up to June 10th for the smaller seeded lentil varieties, should leave enough time for the crop to reach maturity prior to a fall frost event. Plant development may be more rapid for plants seeded later due to warmer conditions and longer days. This increased speed of development is more pronounced for early maturing varieties. However, this increases the likelihood of later flowering, and increases the chance of flower blast in hot weather. Once temperatures reach 27 C or higher, heat stress reduces plant growth rate. Saskatchewan field trials using seed artificially infected with a seedling blight and root rot pathogen (Fusarium avenaceum) confirmed that early seeding was required for maximum yield and was beneficial in reducing root rot severity, which is most severe in warm soils (20 C to 27.5 C). Seeding depth of 2.5 to 7.5 cm is advised. Ideally, seed should be covered with 2.5 cm of moist, packed soil. Deep seeding is not necessary when seed is placed in moist, firm soil. Larger seeded varieties are more tolerant to deeper seeding than smaller seeded varieties. However, if Sencor (metribuzin) is to be used, do not seed less than 5 cm deep, or in soils with less than four per cent organic matter. The herbicide, if leached due to high moisture infiltration, can cause significant damage if seeding depth is less than 5 cm. Rolling Rolling does not increase lentil yield directly, rather improves harvest efficiency and maintains quality. Lentil fields should be rolled to provide a smooth and level surface to improve harvest efficiency and reduce earth tag. The best time to roll is immediately after seeding, as soon as the soil surface is dry. However, if the surface is very dry it will become more erosion prone. Land rolling after crop emergence can be successfully completed up to the fifth to seventh node stage without significant yield loss. Land rolling past this stage can damage plants, increase the spread of foliar diseases, and reduce yield. Best results are obtained if rolling is done when plants are slightly wilted and the soil surface is dry. Rolling should not be done on wet soils or when the crop 28

31 is damp or stressed (or expected to be stressed in the three to four days following rolling) by extreme heat, frost, or herbicide application. Table 3. Lentil Seeding Rate (lb/ac) for a Target Population of 12 Plants/Square Foot Seed Weight (g/1000 seeds) Survival (%) Source: Saskatchewan Pulse Growers 29

32 Quick Facts Lentil is a poor competitor against weeds. The major weeds of concern in lentil include kochia (the vast majority which are Group 2 resistant), Russian thistle, wild mustard, stinkweed, Canada thistle, and quackgrass. Herbicide resistant weeds influence herbicide choice in lentil. Resistance can build with each application; applications do not have to be consecutive year after year. Crop rotations that include cereal and oilseed crops can reduce the build-up of soil-borne pathogens specific to lentil. 30 A disease decision support checklist for ascochyta and anthracnose has been developed by AAFC as a working tool for producers to help in establishing thresholds for fungicide application on lentil to control anthracnose and ascochyta in lentil. Early identification of infection sites is critical. The list of insects to monitor in lentil is not extensive.

33 Disease and Pest Control In-Crop Weed Control Lentil is a poor competitor against weeds. Weed control in lentil must be considered through the rotation, not just in the year of growing. Herbicide options in the fall prior to seeding and pre-seed/ pre-emergent spring herbicide options must be considered. In-crop weed management is the final step. Review the weed discussion presented in the field preparation section to compliment the in-crop information. The introduction of Clearfield technology has given lentil growers additional in-crop herbicide choice if you are not growing Clearfield Lentils, incrop herbicides registered for grassy weed control all are Group 1 herbicides. Sencor should be applied early post-emergence. Best performance is achieved when lentil plants are at the two to five node stage and the weeds are small. A split application of Sencor is registered, which includes a two-thirds rate followed in seven to 10 days, with an additional application of one-half rate if another flush of weeds has emerged. Sencor can move in the soil after heavy rainfall, so if the use of this product is anticipated, lentil must be planted at least 5 cm deep to prevent injury to seedlings. Do not use Sencor in soils with less than four per cent organic matter. If weeds are present, control them early. Lentils are not a competitive crop, especially when young. Weed competition can severely reduce yield. Even if the herbicide window allows later application, do not wait too long if weeds are present. Herbicides should be applied at the earlier crop stages of the herbicide label if weeds are present. Research on Clearfield Lentils concluded the optimum timing for herbicides was between the five to six node stage and the 10 node stage. Weeds emerging after the 10 node stage did not reduce yield. Lentil can be damaged easily by some herbicides registered in other crops. Sprayer tanks should be thoroughly cleaned before applying any crop protection product to lentil and care taken not to drift herbicides from other fields onto lentil fields. During periods of crop stress (heat, drought, frost or after land rolling) the ability of the lentil crop to tolerate herbicide application may be reduced. Crop injury can be reduced by waiting approximately four days after the crop stress occurs before applying a herbicide, by maintaining water volumes at label recommendations, and by applying the product in the evening. Because weeds left uncontrolled can cause significant yield loss and interfere with harvest, maximizing sprayer efficiency can pay big dividends. Ensure the herbicide hits the target, water volume is adequate, nozzles provide good coverage, and travel speed is reasonable to ensure a good spray pattern. The major weeds of concern in lentil include kochia (the vast majority which are Group 2 resistant), Russian thistle, wild mustard, stinkweed, Canada thistle, and quackgrass. Once the competitive weeds have been removed, less competitive weeds such as cow cockle, roundleaved mallow, bluebur, and wild tomato can also become a problem. 31

34 Herbicide resistant weeds influence herbicide choice in lentil. A few examples of herbicide resistant weeds that are particularly troublesome for lentil growers include Group 2 resistant kochia, Group 1 resistant wild oat, and Group 2 resistant wild mustard. If non-clearfield lentil is grown, in-crop herbicides for control of wild oat and green foxtail are limited to Group 1 products. Edge, trifluralin products, and Avadex are the only herbicides available that offer some level of weed control for these weeds. The Clearfield Lentil production system gives Clearfield varieties tolerance to some Group 2 herbicides, but if kochia is present in the lentil field, a high proportion of it will be Group 2 resistant. Group 2 resistant kochia now appears in 90 per cent of the kochia sampled. If you choose to grow Clearfield Lentil, the Group 2 resistant kochia will not be controlled when using any of the herbicides registered for the Clearfield system. The same is true for Group 2 resistant wild mustard, where if present in the field, the only in-crop herbicide control option is Sencor. Other weeds that have been identified as Group 2 resistant in Saskatchewan include, Russian thistle, redroot pigweed, cleavers, chickweed, stinkweed, and wild buckwheat. Management to delay or reduce the occurrence of herbicide resistant weeds is important for all crops in rotation. It is of particular importance to lentil growers due to the limited in-crop herbicide choice and the non-competitive nature of the lentil plant. Familiarity of herbicide resistant weed management is crucial. Preventing kochia from setting viable seed for one or two years greatly reduces kochia populations in a field because the seed is short lived in the soil. Resistance can build with each application; applications do not have to be consecutive year after year. Therefore, with herbicides in Groups 1 and Group 2, the longer you can rotate away from these chemistries the better. Using these chemistries frequently can quickly lead to resistance. On average, if a grower has applied Group 1 or Group 2 herbicides more than 10 times in a field, there is a high risk of resistance developing among one or more weed species. BASF recommends that Group 2 products be applied no more than twice in a four year period and never twice in the same year. Research indicates that alternating between two modes of action for wild oat control will double the number of years for resistance build-up, and alternating with a third mode of action will increase the time of resistance build-up to four times as long as for a single mode of action for wild oat control. Use integrated control methods through the rotation, such as higher seeding rates, promoting quick crop emergence, and using herbicides only when economic thresholds are reached. Alternatives to chemical weed control Research completed at AAFC Scott showed that post-emergent harrowing with a tine harrow can be used to control weed seedlings when the crop is very short (less than 10 cm), provided that the foliage is dry and the operation is done on a warm, sunny day. An increased lentil seeding rate should be used to offset the plant losses during harrowing. Disease Management Disease can severely impact lentil yield and quality if inoculum is present and environmental conditions are conducive to disease development. Management strategies to prevent or reduce 32

