SrI. Transforming Rice Production with SRI (System of Rice Intensification) Knowledge and Practice

Transcription

1 SrI Transforming Rice Production with SRI (System of Rice Intensification) Knowedge and Practice T.M.Thiyagarajan Biksham Gujja Reducing Agricuture Foot Print 2012 and Ensuring Food Security NATIONAL CONSORTIUM OF SRI (NCS)

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3 C O N T E N T S Foreword Rice Basics Rice Cutivation 24 Introduction to SRI 34 Seedings for SRI 47 Main Fied Preparation and Transpanting 55 Water Management 64 Nutrient Management 80 Intercutivation 95 Pests and Diseases in SRI 109 Effects of SRI on Soi and Crop Performance 119 Benefits of SRI 137 SRI Extension, Adoption and Constraints 151 Rice Marketing 171 Concusions 178 References 184 C O N T E N T S

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SRI is known in India since The awareness on SRI to the scientific community had been very ukewarm and imited to a few individuas. When the benefits of SRI were known from fied experimentations and evauations in farmers' fieds, SRI extension began sowy from 2003 onwards. Once Civi Society Organizations showed their interest in promoting SRI there has been a tremendous boost to popuarize SRI. Unfortunatey there has been very itte research interest on the innovative principes of SRI that coud be appied to other crops aso. Today SRI is known in a rice growing areas of the country but the adoption by rice farmers has been imited to some areas where there is sustained extension campaign. Poicy support has been extended by some state Governments but a nationa thrust is sti evading. The benefits of SRI is mutifod, especiay in resource conservation (water, and, energy, seeds and abour), rice production and addressing the chaenges of cimate change. Thus, SRI requires a serious attention from nationa poicy makers. Being a knowedge intensive approach rather than input intensive modern agricuture, adoption of SRI by farmers requires severa knowedge disposa mechanisms and hands on experience in carrying out the SRI practices. Though the effect of SRI principes on the rice sois and rice crop is sti to be understood more thoroughy, sufficient scientific expanations are avaiabe on the better performance of rice crop under SRI. This book is an attempt to expain the origin, principes and practices of SRI and the deveopments so far in communicating the importance of SRI to rice farmers, students, scientists and poicy makers so that the materia coud be used for extension, research and poicy support. The contents have been assembed from various sources, especiay from SRI websites, WWF-ICRISAT project and its partner organizations and Institutes, presentations made in nationa SRI symposia, pubications and reports on SRI, fied visits and interaction with farmers. The authors wish to thank the foowing who a heped to make this book possibe : Tami Nadu Agricutura Univsersity, Coimbatore Andhra Pradesh N.G. Ranga Agricutura Univsersity, Hyderabad Directorate of Rice research, Hyderabad Agricuture Man Ecoogy Foundation, Bengauru Centre for Indian Knowedge Systems, Chennai Directorate of Rice Deveopment, Patna Tami Nadu Irrigated Agricuture Modernization and Water Bodies Restoration and Management project Indian Counci of Agricutura Research Internationa Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Nationa Bank for Agricuture and Rura Deveopment Professiona Assistance for Deveopment Action Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, Mumbai Watershed Support Services and Activities Network, Hyderabad

5 Dr. Shambu Prasad, Xavier Institute of Business Management, Bhubaneshwar and Dr. B.C. Barah, Indian Agricutura Research Institute, New Dehi have been cataysts in bring out this pubication with constant encouragement. Our specia thanks to Dr. Norman Uphoff, Corne University who has been the guiding force in exposing SRI to the rice word and consistenty trying to convince scientists, farmers, CSOs and poicy makers on the importance of SRI in the context of current probems faced with rice production. His pubications and presentations has heped a ot to shape up this book. Above a, Dr. Uphoff has heped to improve the contents of this book by editing it twice. Some of photos incuded in this book are sourced from power point presentations and websites and we pace our sincere thanks to the concerned authors. We are gratefu to a the coeagues Dr.V.Vinod Goud, Dr. N. Loganandhan, Mr. Sraban Kumar Daai, Ms.Manisha Agarwa, Mr. TVVV Rao and Ms. R.Suhasini of the former WWF-ICRISAT Project and AgSri who have offered their support in severa ways. Our specia thanks to Dr.V.Vinod Goud for his sustained interest and hep in competing the process of bringing out the book. We express our sincere gratitude to Dr.M.S.Swaminathan, Dr.Ayyappan and Dr.Norman Uphoff for readiy agreeing to write the foreword. T.M. Thiyagarajan Biksham Gujja

6 FOREWORD Rice is ife to a majority of peope in Asia. The cutivation of rice represents both a way of ife and a means to iveihood. Enormous progress has been made since Word War II in improving the productivity and profitabiity of Indica rice. Such progress has been due to the deveopment of semi-dwarf, non-odging and photo-insensitive strains based on the DEE-GEE-WUN gene from China. Later, hybrid rice became a reaity, thanks to the identification of cytopasmic mae sterie genes from Hainan Isand in China. Higher yieds aso require higher inputs, particuary fertiizer and pesticides. Breeding for high yied shoud therefore be accompanied with methods of feeding the rice pant for high yied. This has to be done in a manner that the contribution of rice to cimate change is minimized. Aso, environmenta probems associated with the excessive use of fertiizer and pesticides wi have to be avoided. About 25 years ago, when I was at the Internationa Rice Research Institute, I organized a meeting jointy with the Word Heath Organisation on methods of avoiding the breeding of maaria mosquito in rice fieds. We came to the concusion that it wi be important to introduce aternate drying and wetting in the fied, so that the mosquito breeding cyce is disrupted. Food irrigation wi have to be avoided. These approaches ed to the deveopment of the Asian Network on Sustainabe Rice Farming. Meanwhie, thanks to the tireess efforts of Dr. Norman Uphoff of the Corne University, a procedure of rice agronomy known as The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) was deveoped. The present pubication gives information on the work done by Dr. Thiyagarajan and Dr. Biksham Gujja on the deveopment of the SRI system of rice cutivation. SRI heps to reduce the quantity of irrigation water needed and aso invoves a much ower seed rate. When propery adopted, SRI heps to increase yied and income per drop of water. This method originay deveoped in Madagascar has now spread in various rice-growing countries. It wi be particuary suitabe for adoption in conjunction with hybrid rice since there wi be considerabe saving on seed rate. I hope this timey book wi be read widey and used for increasing the productivity, profitabiity and sustainabiity of rice farming in our country. The techniques described in the book are particuary reevant in the context of cimate change. Therefore, SRI shoud become an important component of cimate-resiient agricuture. Prof M S SWAMINATHAN Member of Pariament (Rajya Sabha) Chairman, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation Third Cross Street, Taramani Institutiona Area Chennai nd Feb, 2012

7 FOREWORD The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) technoogy emphasizes making effective utiization of resources, especiay water and use of organic manures. System of Rice Intensification is a technoogy deveopment to save water and aso enhance the rice yied. The main features of the method are raised-bed nursery, transpanting young 8-10 day od seedings with a wider spacing, maintaining water to saturation eve, weeding and incorporation weeds in the soi, and appication of organic fertiizers. System of Rice Intensification is primary aimed to save water. Tami Nadu Agricutura University (TNAU) first introduced SRI in India in 2000 when researchers initiated experiments invoving SRI principes in a coaborative project on growing rice with ess water. The resuts of experimentation and their vaidation on farmers' fieds in two river basins reveaed an average increase in grain yied by 1.5 tons/ha with reduced input requirements, and even 8% reduction in abor requirement. This evauation provided a basis for officiay recommending SRI adoption to farmers in The area under SRI increased in Tami Nadu from m ha during ; to m ha by with an average yied of 7-8 MT/ha. Significant yied increases under SRI over conventiona irrigated rice cutivation generated nationwide interest. SRI resuts in saving of 30-40% irrigation water; 85% in seed, ess chemica fertiizer, and promotes soi microbia activity which improves the soi heath. SRI even offers advantages for seed mutipication. On account of mutipe advantages, the SRI is gaining popuarity in severa states. The present pubication entited Transforming Rice Production with SRI Knowedge and Practice covers a major topics of SRI such as main fied preparation and transpanting; water management; nutrient management; weed management; pests and diseases in SRI; effects of SRI on soi and crop; benefits of SRI; SRI extension, adoption and constraints; and rice marketing. The efforts of Dr. T.M. Thiyagarajan, former Director (TNAU Center for Soi and Crop Management Studies), Coimbatore, and former Dean, Agricuture Coege & Research Institute, Kiikuam, and Dr. Biksham Gujja, founder and Chairman of AgSri, deserve appreciation for compiing atest information on this important subject for sustainabe rice cutivation in India. It is hoped that the pubication wi prove to be highy usefu to researchers, students, deveopment officias and farmers aike. S. Ayyappan Director Genera Indian Counci of Agricutura Research (ICAR) New Dehi 13th January, 2012

8 FOREWORD 'Rice is ife' has become a wordwide mantra since the Internationa Year of Rice in This is true more for India than for most other countries, as expained in this book. However, it is aso true that both rice and ife are now in some peri because of a confuence of trends that coud become 'a perfect storm' with terribe consequences. The rice sector in most countries but especiay in India faces diminishing quantity and quaity of both the and and water resources that it needs for growing rice. Moreover, rice producers face rising costs forfertiizer and agrochemica inputs, and there are diminishing returns to fertiizer in many areas, with certain pests and diseases deveoping resistance to biocides. This makes the input-dependent strategies of 'modern agricuture' ess cost-effective and ess sustainabe. The constraints presented by cimate change are growing year by year, with high and ow extremes of both temperature and rainfa increasingy affecting rice and other crops. Monocuture and a shrinking poo of geneticresources have ratcheted up our vunerabiity to crop faiure,which is a possibeconsequence of the prevaiinggenocentricstrategy for agricutura deveopment. And overa, production shortfas portend rising prices that wi adversey affect one-third of the word's peope who depend on rice for much of their sustenance, especiay the poorest househods in every country. Some of these probems decines in soi heath and fertiity, the cost-price squeeze affecting farmers, agrochemica poution of water and especiay groundwater are directy associated with the technoogies associated with the Green Revoution. Whie this produced many benefits for both farmers and consumers in the atter third of the previous century, this strategywas best suited to better-endowed regions and farmers,and it did not upift ives across the board. In recent years, the yied gains fromthis technoogica approach have sackened whie its associated costs, both economic and environmenta, have been accumuating. The question arises -- for researchers, for poicy makers, and especiay for farmers -- what shoud be done now for an encore? Can we succeed in meeting the food needs for our sti-growing popuations by doing essentiay more of the same? Or must some other directions be deveoped? As this book ays out, there is at east one very promising new path to pursue, one that appies and takes advantage of various agroecoogica principes and practices. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI)is not a new technoogy, not a fixed package of practices. Rather it is a set of ideas and insights, some od and some new, a focused on how to get more benefit from avaiabe resources. SRI concepts and methods are showing how to create better growing environments for rice and other pants, thereby raising the productivity of the resources -and, abor, water, seeds, and capita - that are aready controed by farmers. This book paces SRI's innovations in crop management within the context of Indian history and cuture, moving from traditiona rituas to contemporary pest and disease contro, from oca indigenous rice varieties to goba marketing. It covers an encompassing range of topics, incuding specifics about how SRI can be utiized, and why its practices achieve the remarkabe gains in productivity that are reported from most if not a situations. The vaidity of SRI's aternative management principes has been demonstrated in a wide range of circumstances, from high mountain regions in northern Afghanistan (Thomas and Ramzi, 2011) to the edge

9 of the Sahara Desert in the Timbuktu region of Mai (Styger et a., 2011), from the marshes of southern Iraq (Hameed et a., 2011) to the tropica conditions of The Gambia (Ceesay et a., 2007) and Panama (Turme et a., 2011). This book presents SRI in the many and highy-varied contexts of India, which itsef embodies a kind of goba agroecoogica diversity. Two of the persons who have given the most eadership to the introduction and spread of SRI in India have coaborated to produce this book. Rather than stand on the sideines when they first earned about SRI opportunities, or become deniers without doing proper empirica evauations, both in their respective states of Tami Nadu and Andhra Pradesh took up the chaenge of understanding and testing the caims and mechanisms of SRI. They sought to determine whether, where, to what extent, and at what cost, coud the reported advantages of SRI management be achieved by farmers -- and how coud these benefit farmers, consumers, and the environment. Dr. T.M. Thiyagarajan, whie director of Tami Nadu Agricutura University's Center for Crop and Soi Management, was the first agricutura scientist in India to take SRI ideas seriousy enough to test them under tria conditions, starting in He subsequenty supervised on-farm comparison trias on a broader scae in the Tamiraparani and Cauvery river basins in Having demonstrated significant impacts convincingy --such as net income per hectare of $519 with SRI management compared with $242 using standard practices -- Thiyagarajan got the university, the state's Department of Agricuture, and then the Word Bank's India office to become engaged with further evauation and promotion of SRI, eading to Tami Nadu's becoming the eading state for SRI in India. Starting in 2004 in the neighboring state of AP, Dr. Biksham Gujja, a senior advisor for the Wordwide Fund for Nature (WWF) based in Gand, Switzerand, aunched a three-year evauation of SRI methods after he earned about SRI. This research was done under WWF's joint Diaogue Project on Food, Water and Environment with the Internationa Crop Research Centre for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hyderabad.The study invoved scientists from the state's agricutura university (ANGRAU), the Directorate of Rice Research for the Indian Counci for Agricutura Research (ICAR), and ICRISAT. With extensive and systematic data confirming SRI advantages for both raising productivity and for saving water, taking pressure off aready water-stressed ecoogica systems, Gujja with WWF support and then other agencies' contributions convened a series of Nationa Cooquia on SRI in Hyderabad in 2006, in Agartaa in 2007, and in Coimbatoire in 2008 to consoidate experience and earning about SRI from a over India. By the third cooquium, with 350 participants coming from states and territories that represented>98% of India's popuation, the evidence was cear that Indian governments, NGOs, banks, private sector, and particuary its farmers shoud be capitaizing on the new opportunities that SRI was opening up for rice production, and even for other crops beyond rice. This book shares with readers what Drs. Thiyagarajan and Gujja have earned about the Indian rice sector in genera its history, its constraints, its chaenges and about SRI in particuar its potentias, its mechanisms, its imitations, its variations, and its continuing evoution. They embrace and endorse the emphasis in SRI upon farmer participation and adaptation to oca conditions, an approach rather different from that of the Green Revoution. This earier strategy regarded farmers more as adopters than as adapters. SRI in contrast, rather than enjoining farmers to foow certain instructions, expects them to understand and utiize principes of good agronomy. Itaso invites farmers to contribute to an ongoing a process of empiricay-grounded improvement such as that which aunched SRI in Madagascar under the guidance of Fr. Henri de Lauanié in the eary 1980s.

10 I have been privieged to work with these fine coeagues and with many others ike them in India over the past decade, and to work with them in the finaization of this book. The introduction, adaptation and spread of SRI in their country has been truy a coective enterprise with a great variety of individuas from many waks of ife, from PhD agronomists to farmers to senior IAS officers to NGO workers to journaists to teachers, a contributing in their respective ways. The spread has been propeed by three powerfu motive forces that are often underestimated: ideas, ideas, and friendship. These I earned about from a previous engagement with farmers and professiona coeagues in Sri Lanka, seeking to introduce and improve participatory irrigation management there (Uphoff, 1996; Wijayaratna and Uphoff, 1997; Uphoff and Wijayaratna, 2000). The SRI experience has confirmed how potent these three factors, more menta than materia, can be. The SRI story is about more than agricuture; it is equay about peope, their needs, their capabiities, their imitations, their atruism, and their creativity. It is about socia, economic, cutura and other reationa phenomena as much as it is about physica and materia reationships. In many respects, SRI is about potentias socio-cutura and bio-physica and about the expression of potentias within pant seeds, within soi systems (Uphoff et a., 2006), and within human minds and spirits. Whie we can gain much knowedge by working within certain areas of inquiry, usuay deimited in discipinary terms, there is much more knowedge beyond this to be gained by working across discipines and even across domains as broad as the bio-physica, the socio-cutura, and the poitica-economic. Indeed, we can gain even more by working across sectors, institutions and statuses. SRI woud not have reached its present stage without farmers themseves making important contributions to the improvement of SRI thinking and practice and to the dissemination of this innovation to peers. SRI originated from the cose working reationships between a French priest and hundreds of Maagasy farmers, a focused on drawing out the maximum productivity from pant seeds and from their supportive growing conditions. This kind of coaborative bond shoud be maintained and extended, beyond rice and to other areas where probem-soving and innovation are needed. The chaenges of the 21st century, from food security and coping with cimate change to creating productive iveihoods and achieving better governance, cannot be deat with just through the endeavors of speciaists, however diigent. Whie their knowedge needs to be expanded and utiized in our probem-soving efforts, the advances seen with SRI shoud encourage, even emboden us to proceed with more participatory, democratized enistment of ideas and commitments from a waks of ife. I beieve that India has opened enough doors and minds now in the 21st century that it can in the next few decades make up for many past deficits. India's human resources are immense. But they must, in the first instance, be adequatey fed and nourished. The expoitation of SRI potentias wi not sove a of the probems of India, or of any other country. But especiay if the agroecoogica insights of SRI can make the production of rice and other food crops more efficient and more sustainabe, surmounting these other chaenges can become more possibe. Conversey, if we cannot assure every personanadequate, inexpensive and heathfu sustenance, it is unikey that we can succeed with the many other chaenges that we face. Jai SRI! Norman Uphoff Ithaca, New York, USA November 17, 2011

11 1 RICE BASICS For more than haf of humanity, rice is ife itsef. Life and iveihood without rice is simpy unthinkabe. This grain has shaped the cutures, diets, iveihoods and economies of most of Asia. Rice produces the maximum caories per unit of and among a the cereas, and this feature, combined with the capacity of rice pants to withstand inundation and their abiity to adapt to varied cimatic and agricutura conditions, accounts for the crop's importance. China, India and Indonesia, three of the four most popuous countries in the word, are the highest producers and consumers of rice. Rice ensures food security for peope in many parts of the gobe. This is refected in the recent increases in rice production in Latin America and Africa, especiay in the ower-income and food-deficient countries. In Europe, rice is the major crop in certain regions of Itay and Spain, and rice-based dishes are graduay substituting for other traditiona dishes in Europe and the Americas, at east for some meas. Today, rice is widey consumed a around the word. Rice is used in a number of different ways, sometimes far removed from its traditiona uses that one woud be aware of. It is used in the preparation of infant foods, snacks, breakfast cereas, beer, and fermented products. Brown (unmied) rice is appreciated as a heathy food for the treatment of hypertension and Type II diabetes, and rice bran oi inhibits choestero synthesis and owers bood pressure. Rice wine, traditionay prepared in Asia, is sti the major acohoic beverage in East Asia. The coarse, siica-rich hus or husks of rice can be used to make briquettes, construction materia, and are even used as fue. Rice straw, except from the modern varieties, is sti an important catte feed throughout Asia. Because rice four is neary pure starch and free from aergens, it is the main component of many infant formuas and face powders. Its ow fibre content makes rice powder quite suitabe for poishing camera enses and expensive jeweery ( /index.htm). Rice is a versatie crop grown in a most a agro-cimatic zones except at very high atitudes. The cutivation of rice as an important agricutura crop reay began ony after the techniques of pudding and transpanting deveoped. These techniques, used in rice paddy cutivation, were initiay practiced in the wetands of China and were ater adopted in Southeast Asia, roughy 4,000 years ago. From thereon, these wetand cutivation techniques were embraced by peope in Indonesia, and ater in Japan, over the next 2,000 years. Rice spread to Europe at a much ater date, with the invasion of the Moors in 700 A.D. In the ast 400 to 500 years, rice traveed to the New Word with the initia exporers and setters ( pic/rice.aspx). Rice is grown on an estimated 155 miion ha in 114 countries, in an area ying between the atitudes 53 north and 35 south. Asia accounts for nine of the top ten rice-producing countries. Gobay, the 55 percent of the area under rice cutivation that is irrigated contributes 75 percent of the tota rice production (Photo 1.1) 09 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

12 Photo 1.1 Typica irrigated ecosystem in a deta The name of the grain used gobay, rice, probaby has its roots in India. According to the Microsoft Encarta Dictionary (2004) and the Chambers Dictionary of Etymoogy (1988), the word 'rice' has an Indo-Iranian origin. It came to Engish from the Greek word óryza, via the Latin oriza, the Itaian riso, and finay the Od French ris. It has been specuated that the Indo-Iranian word vrihi was itsef borrowed from a Dravidian word vari or even from a Munda anguage term for rice; the Tami name arisi coud have given rise to the Arabic ar-ruzz, from which the Portuguese and Spanish word arroz originated ( Rice).

