CHAPTER 3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT

Transcription

1 70 CHAPTER 3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT 3.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, a conceptual framework to implement the restoration scheme of tank irrigation system for sustainable rural livelihood is developed based on the reviewed literature in the field of tank irrigation system management and impact of rehabilitation of tank irrigation system. Sustainable development was defined in the Brundtland report Our Common Future WCED (1987) as development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Subsequently, many authors have used the term sustainable development for specific development activities like sustainable agriculture, sustainable forestry, sustainable energy development, etc. A single development may be considered successful if it is weighed against its specific performance criteria. But to achieve sustainability, all the different aspects of development should be considered simultaneously. An integrated approach is essential for this study. Many research organizations and individuals have defined sustainability with regard to development in agriculture, forestry, land management, etc. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (TAC/CGIAR, 1988, cited in:

2 71 Prinz, 1998) states that sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources of agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality. Current irrigated agriculture could not be sustained until there is an improvement in water conveyance system and upgrading the irrigation efficiency with a drainage system. The major deficiencies that influence the sustainability of tank irrigation system are inadequate maintenance, reduction in storage capacity, heavy seepage losses in the delivery system and poor water management techniques. There is a pressing need to evolve and implement appropriate strategies that management be sound on technical, social, institutional and economic dimensions for sustainable development and management of tank irrigation systems (Arumugam and Mohan 1997). Farmers involved in implementing tank rehabilitation have to be helped to meet their felt needs primarily and their utmost cooperation has to be earned in carrying out rehabilitation program effectively. There are three factors that qualify the sustainable development of a system, which are: (a) survivability; (b) sustainability; and (c) efficiency [l/o]. Survivability refers to the conditions under which a system yields net profits above a certain minimum level. Sustainability indicates that if the demand increases then the net profit must also be increased without causing damage to the system, which results in the sustainable use of the system. Efficiency refers to the quantity produced in relation to the input use (output/ input) (Arumugam et al, 1997). The experience with watershed development under the new participatory approach in India shows that the immediate results are positive in terms of rise in water tables, crop yields, employment and income of the participants (Rao, 2000).

3 WATER RESOURCES Irrigation tanks are one of the major water and common property resources in Southern Peninsular India. Declination of irrigation tanks threatens the agriculture productivity and water availability in the South and South East Asia especially in Southern Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. The literature on water resources of tank irrigation system identifies numerous reasons such as socioeconomic, institutional and physical for the decline of tank irrigation (Von Oppen and Subba Rao, 1980; Reddy, 1990; Reddy et al, 1993; Janakarajan, 1991; Reddy, 1996; Gireesh et al, 1997). Historically, the decline in tank irrigation is linked with increasing population density. Tank degradations can be reversed through appropriate water conservation and management techniques, which enhance groundwater recharge, agriculture productivity and poverty alleviation in the rural area in India. These resources need rehabilitation which is given in a framework as shown in Figure 3.1. Tank rehabilitation options that can be used to restore to the original standards should be given priority. Desilting is an important option. However, as stated earlier in section 2.5, it has been observed that in a 10 year cycle, for only 3 years the tanks reach full storage, for five years deficit storage and for two years the tanks fail. Hence, desilting the tank fully is not economical as the benefits of desilting will be for only three years with tanks at full supply. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as well as around the periphery of the tank water spread area (Palanisamy, 2006). This type of desilting is suitable for system and non-system tanks. Most of the tanks do not receive an adequate water supply and the chain systems of tanks have been almost broken. Hence, there is an urgent need to revive the tankchains (tank cascade or chain of tanks) through appropriate modernization strategies for improving the supply channels connecting different tanks.