35 disease organisms through the crop rotation, including in-crop, are critical for successful lentil production. Some diseases are widespread but cause little damage; others can be very damaging and warrant appropriate control measures. Table 4. Diseases that Threaten Lentil Crops in Sask Fungal Ascochyta blight Stemphylium blight Anthracnose Seedling blight Botrytis stem and pod rot Sclerotinia stem rot Wilt and stem rot Viral Viruses Disease XXX Early symptoms of some of the fungal diseases are difficult to distinguish from each other. Environmental conditions and herbicide applications can also cause leaf lesions so that correct disease diagnosis or disease identification can be difficult. Seed rot, seedling blight, damping-off, wire stem, and root rot are soil-borne fungal diseases that can infect lentil seedlings. These can be caused by species of Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Fusarium, and/or Botrytis. These pathogens are present in all Saskatchewan agricultural soils, and can infect and kill individual seedlings from germination to the early flowering stage. Symptoms may include poor emergence, root decay, stunting, yellowing, and death of shoots. Lesions may develop on the XX XXX XXX Widespread and cause significant economic losses when present XX Widespread but usually not of economic importance X Infrequent and usually not of economic importance Source: Howard Love, 2010 XX XX XX XX X stem base leading to constriction of the stem and seedling collapse. Usually only scattered plants are infected, so these diseases rarely cause economic loss. Seedling stress or damage due to environmental or herbicide injury can lead to an increase in the incidence of seedling blight. Seedling blight should not be confused with an environmental stress called heat canker, which occurs when young lentil seedlings are exposed to hot soil surface temperatures. With seedling blight, the base of the stem shrivels and becomes pinched and the seedling turns yellow and dies. With heat canker, the seedlings wilt very quickly on extremely hot spring days, the pinched stem usually remains white, and often new shoots are started from the scale nodes. Crop rotations that include cereal and oilseed crops can reduce the build-up of soil-borne pathogens specific to lentil. However, many of these pathogens can survive as saprophytes in the absence of a susceptible host. Therefore, crop rotation may have a limited effect in managing seedling blight and root rot. A preliminary investigation in Syria of fusarium wilt frequency in lentil has shown no differences between no-till and conventional tillage methods. Ascochyta blight is a serious foliar disease of lentil in Western Canada. It can be seed-borne or residue-borne, resulting in infection of leaves, stems, pods and seed. Lesions appear as tan or grey spots with dark margins, and often have tiny black fruiting bodies (pycnidia) in the centre. Cool, rainy weather is conducive for spread and infection of the disease. It is most damaging to maturing pods and seeds if prolonged wet weather occurs during July and August. Severely infected seed lots may not be marketable or will be downgraded severely due to discolouration. 33

36 Figure 12. Lentil: Root rot; healthy (L); stunted, chlorotic plants (R) Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 13. Heat Canker Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Most lentil varieties now have some level of resistance to ascochyta blight. Ascochyta blight inoculum also overwinters on lentil residue, so producers should not plant lentil on lentil stubble. Shortening rotation, especially growing lentil on lentil stubble, can lead to dire consequences. Breeding efforts have produced many varieties 34 with good ascochyta resistance, to the point where it is easy to ignore as a potential threat in commercial fields. Just because ascochyta is not obviously infecting the lentil field does not mean the disease is not present - the resistance built into the lentil variety is preventing infection. But fungi are always naturally developing new gene arrays. These changes can lead to a new strain of ascochyta that can overcome the resistance genes bred into the lentil varieties. This can happen in fields with years of separation between lentil crops, but if the resistant gene is there and it has a host plant (lentil) on which to live and reproduce, it increases the odds of it surviving, reproducing, and spreading. Multiple generations per year mean a fungus can spread quickly once it becomes established. The Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture publication, Ascochyta Blight of Pulse Crops, contains more information on this disease. Anthracnose is a foliar and stem disease found in most lentil producing areas in Western Canada. Research has identified two races of anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum truncatum. A few lentil varieties have been introduced with resistance to Race 1, but as of 2011, no varieties are resistant to Race 2. Infection results in sunken grey to cream lesions on leaves and stems. Lower leaflets turn yellow and brown, and drop to the soil surface. The lower stems become cankered by the disease and plants may lose all their leaflets. Stem cankers can enlarge and girdle the stem, causing plants to die prematurely. Lesions and dead plant tissue may contain tiny black resting bodies (microsclerotia) similar in appearance to ascochyta blight pycnidia, but smaller, more numerous, and irregular in shape. Diseased patches in the crop can expand rapidly and appear as yellowed or grey patches within an otherwise green field. The disease is favoured by warm, moist weather and commonly kills the infected lentil 27

37 plant before seed is produced. Anthracnose can be spread on wind-borne residue and dust during harvest, and can be residue-borne in fields for a number of years. There is no research showing that the disease is frequently transferred from the seed to the lentil seedling. However, producers should attempt to use seed with low infection levels, as there are no seed treatment fungicides effective at controlling seed-borne anthracnose. Extend crop rotations to avoid planting lentil in the same field for at least four years. The same warnings about shortening lentil rotations for ascochyta resistance apply to this disease. ed. Producers are cautioned to use dust masks to prevent breathing difficulties. Botrytis almost always occurs when sclerotinia white mould is present in lentil fields. Figure 15. Lentil: Ascochyta blight; pod lesion Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 14. Lentil: Ascochyta blight; early lesions, leaf symptoms Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Figure 16. Lentil: Ascochyta blight; infected seed Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Botrytis grey mould causes stem and pod rot during the flowering and seed filling stages, typically causing economic losses. Soil-borne inoculum is present in all fields, but this disease is only a problem in heavy vegetative stands that have lodged in wet, cool summer weather. Leaves wilt and drop off, pods fail to fill, and infected areas turn grey to brown. Clouds of grey spores are dispersed into the air as infected areas are harvest- 35