13 1.1 Rice and India Rice is not everything in India, but everything in most parts of India starts and ends with rice, from birth to death. It is an integra part of Indian cuture. It is ifeine that has extended into more than 540 of India's 604 districts. In India, rice cutivation probaby began in the upper and midde Ganges between 2000 and 1500 B.C. It expanded quicky after irrigation works spread from Orissa State to the adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tami Nadu in the Iron Age around 300 B.C. ( oks/kipe/rice.htm). Rice is first mentioned in the Yajur Veda ( BC) and then is frequenty referred to in many Sanskrit texts, which distinguished summer varieties grown in the rainy season from winter varieties. Shai or winter varieties were the most highy regarded in times past. The name of Annapurna, the Hindu god of rice, comes from the Sanskrit word for rice, anna. In peninsuar India, there are numerous festivas connected with the sowing, panting and harvesting of rice. Major harvest festivas incude Ponga in Tami Nadu, Onam in Keraa, and Huthri in Coorg (Kodagu). Rice tinted with the auspicious yeow coour of turmeric is showered onto newy-married coupes, and is part of numerous rites and ceebrations. It is offered to the deities and used as an obation in the sacred fire of Hindu ritua. Rice is used in many Indian ceebrations, incuding weddings. India is one of the richest countries in the word for diversity in rice varieties. There are so many different varieties of rice depending on variations in the weather, soi structure, pant characteristics, and purposes of use. According to Dr. R.H. Richharia, one of the most eminent rice scientists of the word to date, 400,000 varieties of rice probaby existed in India during the Vedic period. He estimated that even now, as many as 200,000 varieties of rice exist in India, which is an exceptionay high number. Even if a person eats a new rice variety every day of the year, he can ive for over hundred years without eating again the same variety. Every variety has a specific purpose and utiity ( Two rice species are the main cereas of importance for human nutrition: Oryza sativa, grown wordwide, and O.gaberrima, grown in parts of West Africa. Rice provides 21% of goba human per capita energy and 15% of per capita protein. Cutivated rice is generay considered a semi-aquatic annua grass, athough in the tropics it can survive as a perennia crop, producing new tiers from nodes after harvest (ratooning). At maturity, the rice pant has a main stem and some number of tiers. Each productive tier bears a termina fowering head, caed a panice, with grains that are harvested when mature. Pant height varies by variety and environmenta conditions, ranging from approximatey 0.4 m to more than 5 m in some foating rice (Macean et a. 2002). The growth duration of rice pants ranges between 3-6 months, depending on the variety and on the environment under which it is grown. During this time, rice competes two distinct growth phases: vegetative and reproductive. The vegetative phase is the most variabe, markedy infuenced by day-ength and temperature in photoperiod or thermosensitive varieties. Temperature and day ength are the main determinants of tota growth duration of any variety. A ong-duration variety is characterized by onger vegetative phase than a short-duration one. The vegetative phase is subdivided into germination, eary seeding growth, and tiering; the reproductive phase commences from panice initiation and is subdivided into the time before and after heading, that is, panice exertion. The time after heading is known as the ripening period. Reproductive and ripening phases 11 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

14 are constant for most varieties. Potentia grain yied is primariy determined before heading, but actua yied, which is based on the amount of starch that utimatey fis the spikeets, is argey determined after heading. Hence, agronomicay, it is convenient to regard the ife history of rice in terms of three growth phases: vegetative, reproductive, and ripening. A 120-day variety, when panted in a tropica environment, spends about 60 days in the vegetative phase, 30 days in the reproductive phase, and 30 days in the ripening phase (ICAR, 2010; pecific/eng/inks/ap_ricegrowth.s htm). 1.2 Rice Production in India India has the word's argest area devoted to rice cutivation, and it is the second argest producer of rice after China. Over haf of its rice area is irrigated, contributing 75% of the tota production. Notaby, this area aso consumes 50-60% of the nation's finite freshwater resources. Of the country's 1.15 biion inhabitants, 70% rey on rice for at east a third of their energy requirements. India's popuation is projected to grow to 1.6 biion in 2050, putting tremendous future strain on its and and water resources. India provides around 21% of goba rice production from its 28% of the word's rice area. Rice area in India has fuctuated fairy staby around 43 miion hectares during the ast two decades, with a maximum rice area of 45.5 miion hectares in (Figure 1.1). Tota rice production was aso the maximum during this year (99.2 miion tonnes). Rough (unhusked) rice productivity, which was at 1,002 kg ha in , reached a maximum of 3,303 kg ha in Interestingy, rough rice productivity during the eary 20th century was around 1,600 kg ha, decining to 1,139 kg ha during (Figure 1.2). Miion Hectares Miion Tonnes Grain Yied (t/ha) Word India Word India Word India Figure 1.1 Rice area, rough rice production, and productivity in the word and India during and Transforming Rice Production with SRI

15 Rough rice yied (kg/ha) Figure 1.2 Rough rice yied in India since the beginning of 20th century. The data for , , and are averages for to , to , to and to , respectivey (Source: Bajit Singh, Whither Agricuture in India. N.R. Agarwa & Co, Agra). The data for are estimates.(source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Agricutura Statistics at a Gance 2010, Department of Agricuture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agricuture, Govt.of India, New Dehi.) In India, rice is grown mosty in two major seasons, kharif (June October) and rabi (October February),whie in some parts it is grown throughout the year in more than two seasons. Most of the rice area and production are in the kharif season (Tabe 1.1), but rice productivity in terms of yied is 57% higher in the rabi season. Grain production in the mid- 1960s, before the Green Revoution began, was about 60 miion tonnes per annum. Thirty years ater, production had grown to twice that, around 120 miion tonnes, but the pace of growth has sowed since the ate 1990s (Figure 1.3). The highest annua average increase in grain production was 6.1%, recorded during the 1980s; but the annua increase in grain production dropped to 1.5% in the 1990s. Tabe 1.1 Rice area, production, and productivity in kharif and rabi seasons in India ( ) Season Area (m ha) Rough rice production (m tonnes) Rough rice productivity (kg ha ) Kharif ,985 Rabi ,691 Source: Rice in India: A Handbook of Statistics Directorate of Rice Deveopment, Patna) 13 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

16 Rough rice production (Miion tonnes) Rice area (Miion hectares) 14 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

17 Rough rice yied (kg/ha) Figure 1.3 Rice area, rough rice production, and productivity during to (Data for and are estimates) Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Agricutura Statistics at a Gance Department of Agricuture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agricuture, Govt.of India, New Dehi. Back in , India produced about 40 per cent of the word's exportabe surpus of rice. This scenario changed subsequenty, and the country faced a severe and word-famous famine in Export of mied rice was a mere 0.5 miion tonnes in 1989, but reached a high of 6.7 miion tonnes during During 2009, the state of West Benga had the argest rice area in the county and aso the highest paddy production (Figure 1.4). Rough rice productivity was beow 3 t ha in Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Himacha Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Rajasthan; and beow 2 t ha in the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. In fact, the country's average productivity (3.31 t ha ) is ower than a the neighbouring countries of Southeast Asia. The Asian average is 4.23 t ha, whie the word is averaging 4.18 t ha. During the period to , the productivity increase in India has been ower (122%) than the goba increase (131%). In this period, China achieved an increase of 248% from 1.9 t ha to 6.61 t ha. Gobay, Austraia with 13.5 t ha in ranked number one in rough rice productivity, foowed by Egypt (10.1 t ha ). 15 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

18 6 5 Rice area ( miion ha) West Benga Uttar Pradesh Odisha Chattisgarh Andhra Pradesh Punjab Bihar Assam Tami Nadu Karnataka Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Haryana Jharkhand Rough rice production (miion tonnes) Gujarat Uttarakhand Jammu & Kashmir Keraa Rajasthan Himacha Pradesh West Benga Punjab Uttar Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Odisha Tami Nadu Jammu & Kashmir Chattisgarh Assam Bihar Haryana Karnataka Maharashtra Jharkhand Gujarat Madhya Pradesh Keraa Uttarakhand Rajasthan Himacha Pradesh 16 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

19 Rough rice productivity (t ha ) Punjab Tami Nadu Haryana Andhra Pradesh Keraa West Benga Karnataka Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand Jammu & Kashmir Gujarat Odisha Assam Rajasthan Jharkhand Maharashtra Himacha Pradesh Bihar Chattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Figure 1.4 State-wise paddy area, production and productivity in India (2009). Source: Quest for Improving Rice Yieds Indian farmers and ruers have ong focused on improving the yieds as an effective way of improving food security. Whie investments by ruers have gone into expanding the area under cutivation, the efforts and innovations by farmers have continued to attempt to improve yieds per unit of area. Unti the ast five decades or so, these efforts have been argey or even excusivey farm-based, seecting suitabe varieties for different agro-cimatic zones whie improving the soi, water and organic input management to achieve maximum yieds. When the authors were examining why in a country with such ong experience of rice cutivation there did not appear to have been any previous attempts to increase rice yied with reduced inputs, we found that there had indeed been such a prior innovation. A simpe investigation pus a bit of uck have reveaed that there was such an approach known to Tami farmers a century ago. Today, the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has become known to many rice farmers of Tami Nadu as 'Ottrai Natru Nadavu' (singe seeding panting). But, to our surprise, we have found that singe-seeding panting method for higher yied was known 100 years ago in Tami Nadu. A century ago, an innovative farmer in Tami Nadu had the idea of modifying the existing agronomic practices for rice cutivation by using singe seedings, aso wider spacing, and some intercutivation operation, with a reported yied of 6,004 kg ha 1. This method, caed the gaja method, empoyed inter-row spacing of 1½ feet (45 cm) and within-row spacing of 1 foot (30 cm) between singe rice pants, resuting in a sparse pant popuation of ony 7 8 pants m Transforming Rice Production with SRI

20 Further research into the history of rice cutivation in Tami Nadu has reveaed that in 1911, severa farmers pubished artices in Tami anguage on such singeseeding panting (Kuandai Veudaiyar, 1911, Anonymous,1911). The scanned copies of these artices in Tami and their Engish versions have been pubished separatey in Thiyagarajan and Gujja (2009). It was aso found that this singeseeding panting was popuarized by the then British Government in the Madras Presidency. By 1914, singeseeding panting was reportedy being adopted in 40,468 ha (Chadwick, 1914). Vaidyaingam Piai's reported yied of 6,004 kg grain ha with gaja panting methods in Thanjavur district was 2.7 times greater than what had been obtained from the same fied the previous year, when using standard bunch panting. Yanagisawa (1996) had estimated that the average rice yied in Thanjavur District in 1911 was 1,693 kg paddy ha, whie the average yied in this district for the period was 1,492 kg ha (Sivasubramanian, 1961). Thus, the gaja method increased standard rice production by severa mutipes. It is fascinating that such high yieds were being obtained by farmers with their own innovations a century ago, when no chemica fertiizers were appied. Unfortunatey, such farmer innovations have disappeared after scientific recommendations were promoted by the Green Revoution. Rice Breeding Deveoping improved varieties has been one of the major thrusts of rice research since its beginning. The rice breeding programme in India was started in 1911 by Dr. G. P. Hector, the then Economic Botanist in undivided Benga, which had its headquarters at Dacca (now in Bangadesh). Subsequenty, in 1912, a crop speciaist was appointed excusivey for rice in Madras Province. Prior to the estabishment of the Indian Counci of Agricutura Research (ICAR) in 1929, Benga and Madras were the ony provinces which had speciaists excusivey assigned to improve the rice crop. After the estabishment of ICAR, rice research projects were initiated in various states of the country, and by 1950, there were 82 research stations estabished in 14 states of the country, fuy devoted for rice research projects. More than 800 improved varieties have so far been reeased in the country by nationa and state research estabishments. Improved varieties are a precursor to hybrids, which depend are produced through inter-breeding which capitaizes on the phenomenon of heterosis to achieve a 15-20% increase in yied from the hybrid vigor of crossing ines. In-bred highyieding varieties started in the 1960s and 1970s as a basis for the Green Revoution. Some of the andmark varieties deveoped in India were: GEB-24, T 141, Jaya, MTU-7029, BPT-5204, Basmati 370, PusaBasmati for irrigated agroecoogies; TKM 6, SLA 12, MTU 15 with stem borer resistance; CO 25 with bast resistance and N 22 for droughtprone conditions ( /sites/defaut/fies/rice%20yied %20improvement%20and%20mai ntainance%20breeding.pdf) Soi and Crop Management Besides introducing high-yieding varieties, various management practices for better nutrient suppy, soi and water management, protecting the crop from pest and diseases, and expoiting more fuy the genetic potentia of the crop, have been deveoped and are being continued now. These practices are recommended to farmers for adoption. The major thrusts of these recommendations were to increase the use of chemica fertiizers and pant-protection chemicas. 18 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

21 Green Revoution The Green Revoution is usuay dated from about 1967, reaching a peak of adoption around It invoved improvements in crop genetic materias and agricutura practices, especiay increases in externa inputs that dramaticay increased food production, especiay wheat and rice. The government began to deveop faciities for expanding farmand area and introduced modern irrigation systems, making it possibe for farmers to pant two crops a year instead of one. Most notaby, Indian farmers panted geneticay-improved seeds that greaty increased crop yieds. Within a decade, India became one of the word's argest producers of farm products. In some years, farmers produced more food grains than the Indian peope needed, so the excess was sod to other countries. Famine in India, once accepted as inevitabe, has not returned since the introduction of Green Revoution crops ( ts.com). In wheat, for exampe, production increased by a third from 12.3 miion tonnes in to 16.6 miion tonnes in , and 20 miion tonnes in Rice production increased more sowy (due to the ater introduction of IR-8), growing from 30.5 miion tonnes in to 40 miion tonnes in More importanty, these gains in yied were resiient to fuctuations in the monsoon, the primary natura driver of Indian macro-eve food shortages. An eary exampe of this was seen in the poor weather of , when there was a decrease of 2% against the previous year's record yied. By 1977, India no onger required significant cerea imports, and in ater years it became an intermittent exporter. Ceary, these statistics show that India achieved the primary goa of the Green Revoution, the restoration of agricutura sef-sufficiency on the nationa eve (Arena, 2005). The achievements through the Green Revoution have come with a price, however, as many traditiona varieties were ignored or ost, and reiance on chemica fertiizers grew, forgetting to maintain the organic sources of soi fertiity restoration from animas and pants, and most importanty, making farmers totay dependent on others not ony for their seeds, fertiizers, and pesticides, and even for their knowedge and cutivation methods. By the end of the Green Revoution, with erosion of oca varieties, repacement of organic fertiizer, and dependence of farmers on scientific institutions for guidance and advice, this has resuted in agricuture being driven by factors other than the farmers themseves in every sphere. Significant impact events on rice in India 1906 Introduction of Singe Seeding Panting in Madras Presidency 1911 Introduction of Gaja Panting in Madras Presidency 1912 Beginning of systematic study on rice in Coimbatore 1946 Estabishment of the Centra Rice Research Institute at Cuttack 1951 Introduction of the Japanese method of rice cutivation 1965 Launching of A-India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project (ICAR) 1969 Introduction of IR8 variety, surge in expansion of rice area in Punjab 2000 First evauations of SRI, foowed by trias in other states 2006 First Nationa SRI Symposium in Hyderabad, foowed by annua symposia in Agartaa (2007) and Coimbatore (2008) 19 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

22 1.4 Concerns in Rice Production Much of the Green Revoution's gains have been achieved through highy intensive agricuture that depends heaviy on fossi fues for inputs and for energy. Whether more food can be produced without damaging the sois, fresh water cyces and suppies, and crop diversity is questionabe as these food-producing bases are being degraded in many paces. Rough rice production has increased in India over 4.5 times in the ast 57 years from 30.9 miion tonnes ( ) to miion tonnes ( ). Enhancement in rice production is mainy attributed to productivity-ed increases since the harvested rice area for the corresponding period expanded ony by 42%, from 31 m ha to about 44 m ha. Grain demand in India is estimated to reach about 300 miion tonnes per annum by 2020, necessitating an increase of about 91 miion tonnes from the estimated production eve of 209 miion tonnes. Since there is no probabiity of much further increase in the area under cutivation over the present 142 miion ha, the needed 37% increase in grain production wi have to be attained by enhancing the productivity per unit area. The production of mied rice per hectare has to be increased from 2,077 kg to 2,895 kg by 2020, an average annua increase of about 5% (NAAS, 2006). This is three times more than the expansion rate during the 1990s. A historica anaysis by Barah (2005) shows that over the decades, the pace in increase in rice production has been uneven, and regiona disparities among the States as we as across the diverse agroecosystems have been notabe. The gains due to modern rice technoogy have bypassed most of the resourcepoor areas, which are predominated by sma and margina farmers. The anaysis brings out a distinct production divide between irrigated tracts and rainfed areas, which corresponds to inter-regiona disparities in production and productivity in rice. About 36% of the districts covering 44% of tota rice area in the country have achieved productivity eves of more than 2 t ha (approx 3 t ha- 1of rough rice). During , the average rice yied was in the range 1-2 t ha in 90% of the rice area of eastern India. By , this had changed substantiay, as ony 47% of the rice area was in this ow yied range, and 51% of the area had yied eves higher than 2 t ha. The rice production data for show that rough rice productivity is beow 2 t ha in about 18.7 % (8 miion ha) of tota paddy area spread over 150 districts, contributing 9.0% of tota production (Tabe 1.2). This situation after four decades of Green Revoution and huge investments speaks to the disparate (and sometimes desperate) rice production conditions of these areas. Tabe 1.2 Rough rice productivity range in India, Yied (t ha ) No. of Districts Area (000'ha) < Production (000'tonnes) ,139 3, ,626 8, ,646 19, ,559 12, ,294 17, ,944 22,516 > ,235 55,257 Tota , , Transforming Rice Production with SRI