4 73 This highlight the needs for taking up modernization works at the chain-level i.e. by considering the entire hydrological boundary as a single unit rather than viewing individual tanks as separate entities for new investment (Palanisamy, 2006). Community wells should be installed in the tank water spread area to provide some supplementary irrigation to the non-well farmers during critical periods. Again, the farmer s level of access to resources plays a critical role in the acceptability or appropriateness of the various technologies (John, 2002). If the land is a limiting factor to production, then practices that reduce the land area are unlikely to be embraced. If the labour is limited, then the gender division of labour and the timing of the various activities become critical to the adoption of technologies. And if capital is limiting by considering the traditional practice experiences of the farmers, experts and scientists could develop the appropriate technologies jointly with the people. Siltation over many years generally reduces the tank storage capacity. In the earlier years, farmers used to desilt the tanks using their bullock carts and manual labour with the aim of maintaining the tank storage as well as obtaining manure for their lands. Presently, it is becoming increasingly difficult to desilt by themselves due to the lack of bullock carts and the reduced spirit of Kudimaramath (community repair work). The Government cannot perform the desilting since it is too expensive to desilt the entire tank capacity. And also, it is difficult to dispose of silts outside the tanks. Partial desilting that helps to restore the original (10%) dead storage could be attempted as part of tank rehabilitation options to increase non-irrigation benefits of tank water particularly in the non-tank-irrigation season. The recharging of wells could also be improved. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as well as around the periphery of the tank water spread area (Palanisamy, 2006). This type of desilting is suitable for system tanks and non-system tanks.

5 74 Problems of small water storage bodies like irrigation tanks, kulams etc, Issues Silting and nonmaintenance of tanks Chocking of supply channel Deterioration of the traditional irrigation institutions Nonmaintenance of tanks Encroachment of foreshore area, catchment area and supply channel Pollution from industries Restoration of Water Bodies Cause Maintaining and repairing of tank bund, sluice and surplus weir and improving supply channel Desilting of tank bed area Proper maintenance of tank system through farmers participation after modernization and restoration Effect Sustainability Improving water storage, increasing ground water level through recharge, preventing encroachment of tank bed area and supply channel etc Silting and non-maintenance of tanks Social Equity Ensure equity, adequacy and reliability in water supply. Economic efficiency Highest productivity both in agriculture and ecosystem, adequacy and reliability in water supply. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Figure 3.1 Framework for tank irrigation system degradation issues and appropriate management and conservation for sustainable development

6 75 In many tanks the supply channels feeding the tanks are heavily silted, and in several cases they are missing due to the combined effect of both siltation and encroachment. Restoration of the supply channels with original capacities will help capture the run-off water to the tanks. Tank siltation is one of the major causes for the reduction in the tank storage capacity. This is further aggravated by deforestation in the tank catchment area, by encroachers for firewood causing soil erosion during heavy rains. Hence, afforestation has to be taken up in the catchment area. This is further aggravated by deforestation in the catchment area, both by encroachers and tank irrigators to be introduced in the tank. As per the social forestry programme, the Forestry Department is planting trees in the tank catchment and foreshore areas. In some cases, the water spread areas of the tanks are also used for planting the trees and after 10 years the trees will be auctioned off. About 50% of the revenue from the auction will be given to the local Panchayat (Village level administrative body), which will be spent on tank and village improvement works. Supply channel desilting helps to receive the water properly from the river. Channel desilting also helps in getting the benefit by two ways. The first one is during rainy seasons. Heavy flows coming from the river may directly enter the tank and fill it up to its full capacity, which may help the farmers to achieve high productivity. The recharge of groundwater may also be at its highest level. The second is during non-rainy seasons. With the sluice gates closed, water may stagnate in the channel, which can be used for irrigation by gravity or by pumping. This may also help to recharge the groundwater.

7 STAKEHOLDER CONTRIBUTION FOR TANK IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT Conserved tanks and ponds will serve a long lasting multiple uses supporting various communities including urban areas. Based on situations, either conservation or development or both assume significance. The challenges to conservation and development are technological challenges for restoration, conservation and development, institutional challenges for revival, conservation and development, and financial and human resources challenges for revival and redefining the role of the state, research institutions, resource institutions and NGOs and the local community (DHAN, 2002). The situation, therefore, calls for major changes in governance and management, activism of the locals, research in engineering and tank fed agronomy, funding by the governments and donors. The desired changes can be brought about only when the various stakeholders are brought to a common platform to share their views on the need for a sustained management. Presently, the tanks have many stakeholders such as the Irrigation Department, the Local Panchayats, the Revenue Department, the Agricultural Department, Forest Department and the local people. The functions of various stakeholders towards sustainable development of tank irrigation system are highlighted as on Figure 3.2. There are many stakeholders in the tank and tank related programs, of which the Government agencies, farmers and technologists are important. The Government officials, institutions and farmers should be invited for a meeting to listen to each others views on the tank systems. The meeting should focus on the status of tanks, tank fed agriculture, tank improvement, tank administration and encroachment.