38 36 Figure 17. Lentil: Anthracnose; leaflet lesions Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 19. Lentil: Anthracnose; severe infection in crop Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 18. Lentil: Anthracnose; yellow patches in crop Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 20. Lentil: Botrytis; seedling blight; spread along row Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Sclerotinia white mould may occur in maturing lentil crops under high moisture conditions that promote vegetative growth and lodging, and can cause economic losses. Lentil crops are at increased risk to sclerotinia infection if grown in rotation with other susceptible crops such as canola, mustard, sunflower, or pea. Research completed at the University of Saskatchewan revealed that all lentil tissues, (i.e. leaves, stems, pods and flowers), can be infected by spores of sclerotinia. Testing of plants at various ages that were infected with sclerotinia showed that plants older than six weeks were significantly more susceptible. This decrease in

39 resistance, combined with wet weather late in the growing season and a heavy plant canopy, may explain why sclerotinia is more of a problem in maturing lentil crops. Although infection may occur later, it can still cause economic loss. Figure 21. Lentil: Botrytis; infected pods Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Stemphylium blight has been identified in a number of lentil fields in Saskatchewan. The foliar disease has similar leaflet drop symptoms as anthracnose, and lesions on leaves similar to ascochyta blight. It has not yet been confirmed as causing significant yield losses because the disease tends to show up later in the summer. The fungus thrives under warm (25 C to 30 C), wet conditions, but spores can germinate as low as 5 C, which may indicate infection can occur under cool, wet weather as well. There have been differences noted between lentil varieties regarding their susceptibility to stemphylium blight. Infection can cause seed staining, smaller seed size, and reduced germination rates. Figure 23. Lentil: White mould; early symptoms Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Figure 22. Lentil: Botrytis; stem and pod rot; grey discoloration on seed Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Septoria leaf spot has been found in some areas of Western Canada, but its effect on lentil is not known. However, symptoms on leaflets can be easily confused with those of ascochyta blight. Management of ascochyta and anthracnose has been researched extensively given the high potential for yield loss and quality reduction. Management involves an integrated approach. 37

40 Figure 24. Lentil: White mould; advanced symptoms Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society treatments to protect the seed and seedlings from seed-borne diseases. NOTE: The anthracnose isolates attacking lentil in Saskatchewan also cause disease symptoms on field pea and faba bean under field conditions. Therefore, rotation to these host crops is not an alternative in breaking the cycle of lentil anthracnose disease. Figure 26. Lentil: Stemphylium blight, advanced symptoms Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 25. Lentil: Stemphylium blight; early leaf lesions Source: Sabine Banniza, CDC Crop rotation is the key to preventing these diseases as it allows time for the lentil residue on which the fungi survive to decompose and break the disease cycle. Avoid planting lentil adjacent to previous year s lentil fields to reduce spread of residue and wind-borne spores, and choose disease resistant varieties when available. Use seed 38 A number of foliar fungicides are registered for the control of both ascochyta and anthracnose. Consult the current SMA Guide to Crop Protection and product labels for details on currently registered foliar fungicides. If disease inoculum is present in the field and weather conditions favour the disease, a fungicide should be applied from the 10 to 12 node stage to mid-flowering to protect healthy plant material and flowers. In lentil, fungicide application is not cost-effective if the crop remains almost disease-free until after flowering. Usually, one well-timed application of fungicide is sufficient for controlling lentil diseases, but up to three applications may be re-

41 quired if conditions favouring the disease persist and it is a susceptible variety. An application at early pod set may protect seed quality, but will not improve yield. Figure 28. Lentil: Stemphylium blight; infected seeds Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture A disease decision support checklist for ascochyta and anthracnose has been developed by AAFC as a working tool for producers to help in establishing thresholds for fungicide application on lentil to control anthracnose and ascochyta in lentil (Table 5). Figure 27. Lentil: Stemphylium blight; infected pods Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Figure 29. Lentil: Septoria leaf spot lesion Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society In areas where lentil is commonly grown and diseases have been common over the years, growers almost routinely apply a fungicide at first flower as a preventative measure if environmental conditions are supportive of fungal disease development and spread. Although this may seem to go against the principles of fungicide management, in most situations the field would likely rate as a candidate for fungicide application based on the decision support system. Management of botrytis, sclerotinia, and stemphylium, as with other lentil diseases, starts with crop rotation. However, it should be noted that these particular pathogens can survive in the absence of a host crop (Botrytis and Stemphylium) or will affect other host crops in the rotation (Sclerotinia). Varieties producing excessive vegetative growth usually have more frequent 39

42 Table 5. Disease Decision Support Checklist Inspect at least 10 locations in the lentil crop at 10 per cent flowering. 1. Plant Stand Risk Factor a. Thin (high weed pressure, low yield expectations) 0 b. Moderate (some weeds, possibly low yield) 5 c. Normal (about 12 lentil plants/ft 2 or 136/M 2 ) 10 d. Dense (more plants than normal, lush growth) Number of days with rain in the last 14 days Risk Factor a. 0 days 0 b. 1-2 days 5 c. 5-6 days 10 d. 7 or more days The five day weather forecast Risk Factor a. Dry 0 b. Unpredictable 5 c. Light showers 10 d. Rain Symptoms of anthracnose and ascochyta blight on lentil plants Risk Factor a. No visible symptoms 0 b. Few lesions on the lower half of the foliage (up to 10 per cent infected) 5 c. Lesions on lower half of the foliage (up to 25 per cent infected) 15 d. Lesions on lower (up to 25 per cent) as well as upper foliage (up to 10 per cent) 25 d. Lesions on lower foliage and premature leaf drop characteristics of anthracnose 25 d. Flowers and/or peduncles infected, characteristics of ascochyrta blight 25 Choose the risk values that most closely describe the plant stand, number of days with rain in the past 14 days, and the five day weather forecast. Average the disease symptoms over at least 10 sites in the field. A risk value is then calculated as A+B+C+D. If the risk value is less than 50, a fungicide application is not recommended, but a new assessment should be made at three to five day intervals until the crop is no longer flowering. When the risk value is 50 or above, a fungicide application is recommended. The optimal time for control of anthracnose is the 10 to 12 node stage, or early flowering when premature leaf drop first occurs. An application may be warranted at low levels of stem infection to protect those plants that are still healthy. problems with late season botrytis in years or locations with higher moisture. A number of foliar fungicides are registered for the control of botrytis grey mould and sclerotinia white mould. These diseases may appear late in the season with minimal impact to yield, which should be considered when making an economical decision on whether to spray or not. It is too late to apply fungicide to control sclerotinia white mould once symptoms are observed, so forecasting to determine risk is necessary. Consult the current Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Guide to Crop Protection and product labels for details on currently registered foliar fungicides. 40