23 The growth rates of rice area, production and productivity during to were -0.04%, 1.15% and 1.04%, respectivey. The growth rate of area went down by 8.30% in , and the highest growth of 4.18% was during The negative growth rates for production and yied were highest during (Figure 1.5). The impact of the deayed and sub-norma monsoon was refected in reduced area under rice cutivation during compared to , reduced by 14.3% (Annua Report , NABARD). Growth rate Area Production Yied Figure 1.5 Growth rates in rice area, production and yied during to (Data for and are estimates). Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Agricutura Statistics at a Gance Department of Agricuture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agricuture, Govt.of India, New Dehi). The per capita net avaiabiity of rice which was at 159 grams day- 1 during increased to grams day during , but has been beow 200 grams day again after that. Rice cutivation is in crisis the word over, and India is no exception with its shrinking area of rice cutivation, its fuctuating annua production eves, stagnant yieds, water scarcity, and escaating input costs. The cost of cutivation of paddy has consistenty been increasing, owing to escaating costs of abour and agrochemica inputs. With increasing abour scarcity due to urbanization, sustaining the interest of the farmers in rice cutivation itsef has become a chaenge. Current productivity in India is much ower than many other rice-producing countries, and it needs to be enhanced under the circumstances of itte hope for increased in area and irrigation potentia. During the ast decade, the percent of irrigated rice area has been fuctuating around 53%, showing no appreciabe increase. Rice production today faces a number of probems that threaten many rice-producing Asian countries' abiity to meet the food needs of their rapidy growing popuations. These constraints incude pest outbreaks, diseases, soi degradation, scarcity of water, conversion of rice ands for industria use, soi sainization, and adverse soi conditions. Contrary to the caims of genetic- 21 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

24 engineering (GE) proponents, the rea cutting-edge soutions to the probems of rice production ie not in deveoping GE rice, but rather in deveoping and/or adopting strategies that take better advantage of ecoogica principes within agricutura systems, and that integrate traditiona farming practices with modern scientific knowedge. Existing biodiversity of rice varieties and their nutritiona composition needs to be expored and better utiized before depending on transgenics (Borromeo and Deb, 2006). Water Crisis India's post-independence agricutura growth invoved huge investments in irrigation projects that have resuted in more than a triping of the gross irrigated area, going from 22.6 miion hectares ( ) to 76.3 miion hectares ( ). This has contributed to a drastic reduction in per capita fresh water avaiabiity, from 5,410 cubic meters to 1,900 cubic metres during that period. The greatest growth of irrigation has been through the instaation of wes. In some regions, the over-expoitation of groundwater suppies through pump extraction is eading to serious decines in ground water eves. India is the argest user of groundwater in the word (over a quarter of the goba tota); 60% of irrigated agricuture and 85% of drinking water suppies in India are dependent on groundwater extractions. According to the Word Bank, if current trends continue, within 20 years, about 60% of a aquifers in India wi be in a critica condition. This wi have serious impications for the sustainabiity of agricuture, ong-term food security, iveihoods, and economic growth. It is estimated that over a quarter of the country's harvest wi be at risk. There is thus an urgent need to change the status quo. The 'Report of the Expert Consutation on Bridging the Rice Yied Gap in the Asia-Pacific Region', pubished by the UN Food and Agricuture Organization in October 1999 says: Countries ike India and China are approaching the imits of water scarcity. Aong the same ines, the Internationa Water Management Institute (IWMI), in its Working Paper No. 23, mentions that India is aready experiencing physica water scarcity, which is defined in terms of the magnitude of primary water suppy (PWS) deveopment reative to potentiay utiizabe water resources (PUWR). Physica water-scarce conditions are considered to be reached once a country's primary water suppy exceeds 60% of its PUWR. This eve means that even with the highest feasibe efficiency and productivity of water, the country's PUWR is not sufficient to meet the demands of agricuture, domestic and industria sectors, whie addressing aso environmenta needs. Experts have estimated that by 2025, the gap between the suppy of, and demand for, water for irrigation in India wi be 21 biion cubic meters (BCM). In addition to this absoute water constraint, other factors such as improper management of avaiabe water resources, suboptima farm management, poor crop husbandry, ineffective infrastructure, and unpanned capita deveopment continue to subvert agricuture in India. A study by the Asian Deveopment Bank, entited 'Pro-Poor Intervention Strategies in Irrigated Agricuture in Asia,' which was reeased in Juy 2005 foowing fied surveys of irrigation systems in Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, states: Poverty rates are higher in the tai-ends of systems where water is ess and productivity is ow. Strangey, though, poverty rates are not necessariy ower in the head reaches, even though they are nearer to the water source. Poverty rates are consistenty higher in nonirrigated rather than irrigated areas. However, in rainfed 22 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

25 areas surrounding the studied systems, poverty eves were reduced by factors of non-farm income, arger andhodings, and groundwater use. Within systems, the poor generay receive ess irrigation water than the nonpoor in both dry and wet seasons. The future of country's rice production wi depend heaviy on deveoping and adopting strategies and practices that wi use irrigation water more efficienty at farm eve. To meet its food security needs, the country needs its increase its paddy production at the rate of 3.75 miion tonnes per year unti The paddy productivity in most states must be consideraby enhanced from the current eve. Rice farming is witnessing a phase where sustaining the interest of the farmers in growing rice itsef is becoming an issue, and rice farmers are switching to other ess demanding crops. The current scenario coud be summarised as foows : Vagaries of monsoon are causing droughts and foods Increases in grain productivity have stagnated Factor productivity is decining continuousy Management and efficiency of the country's surface irrigation systems are in serious disarray Groundwater resources are being overutiized, so water tabe is faing Soi quaity is decining Subsidizing chemica fertiizer is proving to be very expensive Excessive focus on varieta changes for productivity enhancement Existing extension systems are overstretched Labour scarcity is threatening the continuance of rice farming It is necessary that these chaenges be met with care, consistency, and a positive approach to achieve nationa and househod food security. 1.5 Summary The current situation in India with respect to food security in reation to rice presents a number of imperatives: (1) increasing rice productivity and production, (2) reducing the irrigation water used for rice cutivation, (3) minimizing the costs of cutivation for farmers, (4) enhancing the profitabiity of rice farming (5) reducing environmenta heath risks from chemica inputs, so that soi and water quaity are maintained, and (6) sustaining the interests of farmers in rice cutivation. This is a very demanding agenda for rice scientists and practitioners and for the poicy-makers who support them. One of the opportunities that is now avaiabe for the rice sector in India, based on a decade of experience and now offering means to achieve a of the above objectives, is the adoption and further adaptation of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), the subject of the rest of this book. 23 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

26

27 2 RICE CULTIVATION In India, the rice area extends from 8 N to 34 N atitude and from beow sea-eve (Kuttanad, Keraa) to atitudes above 2,000 m (in parts of Jammu and Kashmir). The crop is grown in different seasons and with different methods of crop estabishment. But water avaiabiity dictated by the monsoons is the major factor that infuences the rice production scenario in most of the country. Varying rice andscapes can thus be seen from north to south, from east to west (Photos 2.1 to 2.4) Photos 2.1 and 2.2 Rice andscapes in the pains 2.1 Rice Environments The Internationa Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has identified and categorized four rice agro-ecosystems: irrigated rice ecosystems, rainfed owand rice ecosystems, upand rice ecosystems, and deepwater rice ecosystems. Across the gobe- except for Africa - irrigated rice ecosystems as seen in Figure 2.1 dominate over the other agroecosystems. In India, most rice production is irrigated and/or suppemented by rainfed production. Of the approximatey 44 miion hectares under rice cutivation in the country, around 23 miion hectares (53%) are irrigated, 14 miion ha (32%) are rainfed owand, 5.3 miion ha (12%) are upand, and about 1.3 miion ha (3%) are deepwater areas. Percent rice area Irrigated Rainfed owand Upand Word Asia India Deep water Figure 2.1 Percentage of distribution of rice crop area by environment, Source: FAO database 2007 for rice area, Rome 25 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

28 The method of crop estabishment in the different ecosystems depends mainy on the source and avaiabiity of water (Tabe 2.1). Tabe 2.1 Rice systems, andscapes, sources of water and methods of crop estabishment in India Rice system Landscapes Sources of water Methods of crop estabishment Irrigated Bunded ow ands in pains Basins in unduating terrains Bunded terraces in hiy / unduating terrains Perennia River (rainfed, reservoir-fed, snow-fed) Seasona river (rainfed, reservoir-fed, snow-fed) System tanks fied by river water Seasona tanks fied with rainwater Ground water (whoe season) Ground water (suppementary) Transpanted in pudded soi Seeds broadcast in pudded soi Drum seeded in pudded soi Seeding throwing in pudded soi Direct seeded in dry condition and converted into wetand after rains Rainfed wetand Bunded ow ands in pains Basins in unduating terrains Bunded terraces in hiy / unduating terrains High rainfa Transpanted in pudded soi Direct seeded in dry condition and converted into wetand after rains Rainfed dryand Bunded ands in pains Bunded terraces in hiy / unduating terrains Sopy ands in unduating terrains Low rainfa Seeds broadcast in dry condition Line sowing behind pough in dry condition Seed-dri sowing (anima drawn) in dry condition Seed-dri sowing (tractor drawn) in dry condition Deep water Depressions in food pains Basins in unduating terrains Rainfa fooding Seeds broadcast in dry condition and fieds fooded with rain water 26 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

29 conditions. The cyconic weather associated with the monsoon can cause extremes of wind and rain, but a more important characteristic of the monsoon season is the (growing) variabiity in its onset. Either great deay or faiure of the monsoon has a huge impact on rice farmers' success in kharif season. Photos 2.3 and 2.4 Rice andscapes in unduating terrains Eastern India (states of West Benga, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, eastern Uttar Pradesh and eastern Madhya Pradesh) is the most important rice-growing (about 63.3% of India's rice area) and -consuming area in India. Athough 35% of the peope ive in this region, their demand is about 49% of the rice grown in the country. The annua per capita rice consumption in this region is 133 kg versus 37 kg in the western region, 39 kg in the northern region and 113 kg in the southern region. The average rice yied in five of the six states is 2.7 t ha. About 78.7% of the rice farming in the region is rainfed (Singh and Singh, 2000). Rice Seasons A combination of temperature, photoperiod, and ight intensity determines the growth period and crop performance of rice. There are two main seasons for growing rice in India, athough three crops are taken in some parts of Tami Nadu and Keraa where sufficient water is avaiabe. The kharif season is dictated by the southwest monsoon, with abundant rainfa and high reative humidity; coud cover owers the ight intensity, and there is a gradua shortening of the photoperiod and a gradua fa in temperature as the cimate changes from peak temperature and rainfa to more norma During rabi, the winter season, starting when day-ength is at its shortest, there is a gradua rise in temperature, brighter sunshine, near-absence of coudy days, a gradua engthening of the photoperiod, and ower reative humidity (ICAR, 2010). This presents quite contrasting conditions for rice crops, and ow temperature at the start of the season can be a constraint on rabi crop estabishment in some areas. Rice seasons across the year often have been given different names in different parts of the country. In some areas with benign cimate, one can see rice crops at different growth stages at any point of time throughout the year. 27 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

30 2.2 Irrigated Rice At the goba eve, around 57% of a rice is obtained from irrigated fieds, athough regiona ratios vary. Looking more cosey at the top ten rice-producing countries, however, one discerns a different pattern (Tabe 2.1). Wordwide, rice cutivation absorbs 85% of a irrigation water. In Asia, about 84% of water withdrawn from surface or underground sources is used for agricuture, mosty in fooded rice irrigation. Gobay, the rice crop today accounts for about 45 percent of tota area under irrigation. Rice crops receive 2-3 times more water per hectare than the other irrigated crops, and it is estimated that irrigated rice uses 34 43% of the word s water used for irrigation and some 24 30% of the word s deveoped freshwater resources. It is aso estimated that by 2025, miion ha of irrigated rice area wi suffer severe water scarcity. Tabe 2.1 Irrigated rice area in different regions and in the top ten rice-producing countries Region Tota rice area (m. ha) Irrigated rice area (percent) Asia Africa Latin America USA Europe Austraia Word Country Tota rice area (m. ha) Irrigated rice area (percent) China India Indonesia Bangadesh Thaiand Vietnam Myanmar Phiippines Brazi Repubic of Korea Source: irri.org In India, the acreage under irrigated rice cutivation increased from 14.3 m. ha in to 23.3 m. ha in Irrigated rice area was 38% of gross irrigated area in the country during , and 29% in (Figure 2.2) Figure 2.2 Change in proportion of irrigated area (miion ha) under rice compared to area under other crops in India over three decades ( to ). Other Groups Rice Other Groups Rice 28 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

31 Rice fieds under a conventiona irrigated environment have sufficient water avaiabe through the growing seasons (one or more) with controed shaow water depths ranging between 5 and 10 cm. Irrigated rice is grown under both owand and upand conditions. Water sources are canas of river systems, tanks that get fied with water from canas (system tanks) or from rainfa and ground water. Some of the river irrigated systems have a perennia source of water whie the others are seasona. Irrigated ecosystems are important as they contribute 75% of the country's rice production with rough rice yieds of about 4.5 t ha, compared to an unirrigated average of 1.8 t ha (Figure 2.3). Irrigated ecosystems are predominant in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tami Nadu, Karnataka, and Keraa. Most of the irrigated rice is grown in the kharif season (June- November), utiizing the southwest monsoon and suppemented with ground and tank water. Whie the rabi season is considered as a dry season in the rest of India (getting its water suppy from reservoirs and ground), in Tami Nadu this is a predominant monsoon season suppied by the northeast monsoon with water suppy from canas and tanks and suppemented from the ground. In some parts of the country, there is a spring season with irrigated rice (January-May). Yied (t/ha) Irrigated Rainfed owand Figure 2.3 Rough rice yied in different rice environments in India Source : Transpanted Rice Irrigated rice is mosty transpanted. Seedings are first raised in a nursery, and seedings 4 to 6weeks od are transpanted into pudded soi with standing water. Under these conditions, the rice pants have an important headstart over a wide range of competing weeds, which eads to higher yieds. Transpanting, ike pudding, provides farmers with the abiity to better accommodate the rice crop to a finite and uncertain water suppy by shortening the duration of the crop in the main fied (since seedings have been grown separatey and at higher density in the nursery), with the opportunity to make adjustments in the panting caendar according to water avaiabiity. Rainfed upand Deep water parts of rice farming and remain widey practiced to this day. Pudding breaks down the interna structure of sois, making them much ess subject to water oss through percoation as a pough pan (hard ayer) is formed that hods water in the surface ayer of soi. In this respect, it can be thought of as a way to extend the utiity of a imited water suppy (Macean et a. 2002). The agronomic practices invoved are raising wet nursery and transpanting in the main fied. Seedings are raised in wet or dry nursery beds (their size being 8-10% of the tota area for transpanting) depending upon water avaiabiity. The dapog method deveoped in the Phiippines is aso one of the recognized methods where a thick stand of seedings is raised in pastic sheets without any contact with soi. The practices of pudding the soi - turning it to mud and transpanting seedings were ikey refined in China. Both Figure 2.3 Rough rice yied in different operations have become integra rice environments in India 29 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

32 Organic manures are generay used in the beds. Seed treatment with chemicas for protection against diseases is recommended. Certain biofertiizers are aso used to treat the seeds. Seeds are soaked in gunny bags for 24 hours and then incubated for another 24 hours with occasiona sprinking of water. Sprouted seeds are then sown uniformy on the bed. Seedings of 4-6 weeks od are removed from the nursery, bunded and transported to the main fied. The main fied wi have been prepared sufficienty earier with dry poughing foowed by wet pudding and eveing. Organic manures of different dosages depending upon avaiabiity are appied before pudding. Seedings are panted at random or in ines with a spacing of 20x10 or 10x10 cm. Athough 2-3 seedings per hi are recommended to be panted, more seedings (4-6) are generay panted, with the expectation this wi ensure the pants' estabishment across the whoe fied. Farmers generay worry that their seedings wi not survive, even though dense panting has its own negative effects in terms of pests and disease incidence, inter-pant competition for nutrients, and shading that imits growth. Athough agronomists recommend that water depth be imited to 2-5 cm, usuay farmers do not maintain strict water contro and tend to keep their fieds fooded as much as possibe, thinking that this wi ensure water avaiabiity. Weed management is generay done with hand weeding twice or thrice, and use of herbicides is aso practiced. Nutrient management invoves use of organic materias to the extent of their avaiabiity and is widey suppemented by chemica fertiizers. Various recommendations on the doses and timing of appication of fertiizers prevai across the regions. Pest contro is attempted mosty through the use of chemicas. Organic rice cutivation is aso practiced to some extent as a matter of choice rather than necessity. Mechanized panting is aso becoming increasingy popuar (Photos 2.5 to 2.10). Photo 2.5 Conventiona nursery Photo 2.6 Conventiona panting Photo 2.7 Conventiona method of distributing seedings and random panted fied Photo 2.8 Machine transpanting Photo 2.9 Conventiona hand weeding Photo 2.10 Conventiona food irrigation 30 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

33 Direct-seeded Rice Broadcasting sprouted seeds directy onto a pudded and eveed fied is aso practiced to some extent. The and, time and expenditure spent on the nursery and the costs of puing up seedings and transpanting them are competey eiminated by this method. The drawbacks are using the main fied for a onger time and extended irrigation costs, besides the possibiity of more weed probems. Using a drum seeder faciitates ine sowing and intercutura operations (Photos 2.11 and 2.12). Photo 2.11 Drum seeder Photo 2.12 Sowing with a drum seeder Seeding Throwing Random throwing of conventionay-raised seedings directy in pudded and eveed fied is aso practiced under irrigated conditions, but is not very popuar. Transpanting costs are eiminated in this method. 2.3 Rainfed Rice Rainfed rice is grown under both owand and upand conditions at the mercy of the monsoon rains. Rainfed owand rice fieds are bunded and get fooded and fied with rainwater for some period of the crop growth. Depending on the duration of rainfa, rainfed shaow ands exhibit uncontroed shaow water depth, ranging 1 50 cm. The system occurs mainy in the states of Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts), Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Bihar, West Benga, Assam, Tripura, and Manipur, where rice is directy-seeded in pudded or poughed sois. Because of a weter of biotic and abiotic stresses, the average rough rice productivity in this system is ower (2.2 t ha ). Rainfed upand rice is characterized by dryand conditions without irrigation and usuay unbunded fieds. This type of rice is being cutivated in parts of Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts), Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Odisha, West Benga, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and the hiy regions of Himacha Pradesh and Uttarakhand as we as in Mizoram, Arunacha Pradesh and Nagaand. Using draught animas to prepare the and after receiving rainfa is common, and tractor use is aso becoming popuar. Seed is either broadcast in poughed dry soi or dibbed into non-pudded soi. Sowing behind a country pough is common. In genera, traditiona ta varieties combining eary maturity and drought-toerance are preferred, and hardy any chemica fertiizers are used. Buockdrawn impements for sowing and intercutivation are aso being used by some farmers (Photos 2.13 and 2.14). Erratic rainfa distribution, brief periods of drought, and fash foods, are the major production constraints. Rough rice productivity is ow (about 1 t ha ) in view of severa biotic and abiotic and socia constraints. 31 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