8 77 Multi stake holder decision making for restoration of tanks Technologist Farmers Government Maximising Tank water Productivity Status of tanks and its improvement needed Awareness Training Cause Techniques of groundwater recharge Past uses of tanks Tank restoration and its need Performance support Performance evaluation Changes in groundwater table Changes in cropping pattern through improved groundwater table Changes in livestock economy, changes in housing facilities, changes in farms and house hold assets, growth of social institution, changes in farm and nonfarm activities, employment opportunities etc. Effect Productivity (yield) of land, value of land and livestock holding, family income and Employment Social Development Economic wellbeing Environmental sustainability Figure 3.2 Tank restoration schemes for sustainable management of tank irrigation

9 78 Based on these aspects, an enabling solution has to be decided. Perspectives of technologists are important, which should get integrated in the decision making to increase the farm productivity. Recent technologies have been used to improve the tank irrigation and also they have been used for maximizing tank productivity, groundwater recharge and other tank services. Micro-irrigation encompasses drip and sprinkler technologies. The intended framework considers three key areas as equally important. Figure 3.2, presents the relationship among the three key network of active stakeholders (Technologist, Government and Farmers), as well as the three objectives to be achieved (social equity, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability). The multi stakeholder involvement in decision making is very important for achieving all the three objectives. Different stakeholders are involved in tank irrigation and hence, any decision towards the tank renovation program should be finalised after a consultation among the different stakeholders. Encroachments and siltation in waterspread areas and the supply channels, catchments degradation, deterioration of the traditional irrigation institutions, improper water management at farm level are some of the major problems confronting tank irrigation in the State. Restoration program is carried out before understanding the general characteristics about tank system and perspectives of farmers, technologists and the Government. Integration of stakeholders (Government, farmers and technologists) in decision making for rehabilitation/restoration/renovation, modernization and desilting etc., is very important for achieving long term sustainability. Lacking of any one of the stake holder participation in decision-making may lead to immediate short-term benefit, but it will lead to long term unsustainability.

10 RESTORATION SCHEMES OF TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Managing tank irrigation systems is a complex phenomenon. Therefore, its management requires a variety of physical, social and economic policies and techniques, all aimed at minimizing the adverse consequences of natural disaster events to improve and enhance the quality of life of the community. Rehabilitation of tank irrigation systems results in an augmented supply of irrigation water, better recharge of groundwater, improved quality of drinking water, increased production and productivity, enhanced employment opportunities and better well-being of the stakeholder communities. For a sustainable tank irrigation system management through development (restoration) programme that the restoration programmes should be sound on environmental, social and economic dimensions. Any restoration programme must start with identifying the problems of tank irrigation system through perspectives of farmers, improvement of the tank water productivity, groundwater recharge and other tank support services, which should be collaborated by the perspectives of technologists and finally the government should allocate the funds not only for infrastructure development but also for institution building and awareness programmes (Deivalatha and Ambujam, 2010). Now a complete rehabilitation is not possible due to the fact, that tanks are very old structures. Certain limited components of rehabilitation works like partial desilting of tanks, desilting of channels, tank bund strengthening etc. may be possible to get the expected benefits of agricultural productivity through increased groundwater recharge. However, the major stakeholders involved to implement these restoration works have to be made aware of the expected positive impact. Results of the these restoration works being the benefit of environmental well being through increased agricultural