43 Viral diseases are not severe in lentil in Saskatchewan. Lentil seed-borne mosaic virus is a potential threat to lentil, as it may be introduced with infected lentil seed and spread by aphids. Scouting in lentil for disease should begin at the vegetative stage (eight to 10 nodes) and followed up every seven days. Scout first in those fields or areas that are at the greatest risk. These include fields planted with infected seed, fields that had the same pulse crop grown within the previous two years, fields planted to the most disease susceptible varieties (crops rated as having poor or very poor resistance), field margins adjacent to last year s infected lentil stubble, areas where the plants have been stressed or have a dense plant canopy, and fields with high moisture. Increase scouting frequency if moist conditions prevail (foliar diseases thrive and spread during warm weather with frequent rain showers). Check a minimum of five sites in a field, if fields are considered large, that number should be increased. Walk an M pattern through the crop to cover a large area. Early symptoms are usually first noticed in the lower canopy. Look closely at the lower leaves and stems (a magnifying glass will help). Use flags to mark specific areas in the field for regular monitoring to watch for disease spread to new tissues and/or to determine the effectiveness of previous fungicide applications. Early identification of infection sites is critical. This allows time for a decision regarding fungicide application before the disease gets a foothold in the crop. Remember that tiny microscopic organisms cause disease. By the time large-scale symptoms can be seen, it may be too late to take action. Some well-planned scouting can determine how to get the most efficient use of a fungicide application. As well, chemical injury, weather damage, fertility problems, insect damage, or root disease may be mistaken for foliar diseases. Applying fungicides for the wrong problem, at the wrong time, or when unnecessary will greatly reduce economic returns. It also goes against the principles of managing to prevent or slow down the development of fungicide resistance in disease pathogens. It is advisable to keep the field as sanitary as possible. Before entering fields, put on clean footwear and do not transfer disease organisms from one field to another. This problem becomes worse following a rain or when dew is still present. As with herbicides and weed resistance, managing fungicide use to prevent or slow the development of fungicide resistance is in the long term interests of all lentil growers. Use foliar fungicide only when disease risk and potential loss are considered to be economically damaging (i.e. greater than the cost of control). Headline EC and Quadris are members of the strobilurin group of fungicides. Development of resistance of several fungal pathogens to this group of fungicides has been reported in Europe and in Saskatchewan, and is of great concern. No more than two applications per year of any strobilurin fungicide should be made to the same field, as disease resistance could develop. The continuous use of strobilurin fungicides without fungicide rotation greatly increases the threat of disease resistance. Just as with different herbicide groups, fungicide groups also have the potential to develop resistance in the disease population. The relative risks of the different fungicide groups are indicated in Table 6. Any fungal pathogen population may contain some strains naturally insensitive to various fun- 41

44 gicides. A gradual or total loss of disease control may occur over time if these fungicides are used repeatedly in the same fields. The following strategy should be considered and implemented to delay fungicide resistance/insensitivity: Use a fungicide rotation - rotate the use of a fungicide with others from different groups that control the same pathogens. Tank mix fungicides that have a high risk of developing insensitivity with other fungicides from a different group. Do not apply more than the maximum number of applications listed on the label. Avoid consecutive sprays of the same fungicide, or other fungicides in the same group, in a season. Fungicides belonging to the strobilurin group should not be applied more than twice a season in the same field. Fungicide application should be based on an integrated pest management (IPM) program that includes scouting and accurate recording related to pesticide use and crop rotation. Monitor treated fungal populations for signs of fungicide insensitivity. If disease continues to progress after treatment with a product, do not increase the use rate. Discontinue use of the product and switch to another fungicide with a different target site of action. Producers should not rely exclusively on a single Table 6. Fungicide Groups based on Mode of Action and Risk Rating for Resistance Development Mode of Action Group Risk of Developing Resistance Lentil foliar fungicide Common Name A 4 High NONE B 1 High NONE B 22 Low to Medium NONE C 7 Medium Lance C 11 High** Headline EC, Quadris, Quilt* C 21 Medium to High NONE C 29 Low NONE D 9 Medium NONE E 2 Medium to High NONE E 12 Low to Medium NONE F 28 Low to Medium NONE F 40 Low to Medium NONE G 3 Medium Proline 480SC, Tilt 250E, Quilt* U 27 Low to Medium NONE M Various Low Bravo 500, Dithane DG Rainshield NT/ Manzate Pro-Stick/Penncozeb 75 DF Biofungicide N/A Serenade Max/ASO *Products contain more than one active ingredient and appear in no more than one group. ** Insensitivity or resistance is already present in the ascochyta species which attacks chickpea in Saskatchewan Adapted from 2011 Guide to Crop Production 42

45 management practice, but rather integrate a combination of practices to develop a consistent long-term strategy for disease management that is suited to their production system and location. Alternating fungicides with differing modes of action and using new fungicides (or new mixtures of existing fungicides) with differing modes of action, when brought to market, is key to long-term resistance management. Insect Management The list of insects to monitor in lentil is not extensive but can be quite important in years when populations of certain insects build to damaging levels. Grasshoppers generally do not favour lentil foliage. They pose the greatest threat from the bud stage through to early pod development because they eat flower buds, open flowers, and developing pods (Figures 30 & 31). Feeding on early developing pods can result in yield loss and cause delay in maturity. This delay in maturity is due to delayed pod set as the plant tries to compensate for early season pod loss. Damage from grasshopper feeding is variable. Slight damage to the pods may result in shattering and seed loss. When the edge of the pod is chewed, the seeds are more susceptible to disease and staining. At harvest, grasshopper parts, specifically heads, can be a problem to clean out of lentil crops as they are in the same size range as the lensshaped lentil seed. This results in a lower grade. Figure 30. Pest grasshopper damage lentil flowers/buds Source: Saskatchean Ministry of Agriculture Grasshopper is the insect most likely to cause damage in any particular year. Not that control is necessary every year, but the threshold number is low in lentil. Research indicates that two grasshoppers per metre squared will cause enough yield and quality loss to warrant an insecticide application. There are more than 80 species of grasshoppers on the prairies, only about 10 cause problems in agricultural crops and of those, only three species will threaten lentil. It is also important to note that the first adult grasshoppers to appear on the prairies by late May are not typically pests of lentil crops. Although grasshoppers usually do not cause damage early (they do not readily feed on lentil foliage), scouting should start early to determine the extent of the problem. If control is needed, the optimal timing is when nymphs are at the third stage, which is usually about mid-june. At this stage the grasshoppers become mobile, consume more, and most of the hatch should be complete. Often, grasshopper numbers will be higher in field margins and a thick lentil crop will deter the insects from moving further into the field as they prefer more open and bare areas. If grasshopper populations only exceed the economic threshold in the field margins, an edge treatment with an 43