34 Photo 2.13 Seed dri used for rainfed rice in Karnataka Photo 2.14 Buock-drawn harrow for intercutivation 2.4 Deepwater Rice Deepwater rice fieds occur in ow-ying/depressed ocations where runoff water from catchment areas accumuates during ater crop growth stages. The initiay aerobic soi conditions are converted into anaerobic soi conditions on the receipt of the runoff water. Speciay-adopted rice varieties that iteray foat on water are grown, and they cope with rising water eve by exhibiting remarkabe stem eongation aided by ethyene production. This ecosystem occurs chiefy in the states of Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts), Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and West Benga. Rough rice productivity with such management is about 2.1t ha. 2.5 Semi-dry Rice Deepwater rice fieds occur in ow-ying/depressed ocations where runoff water from catchment areas accumuates during ater crop growth stages. The initiay aerobic soi conditions are converted into anaerobic soi conditions on the receipt of the runoff water. Speciay-adopted rice varieties that iteray foat on water are grown, and they cope with rising water eve by exhibiting remarkabe stem eongation aided by ethyene production. This ecosystem occurs chiefy in the states of Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts), Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and West Benga. Rough rice productivity with such management is about 2.1t ha. 2.6 Organic Rice Growing rice organicay is nothing new as this was the practice before the arriva of chemica inputs. The Green Revoution, athough it has been responsibe for greaty reducing food insecurity, saw the disappearance of many traditiona cutivars and practices. Catte use dwinded as tractors became more widey used, eading to the nonavaiabiity of farm yard manure which was an important source of nutrients to the crops. The growing awareness among consumers of food-safety issues and the reaization of desirabe benefits of reviving organic fertiization and management of crops are making a considerabe impact on the growing of rice without reiance of inorganic chemicas. A number of NGOs throughout the country are activey invoved in promoting organic rice production. This can be done in any of the agroecosystems discussed above, but it is most reevant for irrigated rice, for which agrochemica use has become most intense and widespread. 32 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

35 2.7 Need for Ecoogicay-sound Cutivation Techniques On the one side, there is a crisis in production, and on the other, the demand for rice is growing gobay. Thus, there is an urgent need to find ways to grow more rice but with ess water and ess agrochemica inputs. The yied potentia of rice, despite decades of investment in pant breeding, has remained reativey unchanged since the introduction of the first semi-dwarf variety (IR- 8) in the mid960s. Agricutura experts and governments are prompted to ook at other practica ways of increasing rice production without further degrading ecosystems. This is the goba chaenge. There are no known technica soutions presenty avaiabe to improve rice productivity significanty. The much-pubicized GM rice and the breakthrough hoped for with C4 technoogy to ater the photosynthetic pathway for rice pants have not made any contributions to higher production so far. It woud take at east years of dedicated and costy work by goba scientific teams for some positive resuts to emerge, and positive resuts are not certain. Improved technoogies have certainy increased yieds. However, in many countries yied growth rates have sowed down over the past decade. The impication of this fact is that the ever-increasing demand for rice can ony be met by bringing more and into cutivation, which in turn woud require drawing more water from surrounding ecosystems to meet the requirements of this 'thirsty' crop. Severa technoogies or sets of practices that promise to boost paddy yied per hectare and which require ess water have been in use for the past few decades. Some of these offer other economic and environmenta benefits as we. Of these practices, SRI is a wedocumented methodoogy that has given demonstrabe resuts in India and esewhere as per its promise. Rice farmers in many countries have been switching out of rice production to more commerciayprofitabe crops. In some districts of China, farmers are being advised to desist from sowing paddy, in order to reduce their demands for water. This refects the rice-sector crisis discussed in Chapter Summary Expanded rice production, particuary of irrigated rice, wi continue to pay a centra roe in reducing hunger and improving nutrition eves in India and esewhere. But this can happen in a sustainabe and environmentay-responsibe fashion, ony if water is used more productivey, getting 'more crop per drop.' Better management of natura resources, particuary water and reversing soi fertiity decines, is critica for addressing both production and productivity issues. In this context, the focus shoud be on identifying and introducing rice cutivation methods that use water more productivey than under the conventiona (inundation) methods. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) represents such a methodoogy, presenty avaiabe at itte or no cost. Under the present situation, our country cannot afford to continue growing rice with overuse of water, degradation of soi, excessive use of seed, and reativey unproductive use of abor. Aready five years ago, an expert committee chaired by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan recommended that SRI be taken up as one of the best ways to cope with the impending water scarcities in the agricutura sector (MWR, 2006). 33 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

36 3 INTRODUCTION TO SRI The System of Rice Intensification, widey known as SRI, is a method of rice cutivation deveoped in an unconventiona way and now known and being practiced in more than 40 countries. This spread in a decade's time is due to the fact that it addresses many of the chaenges faced by rice farmers across the word. 3.1 History of SRI The SRI methodoogy was synthesized in the eary 1980s by Fr. Henri de Lauanié, S.J. (Photos 3.1 and 3.2). Trained in agricuture at the Institut Nationa Agronomique in Paris before entering seminary in 1941, Lauanié was sent to Madagascar in 1961 to serve as an agricutura technician for 10 years. However, he fortuitousy extended his stay, spending the next (and ast) 34 years of his ife working with Maagasy farmers to improve their agricutura systems, and particuary their rice production, since rice is the stape food in Madagascar. Fr. de Lauanié estabished an agricutura schoo in Antsirabe on the high pateau (1,500 MASL) in 1981 to hep rura youths gain an education that was reevant to their vocations and famiy needs. The key eement in SRI was discovered amost by accident in Over the previous 20 years, Fr. Lauanié had Photos 3.1 and 3.2 Father Henri de Lauanié (Source : Association of Tefy Saina) assembed or improvised a number of beneficia practices that enhanced the growth and productivity of rice pants. But the keystone in the SRI 'arch' was estabished serendipitousy. The nursery prepared for panting the schoo's demonstration rice crop had aready been estabished for 15 days when it was decided to pant another sma nursery to expand the schoo's panted area. When some rains began 15 days ater, both nurseries were transpanted, with itte expectation or hope for the younger seedings. To pant 30- day seedings was aready a big departure from the usua practice in Madagascar of transpanting arge seedings at days. The 15-day seedings were unimpressive, even disappointing, for the first month. But then they began tiering vigorousy, supported by the other practices of singe seedings panted in a square pattern and with aerobic soi conditions (no continuous fooding, and soi-aerating weed contro). Given the very high number of tiers obtained per pant with this unintended experiment, more than 20 per pant, this age for seedings was adopted at the schoo as the atest time for transpantation. Sti earier transpanting of seedings was tried - at ony 12 days, 10 days, even 8 days after seedings emerged in the nursery. It was found that this ed to a substantia increase in the number of tiers per pant, up to 60, even 80 or more, and to more grains when a the SRI practices previousy assembed were used together with young seedings. Such was the beginning of the System of Rice Intensification. Yieds rose substantiay with the increase in tiering and grain formation, but the exact reason for this increase coud not be expained. The reason was found from reading Didier Moreau'sbook, entited L'anayse de 'éaboration du rendement du riz: Les outis du diagnostic, pubished by the French NGO, GRET. It introduced the concept of phyochrons to Father 34 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

37 Lauanié and others. This anaysis coud account for the arge number of tiers produced when rice is transpanted at an eary age, before the start of its fourth phyochron. The tiering mode deveoped by the Japanese scientist T. Katayama in the 1920s and 1930s, but not pubished unti after Word War II (in 1951) showed why transpanting before the 15th day woud be ess traumatic for rice pants and preserve their growth potentia. With this anaysis, the System of Rice Intensification coud become more than a matter of pure empiricism and coud be understood in terms of demonstrabe scientific expanations (Lauanié, 1993). Lauanié paid itte attention to the issuance of geneticayimproved and input-responsive modern varieties. By manipuating the other agronomic factors incuding their interactions, he recorded spectacuar yied increases from the avaiabe oca varieties (Stoop et a. 2009). Though SRI was 'assembed' in 1983, benefiting from some serendipity, it took some years to gain confidence that these methods coud consistenty raise production so substantiay. In 1990, Fr. de Lauanié together with a number of Maagasy coeagues estabished an indigenous non-governmenta organization (NGO), Association Tefy Saina, to work with farmers, other NGOs, and agricutura professionas to improve production and iveihoods in Madagascar. In 1994, Tefy Saina began working with the Corne Internationa Institute for Food, Agricuture and Deveopment (CIIFAD) in Ithaca, New York, to hep farmers iving around Ranomafana Nationa Park to find aternatives to their sashand-burn agricuture. Uness they coud increase their poor yieds grown on their imited irrigated owand area, about 2 t ha, they woud need to continue growing upand rice in this manner destructive to Madagascar's precious but endangered rain forest ecosystems. Fortunatey, by using SRI methods, these same farmers coud average 8 t ha during the first five years that these methods were introduced around Ranomafana. A French project for improving sma-scae irrigation systems on the high pateau during this same time period aso found that farmers using SRI methods averaged over 8 t ha (Uphoff, 2002). Once CIIFAD was persuaded that SRI methods were indeed productive, giving farmers more output with a reduction in externa inputs, but with more abour and management inputs, it took severa more years to get the methods evauated outside of Madagascar. In 1999 the first such trias began in China and Indonesia, and in India the next year. Even with positive resuts, it took another 10 years before SRI became widey known in the rest of the word, due in considerabe measure to the persistent initiatives of Dr.Norman Uphoff of Corne University, Director of CIIFAD from 1990 to 2005 (Photos 3.3 and 3.4). Now, SRI has spread to more than 40 countries and is supported by innumerabe success stories. Efforts are now on-going to generate and estabish scientificay the exact physioogica and other mechanisms responsibe for the observed SRI resuts, heretofore often beyond beief or dismissed as too good to be true. Photos 3.3 and 3.4 Dr. Norman Uphoff interacting with farmers and scientists 35 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

38 3.2 What is SRI? The System of Rice Intensification invoves cutivating rice with as much organic manure as possibe, starting with young seedings panted singy at wider spacing in a square pattern; and with intermittent irrigation that keeps the soi moist but not inundated, and frequent intercutivation with weeder that activey aerates the soi. SRI is not a standardised, fixed technoogica method. It is rather a set of ideas, a methodoogy for comprehensivey managing and conserving resources by changing the way that and, seeds, water, nutrients, and human abour are used to increase productivity from a sma but we-tended number of seeds. As Father de Lauanié observed, SRI is an amagamation of mutipe beneficia practices. During two decades of observation and experimentation, he gained many insights into how to provide rice pants with a more favorabe growing environment. By atering certain age-od practices for growing rice, Lauanié assembed the System of Rice Intensification which enabes farmers to obtain more productive phenotypes from any rice genotype (variety) by appying fewer rather than with more externa inputs. Fr.Lauanie died in Madagascar in June, The generic agronomic practices for growing transpanted rice, i.e, raising a nursery, transpanting, irrigation, weed management, and nutrient management, are a there in SRI, but there are striking changes made in the way that these are carried out. The rice pants respond in a different, more productive way, resuting in previousy unseen crop growth. SRI agronomy at the eve of practice represents an 'integrated' production system. Through integrated management of its various crop-soi-soi biotawater-nutrient-space-time components, SRI seeks to capitaise on a number of basic agronomic principes that shoud not be controversia. They are aimed at optimizing the above- as we as beow-ground pant growth and deveopment, and improving the performance of the crop as a whoe (Uphoff, 2008) 3.3 SRI Principes The eements of SRI incude: transpanting young seedings, before the start of their 4th phyochron of growth; reducing pant popuations by as much as 80-90% per m2; converting paddy sois from anaerobic, fooded status to mosty aerobic conditions, by aternate wetting and drying; active soi aeration, with mechanica weeders; and increased soi organic amendments. Whie some of the practices appear counterintuitive getting more production from fewer pants, with ess water appication, and with reduced reiance on chemica fertiizers the beneficia effects of each practice can be expained and justified scientificay (Uphoff, 2008). The principes of SRI which are fundamenta to achieving the expected benefits, get transated into certain practices, adapted in their fine points to oca conditions (Tabe 3.1). 36 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

39 Tabe 3.1 Principes and Practices of SRI S. No Principe Practice 1 Very young seedings shoud be used, to preserve the pant s inherent growth potentia for rooting and tiering 2 Transpanting singe seeding per hi shoud be done quicky, carefuy, shaow and skifuy, in order to avoid any trauma to the roots, which are the key to pants' success 3 Reduce the pant popuation radicay by spacing his widey and squarey, so that both the roots and canopy have room to grow and can have greater access to nutrients, sunight, etc. 4 Provide growing pants with sufficient water to meet the needs of roots, shoots and soi biota, but never in excess, so that the roots do not suffocate and degenerate 8 15 day od seedings with 3 eaves are grown in a raised-bed nursery Singe seedings are panted with a minimum time interva between the time they are taken out from the nursery and panted carefuy at a shaow depth (1-2 cm) Panting at grids of either 20 x 20 cm or 25 x 25 cm (or 30 x 30 cm or even wider if the soi is very fertie) using a rope or roer marker to achieve precise inter-pant distances (to faciitate intercutivation) Up to panice initiation: Irrigate to 2.5 cm depth after the water ponded earier disappears and hairine cracks are formed on the soi surface. (Heavy cay sois shoud not be permitted to reach the cracking stage, but sti are issued ess water than with usua fooding.) After panice initiation : Irrigate to a depth of 2.5 cm one day after the water ponded earier disappears 5 Active soi aeration improves rice crop growth by benefiting both roots and beneficia aerobic soi organisms. 6 Augmenting organic matter in sois, as much as possibe, improves performance of the rice crop, by improving soi structure and functioning and supporting beneficia soi organisms. Intercutivation with a mechanica weeder at intervas of 102 days, starting 102 days after transpanting and continuing unti the canopy coses, passing between the rows, and making perpendicuar passes across the fied Appication of catte manure, green manure, bio-fertiizers, and vermi-compost is recommended. Chemica fertiizer can be used, but it does not have the same beneficia effects on soi systems. Source: Uphoff, Transforming Rice Production with SRI

40 The six principes form the 'SRI Hexagon,' and when adopted together they have a profound effect on the growth of rice pants (Figure 3.1). Young seedings More organic manures Singe seeding per hi Increased and, water, nutrient, abour productivity Unfooded irrigation WIder spacing Intercutivation Figure 3.1 SRI Hexagon A comparison of the conventionay-recommended practices with SRI wi show how SRI practices are competey different from what farmers have been advised to do (Tabe 3.2). The extent of differences can vary with different regions. 38 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

41 Tabe 3.2 SRI vs. conventiona methods of rice cutivation Practice Commony recommended methods Farmers practice SRI methods Seed rate (kg ha ) Seeding age (days) Pant spacing (cm) 15 x 10 / 20 x 10 Usuay random 25 x 25 panting (square panting) -2 Number his m Varying 16 Number of seedings hi or more Singe Water management Irrigate to 5 cm depth Continuous Ony moist one day after fooding to conditions with disappearance of various depths shaow fooding previousy ponded water. Weed management Hand weeding twice, 2-3 times hand Weeds are at 15 and 35 days after weeding; turned back into panting, or appication herbicide aso the fied by a of herbicide pus one is used by some mechanica hand weeding farmers hand weeder Intercutivation No No Weeder is used 3-4 times in between rows in both directions (perpendicuar) Nutrient management Integrated nutrient Use a Emphasis on management using recommended more appication organic manures, manures and of organic bio-fertiizers, and fertiizers, but manures chemica fertiizers doses and at recommended eves and timing timing vary according to farmers resources Note: There may be more variations in the recommended and farmers practices across the country. Ony an exampe of farmer practices is given here. The caendar of operations that are to be carried out in SRI is given in Tabe Transforming Rice Production with SRI

42 Tabe 3.3 SRI Caendar Panting Panice initiation Fowering Maturity Fied preparation and nursery raising Days before panting Tiering Days after panting Main fied Pouging, pudding Leveing Provide drainage at the periphery Nursery Manures Prepare raised bed, sow treated and pregerminated seeds Appy FYM/GM or incorporate Spray 0.5 % urea if seeding growth is poor 5 days before panting Appy biofertiizers Pu out 3 eaf stage seedings aong with soi haf hour before panting, root dip with biofertiizers Marker use Panting Use marker on the previous day before panting Pant singe seeding at the intersections of marker grid ines or use rope Fi gaps if needed Irrigation Irrigate to pudde and eve Drain water two days before panting Irrigate ighty to keep a thin fim of water fore panting Irrigate to 2 cm depth after thin cracks deveop on soi surface, drain excess rain water Fertiizers Appy recommended basa dose of N, P, K, Zn Top dress N and K Intercutivation First Second Third Fourth Hand weeding Remove weeds eft out by weeder Pest contro Need-based biopesticides / pesticides Top dress N and K Irrigate 2 cm water after disappearance of surface water, drain excess rain water Top dress N and K Drain water 40 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

43 3.4 Significance of the SRI Principes Each of the six principes of SRI has an important bearing on the performance of the crop on its own (Tabe 3.3), but they have aso synergistic effects on one another, in addition to direct benefits. Basicay these effects arise from the positive feedback between root and shoot growth; both roots and shoots benefit the other. The extent and mechanisms of such synergy have been studied to some extent (see Chapter 10). Tabe 3.3 Significance of SRI principes Principe Significance Young seedings Much greater potentia for tiering and root growth Earier arriva within a better growing environment in the main fied extends the time for tiering No transpanting shock if transpanting is done carefuy Singe seeding per hi No competition for nutrients, water and space within a hi Seed requirements are reduced This practice combined with wider spacing enabes a eaves to be photosyntheticay active; whereas with crowding, ower eaves do not get enough exposure to sunight for photosynthesis. This deprives the pant - and especiay the roots of possibe suppy of photosynthates Wider spacing Promote more profuse growth of roots and tiers More space (beow and above ground) per hi for access to nutrients, water and ight Intercutivation with mechanica weeder is made possibe Moist and unfooded Non-hypoxic condition of soi favours root heath and water management functioning, and aso supports more abundant and diverse regime communities of beneficia aerobic soi organisms No degeneration of roots, which otherwise wi be as much as 75% degraded by panice initiation under fooding Exposing the soi to sunight is favourabe for warmth Water savings of up to 40% Energy saving where water is pumped Intercutivation Churning up of the soi activates the microbia, physica and chemica dynamics Triggers greater root growth and tiering Weed biomass is incorporated into the soi as green manure Weeding costs can be reduced Libera use of Gives better pant growth response than inorganic fertiizers organic manures More sustained suppy of nutrients Favourabe growth of soi biota Enrichment of soi heath 41 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

44 The overa effect of adopting SRI practices is an increased grain yied which can be obtained irrespective of the variety panted. Whie the principes of SRI are constant, there are variations in the practices foowed. Farmers have been modifying SRI recommendations in some usefu ways to suit their conditions, and in severa ways have improved upon the initia methodoogy. SRI methods are seen to have the foowing impacts compared to their conventiona counterparts (Uphoff et a. 2009). Depending on current yied eves, output per hectare is increased, usuay by 50% or more, with increases of at east 20%, and sometimes 200% or more. Since SRI fieds are not kept continuousy fooded, water requirements are reduced, generay by 25 50%. The system does not require purchase of new varieties of seed, chemica fertiizer, or agrochemica inputs, athough commercia inputs can be used with SRI methods. Minima capita cost makes SRI methods more accessibe to poor farmers, who do not need to borrow money or go into debt, unike with many other innovations. Costs of production are usuay reduced, probaby by 10 20%, athough this percentage varies according to the input-intensity of farmers' current production. With increased output and reduced costs, farmers' net income is increased by more than their augmentation of yied. More detais on the effects of SRI and the benefits are given in Chapters 10 and 11. SRI is perhaps the best exampe of an option for farmers and nations to promote communityed agricutura growth, managing their soi and water resources more sustainaby and even enhancing future productive capacity. SRI modifies how farmers manage their pants, not the pants themseves; so it is compatibe with genetic improvement strategies, whie mitigating the drawbacks associated with monocuture, agrochemica use, and cimate change. This makes it a win-win proposition for rura househods, countries, and the panet. 3.5 Introduction of SRI in India Introduction of SRI in India began in 2000 in Tami Nadu, Puduchery, and Tripura. In Tami Nadu, Tami Nadu Agricutura University (TNAU) initiated experiments invoving SRI principes, and one farmer tried SRI under organic farming. The source of information on SRI for TNAU was from Dr.Uphoff, and the farmer had earnt about it from the LEISA magazine. In Tripura, some preiminary evauation of SRI principes was initiated by a rice scientist in the Department of Agricuture, and he started on-farm tiras and demonstrations from In Puduchery, SRI was tried from 2000 by Aurovie Farm. When the Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricutura University (ANGRAU) introduced SRI in farmers' fieds in Andhra Pradesh during kharif 2003, this was based on knowedge gained from a visit to Sri Lanka that had been arranged by Dr. Uphoff. That SRI experience in particuar generated nationwide interest, and today SRI is now known to a rice-growing states of the country. It is estimated that now as many as 600,000 farmers are growing their rice with a or most of the recommended SRI crop management practices on about 1 miion hectares distributed across more than 300 of the country's 564 rice-growing districts. This is probaby the most rapid uptake of new agricutura practices seen in the country, making SRI a nationa phenomenon with very imited resources devoted to its extension. A major roe has been payed by CSOs, especiay in the northern and eastern states (Tabe 3.4). The roe of donor agencies ike the WWF-ICRISAT project, the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT), and NABARD has been critica in 42 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