11 80 irrigated land, socio economical benefit of food security, productivity of yield and profitability of farm income and also the investment amount is financially feasible, which are clearly indicated in Figure 3.3. Stakeholders of Tank Irrigation System Water user groups, NGO, Technologists and Government officials Stakeholders involved in implementation of restoration schemes of tank irrigation system Restoration works like partial desilting of tanks, desilting of supply channel and tank bund strengthening etc. Increased water availability Improved agriculture productivity Changes in Groundwater recharge Changes in well water level Pumping duration of wells, Well yield Changes in irrigated area etc. Changes in crop yield Changes in farm income Changes in income for landless labours by increasing employment opportunity Ecological Impact Increasing irrigated cropping area and cropping intensity and fodder availability for protecting environmental well being by conserve the basic natural sources of agricultural land and rural water bodies Socio Economic Impact Food security Productivity of crop yield Profitability of farm income Financially feasible Investment scheme of tank irrigation System Tank irrigation system management through restoration scheme for Sustainable livelihood Figure 3.3 Restoration schemes for tank irrigation systems

12 IMPACT OF IMPLEMENTATION OF RESTORATION SCHEME IN TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM For a successful and sustainable tank irrigation system management, it should be protected from the issues of degradation and maintained for a good production. It should involve the relevant stakeholders in implementing the tank restoration schemes particularly the community from problem identification to all levels of planning. It should give combined benefit for a solution of the restoration project. For a tank irrigation system to be sustainable through restoration schemes, multidimensional impacts of ecological, social and economic benefits all need to be assessed as explained in Figure 3.4. These multidimensional impacts of the restoration scheme of tank irrigation system project are studied in detail. Sustainable benefits of technical measures for ecological impact, social and economic measures for socio economic impact and economic feasibility are also studied in detail and the factors indicating the sustainability of each element are determined. The conceptual framework outlined here can be applied to developmental schemes of tank irrigation systems not only in Tamil Nadu but also elsewhere in the world with similar situations, which will be explored and explained in the following sections. The overall performances of tank irrigation system developmental programme have been examined in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is pointed out that tank irrigation system developmental activities have made significant positive impacts on bio-hydrological aspects such as surface runoff water harvesting, production and productivity of crops, changes in cropping pattern and cropping intensity.

13 82 Multidimensional impact of Restoration schemes of tank irrigation systems Technical Measures Changes in groundwater recharge Changes in well water level Pumping duration of wells, Well yield Changes in irrigated area etc Social Measures Changes in literacy rate Changes in farms and house hold asset Changes in farm and nonfarm activities Employment opportunity Economic Measures Changes in crop yield Changes in farm income Changes in income for landless labours by increasing employment opportunity Investment amount of restoration schemes Socio Economic Impact Food Security Productivity of crop yield Profitability of Farm income Ecological Impact Increasing irrigated cropping area and cropping intensity and fodder availability for protecting environmental well being. Increment benefit of crop farm income by cropping area, cropping intensity and crop yield Investment Appraisal techniques IRR Benefit Cost Ratio Pay Back Period Benefit Cost Index Financial Feasibility Tank irrigation system management through restoration schemes for Sustainable rural livelihood Figure 3.4 Multidimensional impacts of tank irrigation system restoration schemes

14 83 These activities have shown significant positive impact on water table, recharging wells and employment opportunities for rural people, food security, water availability for cattle and other domestic purposes etc. The overall economic impacts have been evaluated in terms of Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR). There is no single indicator to evaluate the success of tank irrigation system developmental activities. Hence, a feasible approach may be to compare the performance of a variety of indicators. Such performance indicators may reflect the diversity of the project objectives. These include raising agriculture productivity, recharging groundwater for irrigation and drinking, reducing productivity of non-cultivable land, increasing cultivable land, creating employment, promoting collective action and building or strengthening social institutions Evaluation Measures for Tank Restoration Schemes Technical measures: Some technical measures may include the changes in groundwater recharge, changes in well water level, pumping duration of wells, irrigated area, and additional area brought under cultivation and protecting environmental well beings Socio economic measures: Socio economic measures are used to evaluate the restoration schemes of tank irrigation systems. Social measures are changes in literacy rate, changes in farms and household asset, changes in farm and nonfarm activities, employment opportunity and food security etc. Economic measures are changes in crop yield, changes in farm income and changes in income for landless labourers by increasing employment opportunity are using for assessing the socio economic impact of restoration scheme for tank irrigation system management.