46 appropriate insecticide can save time and reduce costs, while providing adequate control. In years with higher grasshopper populations, multiple insecticide applications may be necessary, especially on field margins. It is critical to use/apply only insecticides registered for use in lentil and to respect the pre-harvest interval (PHI) of the insecticide selected to maintain crop marketability. Figure 31. Pest grasshopper damage to lentil pods Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Cutworms can cause damage to newly emerged lentil seedlings, and at times may require insecticide application. Below ground feeding cutworms cut plants off at or near the soil surface. The pale western and red-backed cutworms are two of the species most frequently found in Saskatchewan soils. Damaged seedlings can dry up and disappear quickly, so frequent field scouting is critical in determining the cause of the damage. The economic threshold for cutworms in lentil is 2 to 3/m2 (0.2 to 0.3/ft2) in the top 7.5 cm (3 in) of soil. Lentil crops can often recover from cutworm damage if cool, moist growing conditions occur. However, plants are set back four days, and may not be competitive. Foliar feeding cutworms have also been noted occasionally in Saskatchewan in the last few years. Dingy cutworms have been found in eastern regions and army cutworms have been reported in western regions. Dingy and army cutworms feed above ground, consuming the plant foliage. Typically, these cutworms are more likely to cause damage on hilltops, south facing slopes and in drier areas of a field. Because grasshoppers can cause significant damage at low numbers, the following resources will be of value when dealing with this pest: Grasshoppers in Your Lentil Crops, on the Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture website ( Grasshopper Identification and Control Methods to Protect Crops and the Environment - available from the Saskatchewan Pulse Growers ( or (306) ). Wireworms are the immature stage or larvae of click beetles. Wireworms tend to be more abundant in moist soils and in lower, damper areas of a field. Although wireworms prefer grassy plants (cereal crops), wireworm damage has been noted in other crops including canola, chickpea and potato. Wireworms tend to shred the plant tissue below the soil surface. Initially, symptoms may show up as wilting in the central leaves of the main stem, but can eventually cause death of the plant. Damage may not be noticed early enough in the season to reseed. There is no established economic threshold for wireworm in lentil and there is no in-crop insecticide available to control wireworm. Controlling wireworm requires the use of an insecticidal seed treatment. 44

47 Lygus bug can be a pest of lentil in the United States, but has not been a problem in lentil in Saskatchewan to date. The economic threshold for lygus bugs in lentil is seven to 10 adults per 25 sweeps during blooming and podding. To monitor with a sweep net make 25 to 180 sweeps (with a 38 cm (15 in) net) in at least five randomly selected places in the field. The current Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Guide to Crop Protection describes procedures for monitoring for most common insect infestations, threshold levels, and insecticides registered for control. Lentil is sensitive to low doses of several herbicides, resulting in herbicide injury. This can be a result of improper sprayer clean-out, soil residuals, untimely application, non-label use, or spray drift. Growth regulator injury (i.e. 2,4-D) causes malformed roots and foliage of emerging lentil seedlings. Figure 33. Heat canker on seedlings; note plump white hypocotyl below canker Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 32. Wireworm larvae Source: Scott Hartley, P.Ag Provincial Specialist Non-Pest Disorders Heat canker, which occurs when young lentil seedlings are exposed to hot soil surface temperatures, can easily be confused with seedling blight. With seedling blight, the base of the stem becomes pinched and the seedling turns yellow and dies. With heat canker, the pinched stem usually remains white, and often new shoots are started from the scale nodes. Metribuzin (i.e. Sencor ) is registered for use on lentil, but crop injury can occur with either improper seeding depth (less than 5 cm [2 in]), with heavy rains after application, or stress following application. Symptoms may include leaf spotting, leaf margin burn, and plant stunting. These symptoms are especially evident when application is followed by hot weather or the soil is low in organic matter. Leaf spotting can be confused with ascochyta blight or anthracnose. Imazethapyr (i.e. Pursuit ) causes yellowing, malformation of the upper leaves and delays growth of susceptible varieties. 45

48 Metsulfuron, flucarbazone (Everest ) can cause severe malformation when recropping restrictions are not followed. Glyphosate can cause damage if used in the fall on lentil to be harvested for seed purposes. The germinating seedlings are abnormal. Figure 34. Frosted Red Lentil Seed Source: Canadian Grain Commission Figure 36. Nitrogen deficiency with chlorosis-yellowing Source: Hossein Zakeri Crop Development Centre Figure 35. Drought damage Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Figure 37. Hail damage Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture 46

49 Figure 38. 2,4-D injury; malformation of foliage from residue in soil Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 40. Metribuzin damage, plant stunting and leaf margin burn Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 39. Edge damage, thickened stem base and hypocotyls below soil line Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 41. Imazethapyr injury, yellowing and malformation of the upper leaves Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society 47

50 48 Figure 42. Flucarbazone-sodium injury; healthy (L), malformation of foliage (R) [Group 2] Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 44. Lentil: Fusarium damage Source: Canadian Grain Commission Figure 43. Pre-harvest glyphosate injury (R), healthy (L); 7-day germination test. Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society Figure 45. Lentil: Frost damaged seed Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture

51 Quick Facts For red lentil, the basic quality parameters are dictated by milling requirements and are colour, size, condition of dehulled split seeds, or the condition of dehulled whole seeds having cotyledons attached (footballs). Chemical desiccation to dry down crop foliage and weeds will reduce the time from maturity to threshing readiness, reduce shatter losses, and result in improved quality if the seed is harvested before being exposed to wet weather. For green lentil the basic quality parameters are seed diameter, seed thickness and uniformity, color uniformity, and intact green seed coats without wrinkling or staining. Glyphosate is not a desiccant. If applied, it should be for the purpose of weed control (most frequently perennial weeds but, also annual weeds in situations described above). Swathing will hasten drydown and prevent shattering. 49

52 Harvest Management For red lentil, the basic quality parameters are dictated by milling requirements and are colour, size, condition of dehulled split seeds, or the condition of dehulled whole seeds having cotyledons attached (footballs). Greater than 80 per cent milling efficiency (the per cent recovery of split and whole lentils after milling) is the minimum for economic milling. Higher milling efficiency is preferred. Agronomic practices to promote harvest as early as possible will provide the highest quality red lentils. Red lentil crop quality is unchanged by the choice of either swathing or desiccation under normal harvest conditions. For green lentil the basic quality parameters are seed diameter, seed thickness and uniformity, color uniformity, and intact green seed coats without wrinkling or staining. Research has shown that swathing is generally preferred over desiccation to maintain the best green colour in green lentils, although staining on the seed coat can increase if the harvest is wet. Swathing allows for a chance of weathering in the swath so timely pickup of the swath is essential to take full advantage of swathing versus desiccation for maintaining green colour in the seed coats. Variety choice also affects green lentil colour varieties like CDC Greenland (large green) and CDC Viceroy maintain green seed coat colour longer than other varieties during poor harvest conditions. Lentils are considered mature when the bottom third of the pods turn yellow to brown and rattles when shaken. This is the stage recommended for swathing, desiccation or pre-harvest herbicide application. Due to the indeterminate growth habit of lentil it is not uncommon to find plants still flowering at this stage; and most years, it is likely to find varying degrees of maturity throughout a field. The larger seeded, more indeterminate varieties will have more variation in maturity than the smaller seeded, more determinate varieties. For most growers, the primary objective is to dry down the crop as quickly and evenly as possible and get the crop threshed. This means either swathing or desiccating, although straight cutting without chemical desiccation may be possible. Harvest timing is a compromise between increased yield from younger pods and shatter losses from mature pods. The oldest, most mature pods almost always contribute more to yield than the younger ones. This means preventing shatter loss is key to maximizing yield. Swathing will hasten drydown and prevent shattering. If some shattering occurs while swathing, cutting under conditions of high humidity can reduce the losses. Modifications of pickup reels and lifters may be needed to do a good job. Swaths can be susceptible to wind movement (especially if cut later than the recommended stage). If cut at the proper stage, the swath should settle down enough to reduce wind movement potential. If good drying weather occurs following swathing, the quality of the seed is usually better than if chemically desiccated, especially for green varieties. Research suggests that seed wrinkling increased when desiccation occurred before the recommended maturity stage. If the swath is subjected to heavy and/or prolonged rain, quality loss can be high due to sprouting, wrinkling and disease build-up compared to a standing crop. 50