45 promoting SRI through CSOs. After 2006, SRI has spread to amost a rice-growing states. As far as research on SRI is concerned, experiments were undertaken in IARI starting from The Directorate of Rice Research and Centra Rice Research Institute initiated experiments on SRI from 2003 and 2005, respectivey. The Ministry of Agricuture's Directorate of Rice Deveopment based in Patna has been monitoring and assisting SRI since Many other NARs had taken up experiments on SRI after SRI was introduced into the Nationa Food Security Mission, as a method to improve rice production in food-insecure districts across the country in Both on-farm and on-station evauations across many states and in diverse growing environments have shown ceary that SRI has the potentia to improve yied whie reducing water use, production costs, and chemica inputs. Avaiabe data from SRI experiments across India show an average increase in grain yied of up to 68% with ess cost and often ess abour. Tabe 3.4 Introduction of SRI in different parts of India S.No Year State Introduced by Tami Nadu Tripura Puduchery Tami Nadu Agricutura University; Ramasamy Sevam (organic farmer) Dept.of Agricuture Aurovie Farm Karnataka Narayana Reddy, organic farmer Bihar Rajendra Agricutura University Andhra Pradesh West Benga Kera Andaman Odisha Punjab Haryana a Assam Gujarat Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricutura University; WASSAN PRADAN Mitraniketan KVK Centra Agricutura Research Institute Centra Rice Research Institute ATMA/Dept. of Agricuture POSTER (NGO); Tida Rice Co. Ltd. Assam Agricutura University Anand Agricutura University Chhattisgarh Maharashtra Uttarakhand Meghaaya Jharkhand Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa Vidyaaya Dr. Baasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth G.B. Pant University of Agricuture & Technoogy. ICAR Research Compex for NE region Birsa Agricutura University Himacha Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Nagaand Peopes Science Institute Sher-E-Kashmir University of Agricutura Sciences & Technoogy Prodigas Home 43 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

46 3.6 Extending SRI Principes to Rainfed Rice Athough SRI was deveoped for irrigated transpanted rice cutivation, the principes of SRI have been extended and adapted to rainfed rice cutivation with some modifications. In eastern India, SRI principes have been appied for both transpanted and direct-seeded rice under rainfed conditions. For transpanted rice, the practices are simiar to irrigated SRI except for adjustments in water management which depends upon rainfa. Keeping the paddy fieds under standing water (when there is sufficient rainfa) is being avoided with proper drainage. With direct seeding, owering the seed rate, and wider spacing of rows (in the case of ine sowing), thinning of the pant popuation, and intercutivation have been foowed. The main objective is to reduce abour requirements. In Dharwad region of Karnataka, AME Foundation has been spearheading SRI in rainfed areas (Photo 3.5). AMEF (Dharwad) has deveoped a 4-row seed dri (Photo 3.6) to sow seeds at 10 inch intervas instead of the 6-row seed dri with 6-8 inch rows aready being used by farmers. Photo 3.5 Rainfed SRI crop Photo 3.6 Four-row seed dri for rainfed SRI 3.7 Extending SRI Principes to other Crops The term 'SRI' is more appropriatey used as an adjective rather than as a noun. We shoud avoid the reification of SRI, i.e., making it into a thing when it is better thought about in terms of characteristics and quaities, framing issues and choices as matters of degree rather than of kind. Water management must be done differenty in upand compared to owand areas, but SRI principes for managing water can be made reevant for upand farming. Spreading of SRI shoud be approached more as a probemsoving exercise than as usua top-down 'extension' (Uphoff, 2008). These deveopments have taken pace in most paces due to the enthusiasm of farmers and NGOs assisting them, spurred by their observations on the effects of SRI, without the intervention of any estabished research systems. The System of Wheat Intensification (SWI) is becoming popuar in Himacha Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh 44 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

47 (Photo 3.7). SWI has been recognized as the 'Innovation of the Week' on the Wordwatch Institute's 'Nourishing the Panet' bog in May 2011 ( rishingthepanet/tag/system-ofwheat-intensification/). In Africa, SWI is being successfuy tried in Mai and Ethiopia aso. SRI concepts and methods have been extended to other crops aso. The Sustainabe Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) for sugarcane is being tried in five states and on a fairy arge scae in Uttar Pradesh (Photo 3.8). SRI principes of ower seed rate, imited water use, and intercutivation are being appied to crops ike finger miet (ragi), redgram, mustard, pigeon pea, and other crops in various states of India. Intuitive farmers and NGOs are terming the new method of cutivation as the 'System of Crop Intensification' (SCI), the 'System of Root Intensification', or the System of Sustainabe Crop Intensification (SSCI). An SRI Secretariat promoted by SDTT and hosted by the LIVOLINK FOUNDATION at Bhubaneswar, Odisha, has taken the initiative to document farmers' practices of appying the SRI principes for growing crops ike wheat, finger miet, rapeseed/mustard, brinja, tomato and chii. (GROWING CROPS WITH SRI PRINCIPLEShttp://sdtt-sri.org/wp- content/themes/sdtt- SRI/Document/output.pdf) Photo 3.7 System of Wheat Intensification (SWI) Photo 3.8 Sustainabe Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) 3.8 Mechanized SRI Use of simpe impements ike the marker and weeder in SRI has brought a revoution in partia mechanization of rice cutivation. Motorised weeders and modifications of existing machine transpanters to suit SRI are aso being undertaken. Recognizing that the initia abour-intensive nature of SRI coud be a barrier for adoption by farmers with arge and areas of Punjab in Pakistan, a set of agricutura impements were designed for mechanizing the operations of SRI which incuded:(1) a machine for making raised beds and doing precision-pacement of compost and fertiizer; (2) a water-whee transpanting machine that makes pits (~6cm) in the bed at 22.5 cm intervas. Each pit is fied with water, and a singe seeding (10-days od) is dropped into the pit by hand; and (3) a tractor-mounted precision weeder. The raised beds aowed water-saving furrow irrigation periodicay. Initia trias were conducted in 8 ha during 2009 with 10-day-od seedings panted at 22.5 cm spacing in both directions. Fertiizer and compost were paced precisey in a band for each hi, and mechanica weeding was carried out. The resuts showed an average yied of t ha with a 70% reduction in irrigation water appication (Sharif, 2011). 45 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

48 3.9 Summary The six principes of SRI are not a there is for successfu rice growing. There needs to be good and preparation (not unique to SRI), practices ike seed seection and/or seed priming, integrated pest management (IPM) to contro any threatening diseases or crop predation, etc. SRI is not a matter of abstractions and assertions, but rather is part of a substantia body of agronomic knowedge, and it can be presented as such. This does not mean that a or even enough is known in scientific terms about how and why SRI practices produce the resuts that we see over and over again in a wide variety of agroecoogica environments. There are 10 or 20 years' worth of research sti to be done on SRI by hundreds of researchers from many discipines. The sooner and more comprehensivey we get started on this, the better, because there shoud be many benefits resuting from such work (Uphoff, 2008). A the current rice production concerns caused by cimate change, water scarcity, abour scarcity, need for increasing input-use efficiency, and sustainabe productivity can together be addressed by one singe strategy: ADOPTION OF SRI. 46 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

49 4 SEEDLINGS FOR SRI In transpanted rice cutivation, raising the seedings in a nursery and then transpanting them into the main fied is the generic practice. Recommended seeding age for transpanting is usuay 1 week per month of duration of the crop (seed to seed) and thus, for a 105-day,short-duration rice, 25- day-od seedings are preferred, and for a 135-day mediumduration rice, 32-day-od seedings are recommended. But 4.1 Importance of Younger Seedings In SRI, use of younger seedings is one of the basic principes. 'Young' is a reative term. It is recommended to use seedings 82 days od as a rue, usuay with 15 days as the maximum, before growth potentia gets compromised. But the pant grows according to a bioogica cock, not according to the caendar. So where temperatures are cod, 'young pants' may be 168 days od, even 20 days. The physica status of the pant is indicated by the number of eaves, and 'young' means between 2 and 3 eaves (Uphoff, 2008). The immediate concern to any farmer when he is tod to use 8-12 day od seedings wi be that the growth may not be sufficient to hande the puing out and transpanting. Rice seedings are, however, tougher and more in practice, arge variations in seeding age can be found among individua farmers, depending upon water avaiabiity for the main fied, abour avaiabiity for puing seedings out of the nursery and transpanting them, input avaiabiity, and financia constraints. For instance, water avaiabiity forces some farmers to deay their panting, so that sometimes 60 to 70 day-od seedings are panted. resiient than they appear, provided that their roots are not abused. One of the reasons for the profuse tiering observed with SRI is the use of younger seedings. How this happens is sti to be fuy understood. Rice pant wi produce tiers at any of its growth stages after panting. The ratooning (regrowth) of rice wi prove this. If higher nitrogen is suppied, a rice crop can produce more tiers even at the panice initiation stage. Why transpanting young seedings, usuay before their 15th day after panting, can give better resuts can be expained in very concrete and convincing terms by understanding phyochrons (phyo = eaf, chron = period of time). Phyochrons are intervas and patterns of pant growth that govern the emergence of phytomers, i.e., units of tier, eaf and root from the apica meristem at the base of the pant (Nemoto et a. 1995; Stoop et a. 2002). Depending on how favourabe or unfavourabe are the conditions for pant growth, these periods are shorter or onger, ranging about 4 days (when conditions are idea) and 10 days (when there are many constraints). If phyochrons are shorter due to favourabe conditions, more periods of growth can be competed before the pant switches from vegetative growth to reproduction (fowering and grain fiing) resuting in more tiers and eaves. According to Lauanié, if transpanting is done beyond the fourth phyochron (after about 15 days), the first primary tier does not emerge and a of the descendents of this tier are ost. Simiary, if transpanting is further deayed by the ength of another phyochron, the second primary tier and a its descendents are aso forgone. Uphoff, on the other hand, suggests that when conventiona practices (oder seedings, crowding and fooding of pants, etc.) are used, the ength of phyochron periods is increased, and fewer phyochrons of growth are competed before panice initiation. 47 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

50 According to Katayama's theory of tiering in gramineae species (rice, wheat, barey), young rice seedings before the start of their fourth phyochron of growth (i.e., up to about 15 days) have a potentia for producing a arge number of tiers and roots simutaneousy because their roots have not been disturbed during the time before the start of root growth beyond the pant's initia tap root. Tier production in rice happens at reguar intervas. Depending upon factors ike variety, temperature, and weather, one phyochron may be 5-8 days, perhaps as short as 4 days if growing conditions are idea, or as ong as 10 days if they are adverse. That is, a new tier/eaf/root unit, or a set of severa or many such units, wi be produced from the panted seeding in cyces of every 5-8 days. Then, from the base of each existing tier, a new unit of tier, eaf and root wi be produced with a ag of one phyochron. The exception is that the first primary tier to emerge from the main (or mother) tier comes after two phyochrons, rather than one. Thereafter, primary, secondary or tertiary (daughter) tiers emerge continuousy after a deay of just one phyochron. That there is no emergence or new tiers during the second or third phyochron, i.e., after the emergence of the first (mother) tier during the first phyochron, means that there is a 55 period when the infant pant wi be east disturbed by transpanting. The tier numbers wi increase semi-exponentiay in this manner from the beginning of the fourth phyochron, as coud be seen from Tabe 4.1. The number of tiers (phytomers) emerging in each successive phyochron is equa to the sum of those produced in the preceding two phyochrons, which makes this what mathematicians ca a Fibonacci series ( nacci_number). It has been seen in many controed trias that transpanting seedings between their 5th and 15th days (especiay in conjunction with other recommended SRI practices) eads to much greater tiering and more root growth (Uphoff, 2008). This is the period of the 2nd and 3rdphyochrons, during which there are no new tiers or roots produced. This period starts after the pant has produced its first main tier and its tap root (1st phyochron) and before the emergence of the 1st primary tier (4th phyochron). Rice pants that are transpanted after the start of the 4th phyochron have ess capacity to achieve their genetic potentia, which is, however, aso affected by being crowded together and continuousy fooded, for exampe. Fr. de Lauanié ony earned about phyochrons after he had empiricay discovered that 'young seedings' have much more potentia for growth. Phyochrons, discovered by the Japanese pant researcher T.Katayama in the 1920s and 1930s, are not part of SRI, but they hep expain the effects of SRI practices and are part of SRI when understood in terms of reasons why these practices produce better phenotypes (Tabe 4.1). Tabe 4.1 Tier production in rice Phyochron * New tiers Tota tiers Transpanting (* 12thphyochron = at 60 days from sowing if phyochrons are 5 days ong, with 12 eaves from the main stem) 48 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

51 Tabe 4.2 shows that at 14 days after sowing, if there have been exceent growing conditions and phyochron ength is very short, ess than 5 days, there wi be three eaves. That is, three phyochrons woud have been competed. Shaow panting of this young seeding with soi partices intact when removed from the nursery, not ony avoids transpanting shock, but aids in quick re-estabishment of the pant and retains its potentia for profuse tiering and strong and deeper root growth that is otherwise ost when seedings become oder. If tiering continues up through the 12th phyochron (with approximatey 9 tiers in main stem except according to Katayama and Lauanié, the primary tiering off the main stem ony goes up to 6, Tabe 4.2 Seeding age and eaf production (a fied study) Seeding age (days) No.of eaves or possiby 7, primaries, each of these starting to produce secondary tiers two phyochrons after their respective emergences), potentiay there woud be 84 tiers, athough not a of these might have deveoped. If growing conditions are idea, and a 13th phyochron of growth coud be competed before the pant stops its vegetative growth and begins its reproductive phase, there coud be about 135 tiers. Numbers of tiers over 100 are occasionay seen, and sometimes even over 200 tiers. This means that the pant has competed 14 phyochrons and is into its 15th phyochron of growth. But, when a 27-day-od seeding is panted, aready 6 phyochrons (for exampe) woud have been competed. The narrow spacing between seedings in the nursery woud not provide the seedings with the environment they need to produce as many tiers as they coud within this many caendar days because they woud not have competed as many phyochrons as woud have been passed through with better growing conditions (spacing, soi aeration, etc.). When these seedings are panted at 27 days, ess than 6 tiers wi have been produced from the main stem. Transpanting younger seedings is advantageous for eary crop estabishment by avoiding or minimizing transpanting shock (Pasuquin et a. 2008). When oder-aged seedings are panted, there wi be transpanting shock which extends to a week or more, even two sometimes, without much growth of the pants.so, the avoidance of transpanting shock period aso heps to add up to the tota number of tiers. Another reason for higher tier density is the increase in the number of days for tiering as the pants go to the main fied days sooner, when compared to conventiona panting. 4.2 SRI Nursery Since with SRI management, seedings are panted singy in his that have wider spacing, the number of seedings required for panting an area is drasticay reduced (Tabe 4.3 & Figure 4.1), and thus the seed requirement is accordingy ess. That ony kg of seeds are required to pant 1 hectare is the first benefit from SRI practices that accrues to the farmer. Since the nursery area gets reduced from 800 m2 per hectare of main fied to 100 m2 and since the need to maintain the nursery is ony for 14 days, the nursery costs are reduced consideraby, another benefit. 49 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

52 Tabe 4.3 Panting density and seeding requirement Nature of variety Hi spacing(cm) Number of his per sq.m. Number of seedings per hi Number of seedings per sq.m. Conventiona cutivation Short duration 15 x Medium and ong 20 x duration A varieties 25 x SRI No. of seedings (Lakh) per ha Short duration Medium / ong duration Figure 4.1 Number of seedings required for conventiona cutivation (with short-, medium-and ong-duration varieties) and for a varieties in SRI. SRI dissoved in water. As the density of the sat soution increases, the egg raise up. The addition of sat is stopped when the surface of the egg to the size of a 25 paise coin is visibe above the soution in the bucket. Now the density of water is suitabe for separating out quaity seeds. To this sat soution, add 10kg of seeds. Those with ow density foat on the surface of the soution, whereas seeds with high density sink in the soution. The seeds foating on the surface of the soution are removed. Quaity seeds are required for getting vigorous seedings. Seeds which are stored for more than a year shoud not be used for sowing as the germination capacity and vigour of such seeds are reduced. Aso seeds with back spots shoud be removed to avoid seed-borne diseases. The density of stored seed diminishes during storage period, affected by pace, environment and pest and diseases. Aged seeds ike battery ces wi ose vigour in due course of time. By using a sat soution in a bucket into which seeds are poured, to et denser seeds sink to the bottom and ighter ones rise to the top, good quaity seeds can be separated. Ten itres of water can be put into a pastic bucket of 15-itres capacity. When a good quaity fresh egg is dropped into the water, the egg wi sink in the water and reach the bottom. Commercia-grade common sat (sodium choride) is then added itte by itte and By this method, seeds can be upgraded. Dense, high-quaity seeds resut in vigorous seedings ( ertification/seed_cm_rice%28vari eties%29.htm). Since the seedings are being panted at 14 days or ess, it is necessary to raise them propery. For this, the raised bed nursery method has been proposed. With many fewer seedings required, this greater care and attention becomes more feasibe and wi not increase time and effort. 50 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

53 SRI nursery shoud be prepared according to the soi conditions. But it is important to ay out the nursery cose to the main fied so that seedings coud be moved and re-panted in the shortest possibe time. It woud be idea to have the nursery in one corner of the main fied or adjacent to it. If farmyard manure is appied to the nursery soi, it shoud be wedecomposed; otherwise, the seedings wi be scorched. The nursery to pant 1 hectare of fied shoud be prepared on100 sq.m.area. For this, it is recommended to prepare 20 beds of 1 x 5 m each. Beds of 5 cm height can be prepared by scooping out the soi around the beds so that furrows are formed a around the beds. On the bed, a poythene sheet or used fertiizer bags shoud be spread as this prevents roots from going deeper, but beds can be prepared without sheets aso. On the sheet, about 4 cm soi shoud be spread. In case the native soi is not so fertie, 95 grams of DAP for each 5 sq.m bed may be mixed into the soi before spreading it. Some farmers use a mixture of soi, sand and compost. Vermicompost is aso used by some farmers for its higher quaity. Bamboo rods coud be aid on the sides of the beds to prevent siding of the soi. For each 5 sq.m bed, sprouted seeds (~375 g seeds prior to soaking) have to be sown eveny. The furrows coud be irrigated to soak the soi in the beds above the sheet, diffusing ateray. Aternatey or in addition, a rose can or watering can can be used to sprinke water on the soi from above, as a garden woud be watered. The nursery bed coud be prepared in a wet fied or a dry fied depending upon the situation. If too much sunight or fog is expected, the nursery coud be covered with coconut fronds or rice straw for the first two days. This wi protect against osses to birds or other creatures as we as shade the seeds or keep them warm. The method described above is a guideine ony. At farmer eve, nursery beds are prepared in different ways (Photos 4.1 to 4.6), but the aim shoud be to get seedings ready for panting at the third eaf stage or before that. Photo 4.1 Nursery bed in wetand Photo 4.2 Nursery bed prepared with dry soi Photo 4.3 Bed protected around the edges by bamboo poes Photo 4.4 Bed prepared by using a wooden frame to have 0.5 sq.m beds Photo 4.5 Dry nursery bed protected with rice straw in winter season Photo 4.6 Community wet nursery 51 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