15 84 The economic measures are also used to evaluate worth of the project by comparing the values of goods and services generated or conserved with the cost for assessing its effect on social welfare need and viability. There are various undiscounted and discounted measures available to evaluate the projects (Gittinger, 1982). The undiscounted measures ignore the time value of money and simply evaluate the worth of the projects. Discounting measures such as Net Present Worth (NPW), Benefit Cost Ratio and Internal Rate of Return are used for this purpose. Key points from the above frameworks are summarized given in table 3.1. It was used to know about problems of irrigation tanks, solutions to siltation and evaluation tools for the impact of restoration of irrigation tanks. Table 3.1 Summary of key points for conceptual framework for sustainable tank irrigation system Sl. no Description 1 Water Resources Declination of small water bodies like lakes, reservoirs, irrigation tanks etc., threatens agriculture productivity and water availability in the South and South East Asia especially in Southern Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. key points for analysis Output for the study Remarks Maintaining and repairing of tank bund, sluice and surplus weir and improving supply channel. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as well as around the periphery of the tank water spread area. Proper maintenance of tank system through farmers participation after modernization and restoration Sustainability Improving water storage, increasing ground water level through recharge etc Social Equity Ensure equity, adequacy and reliability in water supply. Economic efficiency Highest productivity both in agriculture and ecosystem, adequacy and reliability in water supply. Problems and solution for tank irrigation system

16 85 2 STAKEHOLDER CONTRIBUTION There are many stakeholders in the tank and tank related programs, of which the Government agencies, farmers and technologists are important. Solution for problems of water storage bodies i.e. Silting and non-maintenance of tanks,chocking of supply channel, Deterioration of the traditional irrigation institutions Nonmaintenance of tanks, Encroachment of foreshore area, catchment area and supply channel and Pollution from industries Sustainability Social Equity Economic efficiency Problems and solution for tank irrigation system 3 DECISION MAKERS FOR RESTORATION SCHEMES Technologist Farmers Government officials 4 STAKEHOLDER OF TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM Identifying the problems of tank irrigation system through perspectives of farmers, technologists and government Technologists Maximising tank water productivity and techniques of groundwater recharge Farmers Status of tanks and its improvement needed Past uses of tanks Tank restoration and its need Government officials Awareness, Training Performance support and Performance evaluation Restoration works like partial desilting of tanks, desilting of supply channel and tank bund strengthening etc. Increased water availability Improved agriculture productivity Social Development Economic wellbeing Environmental sustainability. Ecological Impact, Socio Economic Impact Financially feasible Sustainable livelihood Problems and solution for tank irrigation system Problems and solution for tank irrigation system

17 86 5 IMPACT OF IMPLEMENTAT ION OF RESTORATION SCHEME Multidimensional impact of Restoration schemes of tank irrigation systems Technical Measures Social Measures Economic Measures Socio Economic Impact Food Security Productivity of crop yield Profitability of Farm income Ecological Impact Increasing irrigated cropping area and cropping intensity and fodder availability for protecting environmental well being. Analysis for sustainability of system after restoration Financial Feasibility IRR Benefit Cost Ratio Pay Back Period Benefit Cost Index 3.6 SUMMARY Sustainability means maintaining environmental assets or at least not depleting them. Rapid depletion of essential resources coupled with the degradation of land and atmospheric quality indicates that man has not only exceeded its current social carrying capacity, but actually reduced the future potential and biophysical carrying capacities by extinguishing essential natural capital stock (Rwelamira, 1999). To attain sustainable rural livelihood through restoration schemes for tank irrigation system, the multi stakeholders have to be involved in implementing the restoration programme. To achieve sustainable management of tank irrigation systems for livelihood and the conservation of natural resources as well as poverty alleviation, there is a need to identify appropriate technologies for tank irrigation system management that are affordable and

18 87 cost effective. Sustainable tank irrigation system management needs to be supported by adequate institutional arrangements and must be economically viable. The framework developed in this chapter can be used to evaluate tank irrigation system projects.