53 Swathing lentil can present some challenges due to the nature of the plant. If the field was rolled after seeding, swathing will be much easier. The lentil must be cut close to the ground to get the bottom pods with an angle of 20 to 30 suggested for the cutter bar. This, in conjunction with the short stature of the plant, means swather modifications including pick-up reels and vine lifters are usually needed to do a good job and keep soil from being mixed in with the plants. Pick-up reels make a significant difference and should be adjusted ahead of the cutter bar and run at ground speed. The following suggestions should add to the efficiency of the swathing operation: If the crop is lodged, lifters will perform better if cutting is perpendicular to the direction of the crop lean. A flexible cutter bar, and maybe even gauge wheels (or any alteration to improve flotation) will allow faster speeds and minimize cutter bar damage. Green lentil stems (and green weeds if present) can gum-up the cutter bar and may need frequent cleaning (soapy water, scraper, power washer). Soil picked up by the cutter bar will increase the need for occasional cleaning. Swath in the direction of prevailing winds to minimize risk of swath movement. A swath roller is not recommended, as it usually causes shattering. Be patient, slower travel speeds will reduce shattering and reduce cutter bar problems. Chemical desiccation to dry down crop foliage and weeds will reduce the time from maturity to threshing readiness, reduce shatter losses, and result in improved quality if the seed is harvested before being exposed to wet weather. Swathing or straight cutting a desiccated lentil field is easier than swathing one that is not. However, the timing of the application is more critical because it can have immediate dry down effects. The obvious benefit of chemical desiccation is the opportunity to have the crop harvested sooner, and reduce risk of exposure to wet weather. Reglone has been the most consistent and widely used desiccant through the years. Following application, lentil plants can be ready to thresh in four to seven days if hot, dry, sunny weather follows (although the time period is more commonly seven to 10 days). Although a desiccated crop could be swathed directly in front of the combine, the majority of acres are straight-cut. Applying Reglone in the evening and into the night, using high water volumes and the using the high end of the recommended rate will result in quicker and more consistent drydown. Days to threshing following application will increase under wet, cool conditions. Reglone applied later in the year will almost always act slower compared to earlier in the year. Fields having significant levels of certain weeds may benefit from a glyphosate application preceding the Reglone application (leave four to five days following the glyphosate application prior to applying the Reglone ). One scenario that would fit this situation is if a high number of large sized kochia are present. It is difficult to achieve thorough coverage over the entire kochia plant and only the plant material covered by the Reglone will desiccate. Wild oat and volunteer cereals are another example, as the vertical green stem is a tough target to cover entirely. Glyphosate is not a desiccant. If applied, it should be for the purpose of weed control (most frequently perennial weeds but, also annual weeds in situations described above). It may result in the threshing of the crop sooner than if left to drydown on its own, but once the plant is killed by the glyphosate, the green plant material must still dry down on its own. If weather conditions are 51

54 warm and dry it will reduce the days to threshing, compared to plants left standing without glyphosate applied. But, if weather conditions are cool and/or wet, the drydown can take a long time. If glyphosate is applied, do not use the crop for seed. Perennial weeds such as Canada thistle are very exposed in a lentil crop as it nears maturity. It is an excellent opportunity to apply pre-harvest glyphosate. Four to five days following the preharvest glyphosate application, the lentil crop can be swathed (although shattering will likely be a deterrent) or have Reglone applied. CleanStart is a recent addition to the list of desiccants registered for use in lentil. It contains the active ingredient carfentrazone and is mixed with glyphosate when applied. Observations to date suggest crops having CleanStart applied will take longer to be ready for threshing compared to Reglone. It should however be faster and more thorough compared to glyphosate alone. Cost and efficacy will be the factors considered when choosing this product over the alternatives. One scenario that may have a fit for a slower acting desiccant is when a large acreage of lentil on one farm is at the same stage; it may be of benefit (or at least no disadvantage) to use a slower acting desiccant on some acres if they can not all be threshed in a small time frame. Early desiccation should be avoided under poor weather conditions (cool and wet) during the harvest period, as it will result in a significant drop in quality. Early swathing results in much higher quality than early desiccation under poor harvest conditions. Early desiccation compared to early swathing also results in over 20 per cent lower football recovery and over eight per cent lower dehulling efficiency. Timely swathing with prompt, well managed combining will result in the highest red lentil quality under cool and wet weather conditions. If desiccation is chosen, then careful timing at the correct stage, when the bottom third of the pods are at the pod rattle stage, will be your best chance of achieving and maintaining milling quality. Straight combining without desiccation can be successful with early maturing varieties in a hot, dry harvest season. However, the risk of significant shatter loss is high and the crop must be uniformly mature across the field before threshing can be done. Because these requirements (crop at the same stage throughout field, early maturity, hot and dry weather at harvest) must be met to ensure success, this method is not as common as swathing or chemical desiccation. Combine adjustment guidelines include: Rotor or cylinder speed should be slow enough to prevent seed damage but fast enough to prevent cylinder plugging; usually somewhere in the range of 250 to 500 rpm. The crop should thresh easily so concave settings can be wide to allow good threshing and separation with minimal seed damage. Start with chaffers set at 3/4 and cleaning sieves at 3/8 and adjust from there. Keep tailings to a minimum. Ensure grain and return elevators are not splitting the seed. Keep fan speed only high enough to produce a clean sample, as lentil seed can be blown out the back of the combine. Combining lentil at 16 per cent to 18 per cent moisture is considered ideal assuming drying to 14 per cent can be accomplished. If harvesting at 14 per cent moisture and lower, seed breakage increases, as does shattering loss. With good drying weather the moisture level can drop quickly so be prepared to monitor closely. When straight cutting, threshing equipment with 52

55 flex headers, automatic height controls, and pickup or air reels are an asset. Although not commonly found on Saskatchewan farms, stripper headers have been found to offer advantages for lentil harvest. Using stripper headers compared to more conventional equipment showed similar weed seed dockage levels, while having no samples with soil contamination. This compared to soil contamination in 40 per cent of the samples collected by straight cut or pick up headers. Other advantages with the stripper header include increased travel speeds, less combine wear, increased crop residues, taller stubble, and increased snow catch over winter. Stripper header research showed increased yield and fewer harvest losses under delayed harvest and lodging conditions in lentil. Stripper headers had the advantage of being able to strip off ripened pods while green leaves are still on the plants. Very little green material goes into the combine. No differences in yield or quality were observed when lentil was harvested at the pod rattle, or at the ripe stage

56 Quick Facts Seed moisture higher than 18 per cent results in longer drying times and as lentil moisture approaches 20 per cent the crop is difficult to thresh without smashing the seed. For red lentil, buyers prefer seed moisture content to be 13 per cent to improve the quality and efficiency of dehulling and splitting processes. Lentil seed at 14 per cent moisture or less and 15 C or less can be stored safely for up to 40 weeks. 54 If heated grain drying is needed, air temperatures should not exceed 45 C to preserve germination, and the sample should not be dried more than four to five percentage points per pass through the dryer. Lentil seed is susceptible to increased chipping and peeling if handled in temperatures colder than -20 C.