54 The growth environments in SRI nurseries prepared in different ways vary sighty, but this is wecome as farmers adapt the technique to oca conditions. In Phiippines, some farmers have grown good SRI seedings in sand, to make separation easy for transpanting, and the seedings are sti dependent on nutrients from the seeds (in the seed sac) for their food suppy. It is important to have soi for the seedings which is very friabe so that these can be separated easiy, with minima damage to the seeding roots. Nurseries with seedings can be seen in Photos 4.7 to Photo 4.7 Mat nursery Photo 4.9 Nursery reinforced with bamboo poes (Source : Association of Tefy Saina) Photo 4.8 Nursery prepared by using poythene sheet Photo 4.10 Nursery beds in strategic ocation (Source : Association of Tefy Saina) The ower seeding density in the SRI nursery, in comparison with conventiona nursery, can be discerned from Photos 4.11 to Photo Seeding density in conventiona nursery Use of 14-day-od seedings grown in a dapog nursery was previousy known in Tami Nadu but did not catch on. Based on preiminary trias, 14-day-od seedings were recommended in Tami Nadu for SRI. At this stage, there wi be 3 eaves in the pant. If the nursery bed is propery prepared with sufficient organic manure, the seeding growth wi be reasonaby easy to hande. Seedings of 82 days are aso used by some farmers. Using seedings with 2 3 eaves is in the idea range. Photo Seeding density in SRI nursery 52 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

55 4.3 Remova of Seedings from the Nursery It is important to remove the seedings carefuy from the nursery aong with the soi intact around their roots, and to pant them immediatey. This heps the seedings to estabish themseves in the main fied quicky. In the beginning, this might ook cumbersome. But handing a much-reduced number of seedings and having the nursery near to the panting area (if the nursery is in the same fied) wi reduce time requirements, and most persons once they gain experience with handing young seedings find this method ess aborious. It is important to gain confidence in the method from experience, since at first there may be some nervousness that the tiny seedings wi not survive. But rice is a member of the grass famiy, and very hardy if the roots are not injured or misused. Farmers adopt different ways to remove seedings from the nursery according to their convenience (Photos 4.13 to 4.18). It is preferabe to use a simpe too, ike a hand trowe or khurpi, to remove the seedings out of the nursery ifting from beow and causing minimum damage to roots. If the seedings do not attain good enough growth to pant in one week's time, 0.5 % may be sprayed to acceerate growth. In many paces, the same abourers who are empoyed for panting can be used to remove the seedings from the bed without invoving additiona cost. By reducing the size and number of seedings, their task is made easier. The seedings being young shoud be transported to the main fied very quicky and panted. In the conventiona method, the seedings are pued, bunded and transported to the main fied which is sometimes far away taking considerabe time. Sometimes, the seedings are panted the next day. These probems do not exist in SRI, which recommends that seedings have ony minutes between remova from the nursery and repanting in the main fied. In fact, unike the conventiona method, removing seedings and distributing them for panting is far ess expensive as no extra abour is required. Photos 4.13 to 4.18 Remova of seedings from nursery beds 53 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

56 4.4 Summary Seedings for SRI require specia attention as they are to be panted at a very young stage. Seection of good quaity seeds and treating them for proper germination and growth are vita to have quaity seedings. There are severa improved and indigenous ways of preparing nursery beds. The extra care in raising, removing and transporting good-quaity seedings is more than repaid by better growth, better heath, and better yied. Because seeding number is so much reduced, by 80-90% or more, there is not an increase in abour needed. But there is an increase needed in attention to the quaity and vigour of seedings. It is aso important to hande the seedings with care whie removing them from the bed without much damage and trauma to the roots. It is sefevident that without good quaity seedings to start with, the resut at the end of the season wi be inferior. 54 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

57 5 MAIN FIELD PREPARATION AND TRANSPLANTING Preparing the main fied for transpanting propery is important for crop estabishment, for water use efficiency, and for contro of weeds and certain pests. The process commences much before the nursery is started to get the proper soi tith. The fied is dry-poughed (if faow) 2-3 weeks before panting, and a disc harrow or rotovator is used to puverize the cods. The practice of growing green manure (Sesbania, Sunnhemp, Daincha) before rice and incorporating it in the soi or appying green eaf manure (Giricidia) is a good way of suppying organic manure. If organic matter is incorporated in-situ, pudding is directy done. Generay, farmers appy farmyard manure before dry poughing, and sometimes it is done after pudding. Pudding with a gauge whee-mounted tractor or a mini-tractor is very common. Basa doses of fertiizers are to be appied before the ast pudding. 5.1 Fied Leveing and Drainage The fied preparation for SRI does not differ from the conventiona method, but there is an emphasis on eveing the fied as the estabishment of young seedings wi be adversey affected in an uneven fied. Young seedings panted in depressions can die from submergence. Aso, eveing heps to reduce the water requirement and weed probems. At the same time, it faciitates proper crop estabishment and stand. Because and eveing increases yied, it is a good investment. A arge part of the increase in yied is due to improved weed contro as improved water coverage from better and eveing reduces weeds by up to 40%. Experimenta resuts have showed yied increase up to 24% due to eveing ( rg/andprep). Photos 5.1 and 5.2 Indigenous fied eveing 55 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

58 Leveing is achieved by using a buock-drawn wooden pank or tractor-drawn impements. Many indigenous ways are aso practiced by farmers (Photo 5.1). Laser eveing is aso becoming popuar in some areas (Photo 5.2). A oca mechanic without professiona training has deveoped a tractor attachment that can be used for pudding and simutaneousy rotovating and eveing (Photo 5.3). The Tami Nadu Department of Agricuture is contempating to introduce aser eveers for SRI on custom hiring (Photo 5.4). Fied drainage is aso an important component in SRI that wi aow the rapid remova of excess water and avoid fooding for ong periods of time. Rice farmers in Sri Lanka doing direct seeding invariaby provide sufficient fied drains. It is recommended to provide sma drains on the peripheries of the main fied (Photo 5.5), or across the fied. In Tripura, given heavy rainfa, the SRI recommendation is for putting in a shaow drain across the fied in pace of every 9th row. In some paces, drainage channes are formed aong with raised beds for SRI (Photo 5.6). Farmers who coud not achieve proper eveing as an ad hoc measure may tie a brick into a rope and drag it aong depressions in order to faciitate draining of stagnating water. In many irrigation systems, especiay with tanks and in unduating terrains, fied-to-fied (cascade) irrigation is foowed, due to ack of proper irrigation and drainage channes. Thus, there wi be no contro for either irrigation or drainage. Loss of appied nutrients and socia probems crop up in such systems, so it is better to have independent inets and outets for each fied. Photo 5.3 Pudding, rotovator-cum-eveer deveoped by a oca mechanic-cum-farmer in Tami Nadu Photo 5.4 Laser eveing Photo 5.5 Drainage channe at the periphery Photo 5.6 Drainage channe with raised bed 56 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

59 5.2 Transpanting In SRI, seedings have to be panted at wider spacing than conventionay practiced. In genera, the recommended spacing for short-duration rice is 15 x 10 cm and for medium- and ong-duration rice, it is 20 x 10 cm. But, farmers generay do not adopt these recommendations. Mosty random panting is done in strips of approximatey 3 m with 30 cm gap in between strips. Since the panting is often done on contract (with payment for a set number of abourers per acre), the pant density is highy variabe. In SRI, 25 x 25 cm spacing is recommended as the optimum spacing in most situations. Though the number of seedings panted wi be ony 16 m-2, the management practices in SRI faciitate profuse tiering which coud not be seen in conventiona practice. The reasons for higher tier density in SRI are: (1) younger seedings have higher vigour to produce tiers and additiona number of days to produce tiers, (2) competition between pants for ight and nutrients is reduced due to wider spacing, and (3) soi churning by weeder has a specific positive effect on the growth of the pants. The immediate concern of a farmer when tod to have ony 16 pants per sq.m wi be whether there wi be sufficient tiers. But this apprehension wi be warded off when he sees the fied after 3-4 weeks, when acceerated tiering begins. SRI farmers shoud be forewarned that their crop wi ook quite inadequate for the first 3-4 weeks. Many are tempted to give up in the first severa weeks because neighbours' fieds ook greener. But they need to have patience and confidence that their young and sparsey panted seedings if not suffocated by fooding and if benefiting from soi-aerating weeding wi overtake the more numerous, oder pants when they move into their 8th, 9th or 10th phyochron of growth whie the other, more sow-growing pants ony attain 6 or 7 phyochrons of growth before panice initiation. 5.3 Number of Seedings Per Hi The recommendation in conventiona cutivation is to use 2-3 seedings per hi. But in reaity, 4-6 seedings and even more are panted. In SRI, ony one seeding has to be panted per hi (Photo 6.6). If the main fied has been eveed propery, a the seedings wi estabish we. Otherwise seedings in depressions where water stagnates may die. Photo 5.7 Singe seeding at two eaf stage with soi intact 57 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

60 5.4 Spacing It is recommended to start with 25 x 25 cm spacing, but to try wider and maybe smaer spacing in some parts of the fied, to see what distance is optimum for the farmer's particuar conditions. The more fertie the soi, the higher wi be the yied attained from having fewer pants, because each pant achieves a arger, deeper and heathier root system, supporting a bigger, better-functioning canopy. In Tami Nadu, 20 x 20 cm spacing was initiay recommended, but many farmers found that the tiering was such that the weeder coud not be used after 30 days. After experimenta evauation, the recommended spacing was revised to 25 x 25 cm. The main objective of square panting is to be abe to use the mechanica weeder in perpendicuar directions. What is now understood is that this is not ony better for weed contro, but better for promoting root growth and pant performance. The weeder's dimensions have to suit the spacing. With 20 x 20 cm spacing, ony a rotary weeder coud be used (see Chapter 8 for more information on this). It is we known that pants widey spaced grow more profusey, but the objective in rice farming is to maximize the number of fertie tiers per sq. meter, not per pant. When other SRI practices are aso impemented, even radicay reduced number of pants can produce more tiers per unit area, and the panices usuay have more grains, and the grains themseves are usuay heavier (Uphoff, 2008). There is historica evidence that wider spacing and singe seeding was adopted by farmers in Tami Nadu a century ago. Vaidyaingam Piai (1911) mentions the use of ropes for row panting, with spacing between rows of 1 ½ feet (45 cm) and within the row, a spacing of 1 foot (30 cm). This spacing was for a singe rice crop situation. For rice-rice reay cropping (a new method of rice cutivation described by Vaidyaingam Piai), the row spacing for the first crop was 2 ½ feet (75 cm), and the reay crop is panted in the midde between the rows when the first crop was at fowering stage. With 45 x 30 cm spacing, the number of seedings (singe seeding per hi) per square meter woud be ony 7 pants. This was an even more radica reduction in pant density than with SRI. Spacing has to be adjusted by the farmer according to his fied conditions and soi fertiity after gaining experience. The goa is to optimize spacing between pants so that they have as the most access to the sunight and soi nutrients that are avaiabe. 5.5 Method of Panting Fr. de Lauanié from his decades of work with rice pants discovered what a arge difference can be achieved by carefu handing of seeding roots, by not etting them dry out, by not knocking dirt off them before panting, etc. Especiay he found out, and taught farmers, that seedings shoud not be pushed downward into the soi, as this inverts their root tips upward, making the pant's profie ike a J, with the root tip pointing upward. This deays resumption of growth for days, even weeks, whie the root tip takes time to get reoriented again toward downward growth. Instead of being punged into the soi (and into hypoxic soi when there is standing water on the paddy fied), the tiny pant shoud be aid into the soi genty, with roots extended as horizontay as possibe, so that its profie is more ike an L. This heps minimize what is commony caed 'transpanting shock.' With such a shape, with root tip not pointed upward, the pant can more quicky resume growing downward again. Any reduction in this post-transpant adjustment time enabes pants to 58 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

61 compete more phyochrons of growth before the pant switches into its reproductive phase. It is the atter phyochrons which give the most profuse tiering (Uphoff, 2008). It woud be idea if the roots of transpanted seedings coud a point downward, so no time and energy woud have to be spent in reorienting the roots to grow downwards. It is practicay impossibe to get a roots facing downward after transpanting (Figure 6.1). Aternatey, it is suggested that the roots be at east horizontay paced. It is observed that this practice is generay not easiy adopted by contract abourers, who prefer to continue past ways and to transpant as quicky as possibe, rather than to transpant carefuy. With expanation and possiby incentives, abourers shoud be gotten to transpant in a way that respects pants' growth needs and potentias. Roots paced horizontay Rice seedings when transpanted shoud be handed very carefuy to avoid trauma to the roots, being panted quicky after remova from the nursery, to avoid root desiccation, and shaow (just 1-2 cm). A criterion is for repanting to occur within minutes from remova. Guiding Spacing Square panting at the 25 cm spacing recommended for SRI coud be achieved by severa means. Farmers find their own ways of doing it aso. The initia method for getting precise spacing of transpanting was to use ropes (either coconut fibre or nyon) to guide the ine of panting (Photos 5.8 to 5.11). Sma sticks or cooured coth pieces can be inserted at 25 cm spacing to show the pace of panting within the row. Markings can aso be done with paint. The rope can be hed by two persons who can move it after every 25 cm row is panted, or it can be tied between stakes, 25 cm apart, on the edges of the fied. If a ine of seedings are panted at the two sides of the fied, the guide rope coud be easiy operated. Markings may aso be made on a bamboo stick or auminium pipe. Photo 5.8 Rope with markings for panting Roots pointing downwards Roots bent upwards Photo 5.9 SRI ine panting 59 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

62 Photos 5.10 and 5.11 Square panted fieds using rope An innovative farmer put sma hoes in a bamboo pank at 25 cm and pugged the hoes with sma pugs to show 25 cm spacing. To guide the between-row spacing, he used a 25 cm rod. A wooden frame with spikes spaced at 25 cm is aso used criss-cross by some farmers. An improvement upon ropes has been the design of roer-markers made of meta rods deveoped by a farmer in Andhra Pradesh which has become a very usefu too in SRI now. It is interesting that such a roer marker was being used in 1960s (Photo 5.12). When the roer is pued over the eve main fied, criss-cross ines are formed on the soi, and the intersecting points indicate the pace for panting the seedings (Photos 5.13 and 5.14). The fied shoud have been eveed we, and the soi condition shoud be such that the marks made by the marker do not disappear due to excess moisture. If the fied is drained the previous day, the required moist condition shoud be sufficient to pu the marker. Severa innovative markers are being deveoped and used (Photos 5.15, 5.16, and 5.17). Roer-markers greaty reduce the time required to score precise grids on the surface of the fied. They are easy to operate and invove ess drudgery than the rope methods for aying out a grid pattern on the fied. 60 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

63 Photo 5.12 Roer marker used in 1966 (Stout, 1966) Photos 5.13 & 5.14 Use of roer marker and panting at intersections Photos 5.15 & 5.16 A simpe wooden marker for square panting and transpanting in Sri Lanka 61 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

64 Photo 5.17 An efficient indigenous marker used in Phiippines

65 For abourers who are used to conventiona random panting, square panting might ook cumbersome. But they wi soon reaize they have to pant ony 10-20% as many seedings as they woud normay hande. Anyone who sees a fied immediatey after panting with singe seedings and wider spacing wi have apprehension about its productivity. There wi be a period of confidence-testing for the farmers when they adopt SRI the first time. This apprehension wi vanish after 3-4 weeks, when acceerating tiering begins. Raising community nurseries with staggered sowing is advantageous to share the resources and aso to assist those trying out SRI in some viages. 5.6 Summary The main fied preparation for SRI does not differ much from conventiona method, but there is more emphasis on eveing and on provision of drainage. Practice makes square panting easier and ess time-consuming. Training of the abourers is essentia to avoid resistance initiay. Square panting is required to permit intercutivation to be undertaken in both directions. This ensures not just better weed contro, but aso active soi aeration, one of the main reasons why SRI pants perform better than their conventionay-grown reatives. 63 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

66 6 WATER MANAGEMENT Deveoping the water resources and irrigation infrastructure in countries was one of the major achievements of Green Revoution as water appication and contro was crucia to reaize the benefits of high-yieding varieties. The increased food production that the Green Revoution provided was associated with increased water and fertiizer use, together with changes in the varieties panted. In recent years, further argescae deveopment of river and groundwater resources is ess acceptabe and ess cost-effective than in the period, when most of the word's 45,000 arge dams were buit. Sady, much of the irrigation water infrastructure buit in recent decades is becoming obsoete, as reservoirs are siting up, irrigation networks are crumbing, groundwatereves Tabe 6.1 Changes in per capita water resources in seected Asian countries Country are faing (IWMI, 2002). Humaninduced poution of rivers and groundwater sources poses a serious threat to the utiization of these waters for human consumption and agricutura use, and indeed to the sustainabiity of agricutura production systems. On the one hand, the fundamenta fear of food shortages encourages ever greater use of water resources for agricuture. On the other, there are competing demands from other sectors to divert water from irrigated food production to other users and to meet the needs of natura ecosystems. Many beieve this confict is one of the most critica probems to be tacked in the eary 21st Century (Goba Water Partnership, Framework for Action, 2000, p. 58). Deterioration in the distribution 3 Per capita avaiabe water resources (m ) Year 1955 Year 1990 Year 2025 China 4,597 2,427 1,818 India 5,277 2,464 1,496 Vietnam 11,746 5,638 3,215 South Korea 2,940 1,452 1,253 Pakistan 10,590 3,962 1,803 Sri Lanka 4,930 2,498 1,738 structures of cana irrigation systems, over-expoitation of groundwater resources, and the negect of tank and reservoir systems are seriousy affecting the avaiabiity of water for agricuture. The high priority to improving water-use efficiency in agricuture has been we recognized because this sector is the argest consumer of water. Water constraints cannot be resoved without changes in the food production sector (Bindraban et a. 2006). Increasingy, water is becoming a scarce resource in the word as we as in India (Tabe 6.1). India's irrigation sources are monsoon-dependent. The agricutura growth during the post-independence period can be attributed to huge investment (Rs. 2,31,400 crores) in irrigation projects which resuted in more than a three-fod increase in the gross irrigated area, from 22.6 m ha ( ) to 76.3 m ha ( ). Expoitation of groundwater has been increasing during this period (Figure 6.1), and in some regions there is over-expoitation, eading to annua decines of cm in groundwater eves. Source : Hossain and Fischer, Transforming Rice Production with SRI