57 Post-Harvest Storage and Handling Seed moisture higher than 18 per cent results in longer drying times and as lentil moisture approaches 20 per cent, the crop is difficult to thresh without smashing the seed. Storage at 14 per cent moisture is considered safe for longer term storage and is recommended for green lentil to minimize seed coat damage during handling. For red lentil, buyers prefer seed moisture content to be 13 per cent to improve the quality and efficiency of dehulling and splitting processes. Lentil seed containing green weed seeds and other high moisture materials should be cleaned as soon as possible to prevent heating. Lentil seed at 14 per cent moisture or less and 15 C or less can be stored safely for up to 40 weeks. There are slight differences between red and green lentils as illustrated in Tables 7 and 8. from successive years should not be mixed, as the oldest seed will cause downgrading of the entire sample. Green lentils should not be stored through a second summer season to avoid excessive discolouration and downgrading. Lentil seed is susceptible to increased chipping and peeling if handled in temperatures colder than -20 C. Avoid unnecessary handling and invest in conveying equipment that is gentler on the lentil seed when moving. Belt conveyors cause much less damage than steel flighting augers. Lentil can also be damaged when dropped into a bin from significant height and it may be necessary to use equipment (i.e. bean ladders) to soften the drop. Ideally lentil should be threshed at 16 to 18 per cent moisture. This means some form of drying will be required for safe, long-term storage. Lentil is usually harvested in time to take advantage of good natural air drying conditions (warm and dry). If a bin is equipped to adequately dry wheat with a natural air system, it will work for lentil. If heated grain drying is needed, air temperatures should not exceed 45 C to preserve germination, and the sample should not be dried more than four to five percentage points per pass through the dryer. Lentil seed can be easily damaged in the drying process so caution is needed. Lentil varieties with green seed coats will discolour with age, thus reducing the grade. Producers should store lentil in dry, dark conditions. Seed 55

58 Table 7. Suggested Number of Weeks for Safe Storage of Green Lentil at the Specified Grain Moisture Content and Storage Temperature Storage Moisture Content (%) Temp ( C) = Safe Long Term = Safe Storage = Safe Short Term = High Risk - Unsafe or quality at risk Source: Extrapolated from Pea data (Sokhansanj 1995) Red lentil will be similar to pea (McVicar, 2006) Table 8. Suggested Number of Weeks for Safe Storage of Red Lentil at the Specified Grain Moisture Content and Storage Temperature Storage Moisture Content (%) Temp ( C) 12** = Safe Long Term = Safe Storage = Safe Short Term = High Risk - Unsafe or quality at risk Source: Extrapolated from Pea data (Sokhansanj 1995) Red lentil will be similar to pea (McVicar, 2006) 56 53

59 References Ahmed, S. (2010) Reactions of Lentil Genotypes to Fusarium Wilt Under Zero and Conventional Tillage Systems. Poster: In: BOOK OF ABSTRACTS 5th International Food Legumes Research Conference (IFLRC V) & 7th European Conference on Grain Legumes (AEP VII) Legumes for Global Health Legume Crops and Products for Food, Feed and Environmental Benefits April 26-30, Antalya, Turkey Angadi, S. V., McConkey, B. G., Cutforth, H. W., Miller, P. R., Ulrich, D., Selles, F., Volkmar, K. M., Entz, M. H., and Brandt, S. A. (2008) Adaptation of alternative pulse and oilseed crops to the semiarid Canadian Prairie: Seed yield and water use efficiency. Canadian Journal of Plant Science Volume 88, Number 3, May 2008 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 731 kb) Banniza, Personal communication 2010 sabine.banniza@usask.ca Beckie, Personal communication 2010 hugh.beckie@agr.gc.ca Bett, K., Tullu, A. T., Vandenberg, B. (2008) Adding value to lentils through improvement of visual quality characteristics. ADF Project #BRE0406 Final Report. Available on file at Saskatchewan Pulse Growers Brenzil, Personal communication 2010 Clark.Brenzil@ gov.sk.ca Bruce, J. L. (2008) MSc Thesis, U of S The effects of preharvest treatments on the milling efficiency of red lentil Bailey, K. L., Gossen, B. D., Gugel, R.K. and Morrall, R.A.A. (2003) Diseases of Field Crops in Canada Bailey, K. L., Gossen, B. D., Derksen, D. A., and Watson, P. R. (2000) Impact of agronomic practices and environment on diseases of wheat and lentil in southeastern Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Plant Science Volume 80, Number 4, October 2000 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 71 kb) Bandara, M., Kruger, A., Scharf, F. (2010) Lentil Cultivar Response to Row Spacing and Seeding Density under Weed-Free Growing Conditions in Southern Alberta, Canada. Poster: In: BOOK OF ABSTRACTS 5th International Food Legumes Research Conference (IFLRC V) & 7th European Conference on Grain Legumes (AEP VII) Legumes for Global Health Legume Crops and Products for Food, Feed and Environmental Benefits April 26-30, Antalya, Turkey Bruce, J. L., Tabil, L., Tyler, B., and Vandenberg A. (2006) Effects of Harvest Treatment on Milling Efficiency of Red Lentil in Saskatchewan. 6th Canadian Pulse Research Workshop on November 1-3, 2006 Abstract Poster Buchwaldt, Personal communication 2010 lone.buchwaldt@agr.gc.ca Cavan, G., Cussans, J., and Moss, S. (2001) Managing the risks of herbicide resistance in wild oat. Weed Science Volume 49, Issue 2 (March-April 2001) Abstract. Full Text. PDF (128K) Cenkowski, S. (2010a) Red Lentil Research Aims to Help Growers Preserve Quality of Stored Crop. University News for March 10,

60 Cenkowski, S. (2010b) Storage Conditions Impact Red Lentil Processing and Cooking Quality. University News for March 9, 2010 Cenkowski, S., Gervais, M., Arntfield, S., and Paliwal, J., (2007) Equilibrium Moisture Content Characteristics of Red Lentils. ADF Project #PRO0611 Final Report. Available on file at Saskatchewan Pulse Growers Cutforth, H. W., McConkey, B. G., Ulrich, D., Miller, P. R., and Angadi, S. V. (2002) Yield and water use efficiency of pulses seeded directly into standing stubble in the semiarid Canadian Prairie. Canadian Journal of Plant Science Volume 82, Number 4, October 2002 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 71 kb) Cutforth, Personal communication 2010 Davey, B. F., Vandenberg, A., Van Natto, C., Bett, K. (2006) Green Seed Coat Colour Retention in Lentil. 6th Canadian Pulse Research Workshop on November 1-3, Abstract Poster Dokken-Bouchard, Personal communication 2010 Gossen, B. D. and Derksen, D. A. (2003) Impact of tillage and crop rotation on ascochyta blight (Ascochyta lentis) of lentil. Canadian Journal of Plant Science Volume 83, Number 2, April 2003 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 81 kb) Gossen, B. D., Anderson, K. L., and Buchwaldt, L. (2009) Host specificity of Colletotrichum truncatum from lentil. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology Volume 31, Number 1, March 2009 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 623 kb) Gossen, Personal communication 2010 Gracia-Garza, J. A., Neumann, S., Vyn T. J., and Boland, G. J. (2002) Influence of crop rotation and tillage on production of apothecia by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology Volume 24, Number 2, June 2002 Abstract Full text (PDF 64 kb) Gulden, R. H. and Vessey, J. K. (2000) Penicillium bilaii inoculation increases root-hair production in field pea. Canadian Journal of Plant Science Volume 80, Number 4, October 2000 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 21 kb Gan, Personal communication 2010 Gan, Y. T., Selles, F., Hanson, K. G., McConkey, B. G., Zentner, R. P., and Mcdonald C. L. (2003) Optimizing Inoculation and Fertilization for Chickpea and Lentil in the Semiarid Canadian Prairie. ADF Project #AGR AGR9903 Final Report. Available on file at Saskatchewan Pulse Growers. gov.sk.ca/apps/adf/adf_admin/reports/ pdf Hartley, Personal communication 2010 Hnatowich, G. (2009) Inoculation tips. In: The Pulse Agronomy Network Partnership with Industry Bulletin #3 April 28, 2009 Holm, Personal communication 2010 Goddard, T. (2006) Stratification of ph and Nutrients in Two Surface Layers of the Three Hills Long-Term Cropping System Plots. ipni.net/far/farguide.nsf/$webindex/article=a93 5B Huang, H. C. (2004) Pink Seed of Pea Project. ADF Project #AGR0108 Final Report. Available on file at Saskatchewan Pulse Growers 58

61 Hwang, S. F., Gossen, B. D., Turnbull, G. D., Chang, K. F., Howard, R. J., and Thomas, A. G. (2000) Effect of temperature, seeding date, fungicide seed treatment and inoculation with Fusarium avenaceum on seedling survival, root rot severity and yield of lentil. Canadian Journal of Plant Science Volume 80, Number 4, October 2000 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 86 kb) Johnson, Personal communication 2010 Johnston, Personal communication 2010 Kessel, C. V. and Hartley, C. (2000) Agricultural management of grain legumes: has it led to an increase in nitrogen fixation?. Field Crop Research Volume 65, Issues 2-3, Pages (March 2000) Krupinsky, J. M., Bailey, K. L., McMullen, M. P., Gossen, B. D., and Turkington, T. K. (2002) Managing Plant Disease Risk in Diversified Cropping Systems. Agron. J : [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] Lafond, Personal communication 2010 McCall, Personal communication 2010 McConkey, B. G., Curtin, D., Campbell, C. A., Brandt, S. A., and Selles, F. (2002) Crop and soil nitrogen status of tilled and no-tillage systems in semiarid regions of Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Soil Science Volume 82, Number 4, November 2002 Pages Abstract Full text (PDF 151 kb) McConkey, Personal communication 2010 McVicar, Personal communication 2010 McVicar, R. (2006) Pulse Crop Storage In The Pulse Agronomy Network Partnership With Industry, Oct 2006 edition. Available at Pulse%20BulletinOct2006.pdf Miller, Personal communication 2010 Morrall, Personal communication 2010 Nybo, B. (2004) Addressing Quality Issues of Saskatchewan Pulses with Advanced Harvesting Techniques. #AGR0410 Final Report. Available on file at Saskatchewan Pulse Growers Nybo, B. (2005) Addressing Quality Issues of Saskatchewan Pulses with Advanced Harvesting Techniques. #AGR0515 Final Report. Available on file at Saskatchewan Pulse Growers Panchuk, Personal communication 2010 Porter, L., Riga, E., Mojtahedi, H., Erickson, D. (2010) First Report of Pratylenchus neglectus, Pratylenchus thornei and Paratylenchus hamatus Nematodes Causing Yield Reduction to Dryland Peas and Lentils in the USA. Poster: In: BOOK OF ABSTRACTS 5th International Food Legumes Research Conference (IF- LRC V) & 7th European Conference on Grain Legumes (AEP VII) Legumes for Global Health Legume Crops and Products for Food, Feed and Environmental Benefits April 26-30, Antalya, Turkey Reid, D. J. and Acker R. C. V. (2005) Seed burial by tillage promotes field recruitment of false cleavers (Galium spurium) and catchweed bedstraw (Galium aparine). Weed Science Volume 53, Issue 5 (September-October 2005) Abstract. Full Text. PDF (188K) 59

62 Risula, Personal communication 2010 Vandenberg, Personal communication 2010 Schoenau, Personal communication 2010 Schwinghamer, T. D. and Acker, R. C. V. (2008) Emergence Timing and Persistence of Kochia (Kochia scoparia). Weed Science Volume 56, Issue 1 (January- February 2008) Abstract. Full Text. PDF (227K) Shirtliffe, Personal communication 2010 steve. shirtliffe@usask.ca Walley, F. L., George W. Clayton, Perry R. Miller, Patrick M. Carr, and Guy P. Lafond (1999) Nitrogen Economy of Pulse Crop Production in the Northern Great Plains. Agron. J : Ward and Vandenberg (2006) Screening Lentil Accessions for Lodging Tolerance. 6 Canadian Pulse Research Workshop Wolf, Personal communication 2010 wolft@agr.gc.ca Shirtliffe, S. J. and Entz, M. H. (2005) Chaff collection reduces seed dispersal of wild oat (Avena fatua) by a combine harvester. Weed Science Volume 53, Issue 4 (July-August 2005) Abstract. Full Text. PDF (347K) SASKATCHEWAN MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE Fact Sheets as outlined in document SASKATCHEWAN MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE publication 2010 Guide to Crop Protection SASKATCHEWAN MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE publication Lentil in Saskatchewan sk.ca/default.aspx?dn=ce32b7bd-c7ad-4b9e-a a2 SASKATCHEWAN MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE publication Red Lentil Stewart, Personal communication 2010 chris.stewart@scic.gov.sk.ca Vandenberg, A., and Bruce, J., (2007) Variety Specific Agronomy: Red Lentil Quality. ADF Project #AGR0509 Final Report. Available on file at Saskatchewan Pulse Growers 60

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