67 miion hectare Cana W es Tanks Others Irrigation source Figure 6.1 Area irrigated by different sources in India Source: Report of the Sub-Committee on More Crop and Income per Drop, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, 2006) Tabe 6.2 Water avaiabiity and utiization for rice in India 3 a Annua precipitation (km ) 4,000 3 a Annua utiizabe surface water (km ) a Annua utiizabe ground water (km ) a Water withdrawa for agricuture (km ) 524 b Gross irrigated area, (miion ha) 76.3 c Gross rice area, (miion ha) 45.2 d Gross irrigated rice area, (miion ha) Water withdrawa for rice cutivation (km ) (Computedbased on the assumption that 32.8 % of tota irrigated area is under rice. The actua use wi be more as water is impounded in the fied for rice, unike other crops) 172 Rice cutivation accounts for the major consumption of avaiabe water for irrigation in India as in other rice-producing countries (Tabe 6.2). The country needs to increase its food grain production to 450 miion tonnes by the year 2050 to meet its food security needs. Increase in paddy production wi have to come from the same cutivated area or even from a reduced area. a Source: Rakesh Sharma et a.(2005) b Source : c Source : USDA/ irri.org d Source : FAOSTAT/ irri.org 65 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

68 6.1 Rice and Water The estimated water use (by evapotranspiration) of a harvested rice fieds in the word is some 859 km3 per year. It takes on an average 1,432 iters of evapotranspired water to produce 1 kg of rough rice. Irrigated rice receives an estimated 34-43% of the tota word's irrigation water, or about 24-30% of the entire word's deveoped freshwater resources ( Rice is the ony cerea that can toerate water submergence, and this heps to expain the ong and diversified inkages between rice and water. For hundreds of years, natura seection pressures such as drought, submergence, fooding, and nutrient and biotic stresses ed to a great diversity in rice ecosystems. The pant's adaptation strategies incude surviving under submerged conditions without damage, by eongating its stems to escape oxygen deficiency when water tabes rise, and conversey withstanding severe drought periods. Historicay, rice cutivation has been a coective enterprise. The investment and shaping of the andscape that are needed for the ponding system (or terraces) requires coective organization within the community. Water management aso reies on coective interest; crop and water caendars must be organized for argebocks of fieds in order to manage water efficienty and organize such work asand preparation, transpantation, and drying for harvesting ( f-sheet/factsheet1.pdf). Rice survives under submerged conditions because it forms air pockets (aerenchyma, a kind of secondary respiratory tissue) in its roots. Around 30 percent of the cortex around the centra stee (xyem and phoem) of rice pant roots growing in submerged conditions disintegrates to form these air pockets that aow oxygen to diffuse into root tissues. However, this adaptation imits the pant's abiity to absorb nutrients (Uphoff, 2008). Growing under submergence has the foowing benefits: (1) assurance of water suppy to pants, (2) increased suppy of nitrogen and phosphorus and contro of organic matter dynamics,(3) neutraization of the soi ph, particuary making acid sois more neutra and faciitating the soubiization and uptake of certain nutrients, (4) prevention of weed deveopment, thereby reducing the need to use herbicides or reducing the amount of abour required,(5) prevention of damage by bight and harmfu animas, insects and other iving things, (6) maintaining an even soi temperature, (7) generation of water percoation and groundwater recharge,which are often beneficia for other water uses, and (8) capacity for food contro: fied bunds have a significant water storage capacity,which reduces peak fows under heavy rains. The fied-eve contro of water for submerged rice growth has ed, over the centuries, to the deveopment of certain water management and cutivation practices that produce some beneficia outcomes. The terrace system inmountainous areas is a typica product of the ponding technique and aows cutivation even on steep sopes. This technique is instrumenta in preventing soi erosion and andsides ( -sheet/factsheet1.pdf). Under fooded paddy conditions, most about 75% of the roots remain in the top 6 cm of soi a month after transpanting, forming a 'mat' cose to the surface to capture as much dissoved oxygen as possibe from the water. Such shaow roots fai to extract nutrients from a arge voume of soi, however, resuting in dependence on inorganic fertiizers. Standing water, in fact, suppresses yied by imiting the abiity of the roots to respire. 66 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

69 This sows down the pant's metaboism, its ion transport, and the resuting growth. One adverse consequence of fooding paddy sois is that anaerobic conditions imit the abundance and diversity, and hence activity, of aerobic soi organisms. These incude most of the beneficia soi biota, i.e., N fixers and P soubiizers. Keeping fieds inundated aso means that rice pants forgo the benefits of mycorrhiza fungi, which enhance the growth and heath of about 90% of pant species when functioning as symbiotic endophytes in pant roots and giving pants access to a much increased voume of soi. Further, the soi in fooded fieds wi have ess good structure since it wi have suppressed popuations of fungi, a of which are aerobic. Fungi are argey responsibe for the production of gomuin in the soi, which is a major factor in the formation of soi aggregates and aggregate stabiity. Aso, without earthworms and other aerobic fauna, pore space wi be ess extensive, and the passage of water and air through the soi, carrying beneficia nutrients and gases, wi be ess wedistributed in the soi. Aso, the reease of harmfu gases generated in the soi into the atmosphere wi be impeded (Uphoff, 2008). It is reported that many of the physioogica diseases of rice pants are the resut of the highy reduced state of the iron and manganese oxides in the soi under fooded conditions (Stout, 1966). It has been widey beieved that rice pants grow and produce better in standing water (De Datta, 1981). But in fact, most irrigated rice roots degenerate by the pant's stage of fowering when grain formation and fiing begins, by as much as 78%, according to Kar et a. (1974). Rice pants can survive in standing water - because their roots form air pockets (aerenchyma) through coapse of cortex ces around the stee to permit the passive diffusion of oxygen to sustain ce functioning. But they do not thrive. Both farmers and scientists have perpetuated the 6.2 Water Requirements of Rice The average water requirement of rice for growing under stabe water suppy is 220 to 280 g per g of matter. This is amost equivaent to other pants with simiar type of photosynthesis as rice (i.e., C3 pathway). However, rice has some sensitivity to water stress and some toerance to water excess. Fooded rice requires mm of water depending on the water management, soi and cimatic factors (Tabe 6.3). It can be beief that fooding gives superior yieds, but this is incorrect (Uphoff, 2008) Rice can be cutivated with the same suppy of water as other cereas, and the distinguishing feature ies in the fact that unike other cereas, rice can toerate standing water or swampy condition for its growth (Parthasarathy, 1963). Buandi et a. (1964) have reported that submergence depths of 0,5,10,15 and 20 cm resuted in no significant difference in yieds, and that intermittent irrigation produced greater yied than submergence. According to Lafitte and Bennett (2002), rice is not an aquatic species and does not necessariy need to be grown under inundated conditions. seen from Tabe 6.3 that on an average, over haf of the water provided for rice irrigation is 'ost' in evaporation and transpiration (transpiration being a natura physioogica process, this is unavoidabe and not exacty a oss), whie between 20 and 30 percent is ost to seepage and percoation. 67 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

70 Tabe 6.3: Average water requirements of irrigated rice Farm operation/ process Land preparation Evapo-transpiration 500 1,200 Seepage and percoation Mid-season drainage Tota 900 2,250 One hectare of an irrigated rice fied that yieds 4,500 kg of rough rice requires 15,000 cubic meters (15 miion itres) of water under current practices of food irrigation. This means that about 3,400 itres of water are required to produce 1 kg of rice. This water requirement is three to five times greater than what is needed by other cereas ike wheat or corn (Tabe 6.4), and accounts for percent of the tota variabe cost of rice production. Another Tabe 6.4 Water requirement per crop Crop The current recommendation for water management for rice varies with the source of the recommendations in different areas. According to ICAR, in India it is idea to maintain 2-5 cm water throughout the growing season (ICAR, 2010). Keeping the Consumptive use of water (mm day ) way of putting this is that the water needed to grow one kio of rice with standard irrigation methods is the same as what one person requires daiy (40 to 50 itres per capita per day) for as ong as four months, according to the standards of per capita minimum water requirements set by the Word Bank. Typica water? requirement (itre kg ) Cotton 7,000 9,000 Rice 3,000 5,000 Sugar 1,500 3,000 Soya 2,000 Wheat 900 Potatoes 900 depth of ponded water at around 5 cm minimizes water osses by seepage and percoation ( org/factsheetspdfs/watermanag ement). After crop estabishment, continuous ponding of water is thought to provide the best growth environment for rice and wi resut in the highest yieds, athough this beief is now chaenged. After transpanting, water eves are recommended to be around 3 cm initiay, and graduay increased to 50 cm with increasing pant height. Water eve in the fieds shoud be kept at 5 cm at a times during the reproductive stage ( g/bmp). This recommendation is at variance with SRI experience and recommendations, however. In Tami Nadu state, the recommendation is for irrigating to 5 cm depth one day after the previousy ponded water disappears from the surface. This recommendation is not practiced by many farmers, however, due to various reasons, the main being that water is not priced, so they bear no cost for excessive use of water. Usuay farmers keep their rice fieds fooded as in Photos 6.1 and 6.2. Eectricity shortages and an unreiabe system of rotating water suppy in canas (the turn system) aso give farmers incentives to keep their rice fieds continuousy fooded to the extent that they can. 68 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

71 Photo 6.1 Typica food irrigation ecosystem in a deta Photo 6.2 Conventiona fooded rice fied 69 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

72 Unti recenty, this profigate use of water by rice has been taken for granted, justified with the beief that it is beneficia for rice production. But there is a growing awareness among the pubic that irrigated rice production is the argest source of consumption for fresh water, and any reduction in water demand for rice farming wi have far-reaching significance. Even if freshwater avaiabiity remains constant, which is unikey, it can be expected that water avaiabiity per capita wi decrease progressivey unti popuation stabiizes, possiby in the 2060s. Further, competing and increasing demands for water from the industria and urban sectors wi make it imperative for agricuture in genera, and for rice production in particuar, to become more water-saving in its production methods, quite apart from responding to continuing popuation growth. The predicted cimate changes in the decades ahead are ikey to further accentuate the impending water crisis. These wake-up cas impy compusory changes in the current practices adopted for rice production. To quote from the Prime Minister Dr. Man Mohan Singh's inaugura address to Internationa Rice Congress hed at New Dehi in October, 2006: Rice grown under irrigated condition is facing the threat of water shortage. This is forcing a paradigm shift towards maximizing output per unit of water instead of per unit of and. Needed increases in rice production are thus constrained not ony by paucity of and for cutivation, but aso by water scarcity, which is common in areas where the conventiona water-intensive method of irrigated rice cutivation through inundation has prevaied. The future of the country's rice production wi depend heaviy on deveoping and adopting strategies and practices that wi use irrigation water more efficienty at farm eve. As mentioned earier, most of the goba rice cutivation is carried out on irrigated and. In India, the tota irrigated rice area in was around miion hectares. This is about 57 percent of the country's tota area under rice crop. Under such circumstances, the steady decine in the avaiabiity of fresh water (Tabe 6.5) is bound to have an impact on rice production. In the word's 'rice bows', particuary in China and India, acute water scarcity combined with competing demands on freshwater sources has raised Tabe 6.5 Decining and estimated decine in per capita freshwater avaiabiity in India Year Per capita fresh water 3 avaiabiity in india (m ) , , , ,191 Source: Rakesh Sharma et a. (2005) the spectre of currenty productive agricutura areas becoming desiccated and devastated, of rice bows becoming dust bows, triggering confict. The FAO has forecast that by 2030, the goba harvested area under rice wi increase by 11 percent, with South Asia accounting for amost 75 percent of that increase. This corresponds to an increase of over 24 per cent in South Asia's current harvested area. It is not easy to see where this increase wi come from in South Asia as arabe area has been rather fuy deveoped. But one must ask pointedy: if the current methods of production remain unchanged, where wi the water for such an area increase come from? In this scenario of deepening water crisis and rice-yied stagnation, it is imperative that new costeffective methods that wi use water more effectivey be urgenty investigated and practiced. There is a pressing need to adopt aternate, eco-friendy and propeope production methods, that make effective use of water, whie raising production. Given the ooming hydroogica poverty, it is necessary to reduce the water consumption for irrigated rice cutivation. 70 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

73 6.3 Water-saving Practices for Rice It is instructive to note that 100 years ago it was recognized by a farmer in Tami Nadu that rice does not require fu and continuous fooding. A farmer named Vaidyaingam Piai (1911) foowed a water management regime of shaow fooding of ony 2.5 cm during the first week after panting; 4 cm during 2-3 weeks, and 5 cm afterwards. More than 5 cm fooding was not provided. The fieds were irrigated every 4-5 days. This gaja panting method as Vaidyaingam Piai caed it contradicted the accepted adage among Tami farmers: 'neeruyara neuyarum' (paddy yied wi increase in accordance with food water depth), and it went against the Tanjore district farmers' habit of fooding their fieds to the top of their bunds (Thiyagarajan and Gujja, 2008). He concuded that more fooding owers rice pants' tiering, despite the beief of'experienced peope that more water wi increase their yied. He invited the opinion of experts on this departure from common practice once they saw his resuts. The importance of aternate wetting and drying of paddy fieds has been recognized 100 years ago. Dharmarangaraju (1913) made the foowing points with regard to irrigation of paddy rice: (1) Air in the soi is as important as water, and water and air shoud aternatey enter, drain, and eave the soi; (2) There shoud be optimum warmth in the soi for proper growth of the crop, for which there shoud not be water in the soi a the time; (3 Experiments conducted from 1872 at Saidapet Government Farm have shown that farmers use excessive water for their irrigation; (4) Water was being used at 5 cm depth for the first 30 days from panting, and at 10 cm depth afterwards; this amounted to 840 cm depth for kuruvai (120-day crop) and 1,440 cm depth for the ong-duration samba (180- day) crop. (5) Experiments conducted in South Arcot and Krishna districts had shown that 60 to 210 cm of water is sufficient for wetand crop; (6) Yied increases were proportionate to reduced water suppy; (7) With the reduced irrigation, the water saved can be used for 5 times more area from avaiabe water sources; and (8) It is incorrect that rice requires standing water. The advocacies of Vaidyaingam Piai and Dharmarangaraju a century ago show a great conceptua breakthrough, proposed at a time when there were no conficts about sharing river water, and when the genera assumption was that the more paddies are fooded with water, the higher woud be their yieds. Even today, when we have so much pressure on the avaiabiity of water for irrigating rice, and conventiona fooding is sti practiced, we are surprised that reducing water suppy to rice had been advocated aready in the eary 20th Century as a way to raise the productivity of irrigated rice cutivation. Currenty discussed water-saving practices in rice cutivation are: (1) aternate wet and drying (AWD) method, (2) aerobic rice, (3) resource-conserving technoogies, and (4) the System of Rice Intensification. We wi consider them beow in turn. 71 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

74 Aternate Wet and Drying (AWD) Under certain conditions, aowing the soi to dry out for a few days before refooding can be beneficia to crop growth. In certain sois that are high in organic matter, toxic substances can be formed during fooding that can best be removed (vented) from the soi through intermittent soi drying. Intermittent soi drying aso promotes stronger deeper root growth which can hep pants resist odging better, in the case of strong winds ater in the season, and it gives them more capacity to resist subsequent water stress and drought. Intermittent soi drying can aso hep contro certain pests or diseases that require standing water for their spread or surviva, such as the goden appe snai ( AWD is a water-saving technoogy that owand (paddy) rice farmers can appy to reduce their water use in irrigated fieds. In AWD, irrigation water is appied to food the fied for a certain number of days after the disappearance of ponded water. The paddy is eft to dry out as the water percoates through the soi. Hence, the fied is aternatey fooded and non-fooded. The number of days of nonfoodedsoi in AWD between irrigations can vary from 1 day to more than 10 days. A practica way to impement AWD is to monitor the depth of ponded water on the fied using a 'fied water tube'. After irrigation, the depth of ponded water wi graduay decrease. When the ponded water has dropped to 15 cm beow the surface of the soi, irrigation shoud be appied to re-food the fied with 5 cm of ponded water. From one week before to one week after fowering, ponded water shoud aways be kept at 5 cm depth. After fowering, during grain fiing and ripening, the water eve can drop again to 15 cm beow the surface before re-irrigation. AWD can be started a few days after transpanting (or with a 10- cm ta crop in direct-seeding). When there is significant weeds pressure, AWD can be postponed for 2-3 weeks unti the weeds have been suppressed by the ponded water. Loca fertiizer recommendations as for foodedrice can be used. Fertiizer N shoud preferaby be appied on the dry soi just before irrigation. ( org/factsheetspdfs/watermana gement) Aerobic Rice Aerobic rice is grown ike an upand crop such as wheat, in soi that is not pudded, fooded, or saturated. The soi is therefore aerobic, i.e., with oxygen, throughout the growing season, as compared to traditiona fooded fieds, which are anaerobic, i.e., unsuppied with oxygen ( Aerobic rice is a production system in which especiay deveoped aerobic rice varieties are grown in we-drained, nonpudded, and unsaturated sois (Photo 6.3). With appropriate management, the system aims for yieds of at east 4-6 t ha. The usua estabishment method is dry direct-seeding. Aerobic rice can be rainfed or irrigated. Irrigation can be appied through fash-fooding, furrow irrigation (or raised beds), or sprinkers. Unike fooded rice, the irrigation - when appied - is not intended to food the soi, but just to bring the soi water content in the root zone up to fied capacity. Seed is dry-seeded manuay or mechanicay at 2-3 cm depth in rows spaced cm at a seeding rate of 80 kg ha. Aerobic rice can save as much as 50% of irrigation water in comparison with owand rice. Weed infestation wi have to be managed appropriatey. 72 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

75 Resource-Conserving Technoogies (RCTS) Irrigated rice-wheat systems are practiced in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh and in Punjab (Pakistan). Rice is usuay grown in the wet summer season (May-June to October-November) and wheat in the dry winter season (November-December to February-March). The sois and crop management undergo drastic changes during the wet season rice to upand wheat in winter season. Resource-conserving technoogies have been adopted in the rice-wheat rotationa cropping system which incude : Non-pudded transpanted or direct-seeded rice aternated with wheat panted with zeroti or reduced tiage; Permanent raised-bed panting system; and Surface seeding of wheat and other crops In the permanent-bed panted rice-wheat system, the savings in irrigation water are around 35-40% (Gupta et a. 2002). Photo 6.3 Aerobic rice, Karnataka

76 6.4 SRI Water Management The irrigation regime in SRI is to provide the growing pants with sufficient but never excess water (e minimum de 'eau, in Fr. de Lauanié's words), so that the roots do not suffocate and degenerate (Uphoff, 2008). SRI offers great scope not ony to overcome the water crisis, whie at the same time increasing rice production and enhancing the iveihood of rice farmers. Soi shoud be mosty aerobic most of time, and not continuousy saturated so as to benefit the growth and functioning of both pant roots and aerobic soi biota. Fr. de Lauanié's recommendation was to appy a sma amount of water daiy, preferaby in the ate afternoon or evening, just a few centimeters, and to et it sink into the soi overnight, draining any standing water the next morning. This had the advantage of 'insuating' the fied during the coder night hours, conserving warmth in the soi which woud otherwise radiate away, and of exposing the soi during the day to sunight and air. A ayer of standing water on the fied woud refect much soar energy again from the soi (Uphoff, 2008). This atter consideration wi be more important in cooer cimates, but not in tropica zones where soi temperature wi be high in any case. Farmers who have abour constraints may find this method difficut to practice as it requires daiy water management. It is more precise and can give higher yieds, but farmers' abour may have opportunity costs that wi make it reasonabe to economize on abor time for water management with ess precise and frequent appications. Many SRI farmers now practice aternate wetting and drying (AWD), fooding their paddies for a few days (the number is quite variabe, depending mosty on soi characteristics and weather), and then etting them remain dry for a few days (aso a variabe number) after the water Photo 6.4 Shaow irrigation in fat fied has percoated into the soi. This requires ess management effort from the farmer and produces reasonaby good resuts with ess abour input. If farmers are carefuy observing their pants' growth and status, they can adjust their amounts and timing of water with practice to suit their pants' needs best. This strategy of water management is not advisabe where farmers have heavy cay sois, that crack seriousy when water content fas beow a certain eve and the soi becomes very hard. For such sois, sma daiy appications wi Photo 6.5 Irrigation to keep the soi moist in raised bed 74 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

77 be needed for SRI methods to succeed, maintaining sufficient soi moisture to avoid hardening, but the time invested wi be repaid. In Tami Nadu, the water management for SRI is prescribed based on fied experimentation. Up to panice initiation stage, it is recommended to irrigate the fied to 2.5 cm after the previousy irrigated water disappears and hairine cracks deveop. After panice initiation, irrigation is done to 2.5 cm depth one day after the previousy ponded water disappears from the surface. At the hairine cracking stage, soi wi not be dry, but it wi sti be moist (Photos 6.4 to 6.7). Irrigation intervas vary with soi texture. Fine-textured cayey sois with higher fied capacity need irrigation at onger intervas, whie coarse-textured ight sois with ower waterhoding capacity require irrigation at coser intervas, consuming in the process more quantity of irrigation water. Such shaow irrigation can save water up to 40% (Tabe 6.6), and there wi not be any yied oss due to this. The data from the experiment conducted in DRR, Hyderabad showed 22-29% saving of water (Mahender Kumar et a. 2007). Photo 6.6 Fied to be irrigated Photo 6.7 Hairine cracks and weeder-made depressions Tabe 6.6 Research finding on SRI water management (Coimbatore, 2001) Recommended practice Irrigated water (m3 ha ) 16,634 8,419.0 % water saved Matsushima (1980) emphasized managing water temperature during the rooting period (keeping it beow 35ºC) as one of the important management practices for high yieds. If the temperature is higher than 35ºC, he advocated exposing the ground surface to the air so that the soi oses the atent heat of evaporation and the soi becomes cooer than when it is covered with water. According to him, exposing the paddy soi to the air prevents various diseases and root rot induced by the excessive reductive conditions of the soi. SRI 75 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

78 Exposing the soi to the air is repeatedy done in the SRI irrigation practice, and thus it inadvertenty heps in other ways for better crop growth. SRIpracticing farmers fee that it aso eads to the venting of unfavourabe gases from the soi, athough this remains to be studied. Matsushima's contention that optimum oxidizing conditions which characterize good soi conditions coud be achieved by intermittent irrigation is fufied in SRI. Apart from getting higher yieds and using ess water with SRI water management, there are benefits from fue savings where groundwater must be pumped and in avoiding water conficts among farmers reying on the same source of water. Thus far, SRI farmers using the recommended irrigation methods have not observed reduced grain yieds. Instead, maintaining unfooded soi conditions appears to favour increases in grain yieds. A genuine apprehension of the farmers woud be that the imited irrigation might ead to weed infestation. Foowing SRI recommendations, weeder operations shoud commence 102 days after panting and be done every 102 days thereafter, so that weeds do not have the opportunity to come up. The active soi aeration that this achieves is aso a benefit for the growing pants in addition to removing weeds. Churning them into the soi aso enhances soi organic matter as a form of green manure. This is discussed separatey in Chapter 8. The important point that farmers shoud remember is that their paddy rice does not require food water, and it is enough to keep the soi moist. Farmers using groundwater wi reaize savings of water, time and eectricity from SRI practice in irrigation. If SRI is adopted in an entire command area, the water that is saved wi be sufficient for use in other areas or for other purposes. 6.5 Water Productivity The efficiency with which crops utiize water for their growth, and how differences in the suppying water to the crops can affect the efficiency of its utiization, can be ascertained by cacuating various parameters ike water use efficiency and water productivity. Water productivity of rice ranges from 0.15 to 0.60 kg m-3, whie that of other cereas ranges from 0.2 to 2.4 kg m-3 (Cai and Rosegrant, 2003). Inefficient structures and operation of irrigation systems in many cases and ensuing suboptima water management have ed to ow water productivity for many crops. Gobay, the additiona amount of water that wi be needed in the future to support agricuture directy wi depend on the gains that can be made in water productivity. If there are no gains in WP, the current average annua amount of agricutura evapotranspiration, currenty 7,130 cubic kiometres, wi need tota biomass or grain production Water use efficiency (WUE) : amount of water (deivered or depeted or transpired) net benefits (grain yied or vaue of output) Water productivity (WP) : amount of water used 76 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

79 to neary doube in the next 50 years. With appropriate watersaving practices being foowed, this needed increase coud be hed down to 20-30% (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agricuture, 2007). Improved varieties (e.g.,cutivars with fastgrowing roots) Better methods of irrigation Water-saving cutivation practices under progress. Transforming the C3 rice pant into a C4 species by genetic engineering of photosynthetic enzymes and making required changes in anatomic structures such as stomata is another approach, sti uncertain and certainy costy. Under fied conditions, ack of moisture and ow fertiity are the most important factors which imit yied and hence contribute to ess efficient water use by crops.water productivity can be increased through bioogica water-saving (by expoiting the genetic and physioogica potentia of the pants) and by physica water-saving through means such as: Better soi management (soi heath improvement for water absorption and retention) Improved soi-water management practices (e.g., no-tiage, much appications) Introducing suppementa irrigation for stress situations (e.g., from groundwater) Deveoping varieties for drought toerance and suitabe for aerobic rice production are Furrow irrigation, raised-bed irrigation, and micro-irrigation methods of irrigation are being tried in rice cutivation (Photo 6.8). Improving soi heath to rectify soi conditions, increasing water absorption and retention, and enhancing soi fertiity and nutrient suppy can greaty hep to increase yieds, and thus WP. Effective tiage (e.g., eveing) and innovative muching approaches (e.g., poythene muching) can aso contribute to reduction of water use. Photo 6.8 Sprinker irrigation being deveoped for rice at North Eastern Compex, ICAR,Patna 77 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

80 Experimenta evidence has shown the benefits of SRI type of irrigation. Sandhu et a. (1980) and Li et a. (2005) found no adverse effect on rice yieds with intermittent irrigation at 1-5 days after disappearance of standing water, even without the other agronomic changes recommended for SRI practice. Just intermittent irrigation coud save 25-50% of water compared to continuous submergence without yied oss. Increased water productivity to the extent of 96% due to watersaving irrigation without detrimenta effect on grain yied has been reported by Thiyagarajan et a. (2002). Ceesay et a. (2006) observed neary three times higher grain yied with SRI practice (7.3 t ha 1) compared with continuous fooding (2.5 t ha 1). Ceesay et a. reported a six-fod increase in water productivity, i.e. paddy rice yied per unit voume of water. More detais on the effects of SRI can be seen in Chapter 10. Thakur et a. (2011) found that 1,463 itres of water were required to produce 1 kg of rice with SRI management, whie 2,778 itres of water were needed under standard management practice. Water saving was to the extent of 22.2%, due mosty to reduction in seepage and percoation osses. Lin et a. (2011) studied the effect of increasing the proportion organic nutrients in soi fertiization and found that aerobic irrigation increased water-use efficiency, and this was highest when there was 50% organic fertiization, matched with equa nutrient vaue of synthetic fertiizer, rather than 25% or 100% organic fertiization. In a systematicay conducted experiment at Hyderabad in the rabi season of , SRI crops under organic and inorganic nutrient management resuted in 8.1 and 8.2 t ha 1 grain yied with 12.6 and 13.7% yied increase over the contro pots, respectivey (Gujja and Thiyagarajan, 2010). Carefu measurement of water use has showed that water productivity is higher under SRI, and water savings reached 37.5% and 34.2% under SRI-organic and SRI methods, respectivey (Fig. 6.2 and 6.3) Water used (it/kg grain) SRI-Organic SRI Contro 3 Water productivity (kg/m ) SRI-Organic SRI Contro Figure 6.2 and 6.3 Water (irrigation and rainfa) used and water productivity in SRI and contro rice crops, rabi , ICRISAT, Hyderabad. (Gujja and Thiyagarajan, 2010). 78 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

81 6.6 Water Management in Rainfed SRI In areas where transpanting is possibe with rain water, norma SRI with transpanting is practiced with benefits simiar to, if not equa to, irrigated rice production with SRI management. The two issues associated with water management in this situation are: (1) to contro excess water when there is heavy downpour, and to keep it from harming the crop; and (2) manage drought stresses when there is not sufficient rain. SRI management for pants, soi, water and nutrients appears to hep pants in rainfed areas to toerate water-stress periods as it promotes deeper root growth and aso enhances the ife in the soi. In an observation at Sarvar in Gujarat state, during a dry spe for 10 days starting 5days after transpanting, major osses occurred in the contro pots, but an increase in biomass was observed in SRI. This was attributed to better root growth in the SRI pants and to organic manure appication to the soi. The yied increase was to the extent of 83% (Patwardhan and Pate, 2008). Transpanting timing is affected if there is no timey rainfa (Dutta and Pati, 2008). Appication of SRI principes in rainfed rice has been successfu in Cambodia and Myanmar (Uphoff, 2008; Kabir and Uphoff, 2007). In a study conducted in Phiippines, muching with giricidia cuttings was tried to conserve moisture in rainfed SRI ( tries/phiippines/binuprst.pdf). Trias with an indigenous variety known for its drought toerance, using five different spacings, gave yieds averaging 7 t ha, without irrigation. With cimate change, increasing variabiity of rainfa, and the growing competition for water and and, SRI offers a new opportunity for increasing the crop produced per drop of water and for reducing overa agricutura water demand if the new water management practices are used more widey. This is important because the agricutura sector in many parts of the word accounts for the argest share of water use (Word Bank Institute, 2008). 6.7 Summary Water-saving with SRI cutivation practices is one of the best opportunities that we have in terms of improving nationa water security. What is important is to educate the farmers to the fact that better rice production does not require fooding; indeed, rice does not benefit from this if the other pant, soi and nutrient practices of SRI are foowed, favouring the growth of pants with deep, vigorous root systems accompanied by biodiverse popuations of aerobic soi biota. It is aso necessary that water deivery systems ensure proper drainage faciities which can hep keep the soi in SRI fieds mosty aerobic. 79 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

82 7 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Like any other crop, rice aso requires a the sixteen essentia eements that pants need for growth and competion of their ife cyce. The essentia nutrients are cassified into major nutrients (macronutrients) required in arge amounts by the pants, and those (micronutrients) that are required ony in trace amounts by the pants. However, a are equay important because each pays a roe in the growth and deveopment of pants. Of the nine major eements, carbon is derived from the atmosphere, and hydrogen and oxygen are derived from water, and thus these are not considered in nutrient management discussions. Since crops require minera nutrients, the suppy must be adequate for the targeted yied. As the natura nutrient sources provide most but not necessariy a of the crop's requirements, additiona nutrients often are required. The concept of soi fertiization in its modern comprehensive form and on the basis of targeted high soi fertiity has proved to be a powerfu too for enormous yied increases in areas of intensive agricuture. In many situations, the use of fertiizer is severey imited by water shortages and/or economic constraints. Cropping under such ow-yieding conditions must, therefore, rey on the 'capita' of farm nutrient resources. This makes it necessary to manage more effectivey the nutrient fows and cyces within a farm (Figure 7.1). Furthermore, the nutrients exported from the farms to the cities in the form of food shoud be recyced, i.e., industria food processing and communa waste products shoud be used as a cheap nutrient source according to recommendations. INPUTS Water Biomass (decomposed) INTERNAL RESOURCES Air Sunight Rain Soi Microbes Earthworms Anima excreta Crop residues EXPORT A nutrients Figure 7.1 Nutrient baance in a cosed farm 80 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

83 7.1 Soi Heath Soi is a dynamic, iving, natura body that is vita to the functions of terrestria ecosystems and represents a fowing, unique baance between the iving and the dead. The number of iving organisms in a teaspoon of fertie soi (10g) can exceed nine biion, more than the human popuation of the earth ( rse/ecture/ec2871/003.htm). Soi heath is judged by soi physica, chemica, and bioogica properties. Topsoi can be quicky ost through erosion or degradation, whereas it takes years, decades, centuries and miennia to buid up soi under natura conditions. Pants themseves, through root exudation, contribute to enhancing the soi's fertiity, and soi amendments of decomposed biomass in amost any form can have a positive effect on the buid-up of soi resources. Topsoi is a non-renewabe resource within human ife spans. The most important step for soi management is to know the soi's status, often characterized in terms of soi heath. This is a figurative expression representing the productivity eve and the resiience of particuar soi for a given crop under a certain set of conditions. Soi heath is defined as the abiity of soi to perform or function according to its potentia, and this changes over time due to human use and management or to unusua natura events (Mausbach and Tuge, 1995). Soi heath can be enhanced by management and and-use decisions that weigh the mutipe functions of soi, and it is impaired by decisions which focus ony on singe functions, such as crop productivity. Soi heath is inseparabe from issues of sustainabiity. Soi organic matter is critica in most sois to maintain the soi structure which provides optima drainage, water-hoding capacity, and aeration for the growth and heath of crops and soi biota. Organic matter aso contributes significanty to cation exchange capacity (CEC), which enabes the soi to buffer and maintain the concentration of many nutrients in soution. Production systems that rey heaviy on inorganic nutrient suppies and negect soi organic matter contain inherent inefficiencies. Sois which are incapabe of storing nutrients require excessive or continuous addition of soube nutrients for crop growth, to compensate for osses and inefficiencies. Soube nutrients that are in excess of pant and microbia needs wi pass beyond the reach of pant roots, with potentia adverse consequences for groundwater quaity, compounded by the oss of vauabe and possibe dwinding nutrient resources. Soi organisms must be acknowedged as key architects in nutrient turnover, organic matter transformation, and physica engineering of soi structure. The microbia popuations of the soi aone encompass an enormous diversity of bacteria, agae, fungi, protozoa, viruses and actinomycetes. Whie the specific functions and interactions of the majority of these organisms are sti not we eucidated, their roes as functiona groups in soi heath regeneration and maintenance are becoming increasingy known. Long-term experiments on various cropping systems of different agro-ecoogica regions and soi types have reveaed that the continuous use of inorganic nitrogen fertiizer and its indiscriminate appication, ignoring the need for soi organic matter to maintain the soi biota, eads to ong-term, and even some short-term, deterioration, affecting yied sustainabiity due to deficiencies of macro- and micronutrients ike S, Mg, Zn, and Mn. Over appication of some nutrients which stimuate the growth of pants and/or microorganisms that are favoured depetes the stocks of other nutrients which are needed by a pants and soi organisms. Just as a heathy person is resistant to stresses and diseases and thus wi use drugs sparingy, a heathy soi can suppress soiborne diseases, reduce pesticide requirements, and buffer pants from water and nutrient stresses (Wofe, 2006). 81 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

84 7.2 Soi and Pant Testing Intensive research on nutrient suppy to crops has ed to better quantitative understanding of the dynamic nature of both the nutrient reease from soi as we the demand of the crops during their growth period. This has ed to changes in the approaches used for generating fertiizer recommendations. Soi testing is necessary as most agricutura sois are deficient in one or more nutrients, and poor (deficient) soi eads to poor growth and pant stress. Soi test resuts aso provide vita information for diagnosing soireated constraints. Soi testing is any measurement of physica and/or chemica and/or bioogica properties of the soi, but by variabe means of determination of the soi productivity that give estimations of avaiabe nutrients. It shoud therefore be more than a soi chemica test in order to be abe to interpret the anaysis and produce a fertiizer recommendation that wi give optimum economic yieds. Standard methods are used for anayzing sampes for soi testing. The sois are tested with respect to the foowing determinations: ph, or the soi's reaction indicating acidity or akainity of the soi. Tota soube sats as indicated by eectrica conductivity vaues which show the degree of sainity. Organic carbon, which gives an indirect measure of avaiabe nitrogen. Other avaiabe nutrients, e.g., P, K and other seected nutrients suspected of being in short suppy. The bioogica properties shoud aso be studied before making fertiizer recommendations, athough this is not commony done. Bioogica assessments are presenty more compicated and more expensive than chemica measures. The soi fora and fauna popuation pay significant roes in maintaining soi heath and serve as an important indicator for assessing the soi's heath. Physica properties ike soi porosity, buk density, and water-hoding capacity aso need to be considered when assessing soi heath. Pant anaysis indicates whether the pants contain the concentrations of essentia nutrients necessary for optimum growth and can hep to generate recommendations for correcting nutrient deficiencies before they reach a critica eve. 7.3 Fertiizer Recommendations Modern agricuture has depended heaviy on the introduction and use of inorganic fertiizers to suppy soi nutrients, particuary the macronutrients of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The advantages of inorganic fertiizers are that they are easier to appy; often not very expensive, especiay if subsidized by the government; have more predictabe nutrient content; and organic nutrients are sometimes simpy not avaiabe in sufficient suppy. One of the major reasons for the success of Green Revoution in terms of achieving nationa sef-sufficiency in food production was the use of inorganic fertiizers, promoted often by government subsidies. Soi test-based fertiizer recommendations and generic recommendations are generay avaiabe throughout the country, and there are a ot of variations in the rates due to variations in seasons and durations of the crop. It is advisabe to adopt a soi testbased fertiizer recommendation so as to adjust with the native fertiity of the soi. This wi ensure sufficient nutrient suppy, but aso avoid unnecessary use of externa nutrients when there is aready sufficient suppy avaiabe in the soi. 82 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

85 Various decision-support systems and simuation modes have been deveoped to assist farmers. IRRI has deveoped a Site-Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM) system which takes into account the native capacity of the soi to support a crop. The tota fertiizer N needed by rice to achieve a profitabe target yied is determined from the anticipated yied gain, appied fertiizer N, and a targeted efficiency of fertiizer N use. Fertiizer N is suppied to match the crop's need for suppementa N, especiay at the critica growth stages of active tiering and panice initiation. Enough amounts of fertiizer P and K are aso appied to overcome deficiencies and sustain profitabe rice farming ( hp/ssnm-made-sim.htm). 7.4 Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) With the introduction of modern varieties and cropping systems, the annua crop demand for nutrients has increased rapidy, and deficiencies of nutrients have become a constraint in sois that was previousy not considered as being a risk. Therefore, a fiedspecific, integrated nutrient management in intensive cropping systems is essentia rather than rey on soi testbased recommendations of inorganic fertiizers aone. Integrated nutrient management differs from the conventiona nutrient management by more expicity and systematicay considering nutrients from different sources, notaby organic materias; nutrients carried over from previous cropping seasons; the dynamics, transformation and interaction of nutrients in soi; interactions between and among nutrients; and their avaiabiity in the rooting zone and during the growing season in reation to the nutrient demands of the crop. In addition, it integrates the objectives of production, ecoogy and environment, and is an important part of any sustainabe agricutura system. The appropriate contribution of minera fertiizers, organic manures, crop residues, compost and/or N-fixing crops varies according to the system of and use and the ecoogica, socia and economic conditions. The above factors a need to be considered when making fertiizer recommendations. For pants to utiize chemica fertiizers effectivey, the soi in the root zone must have substantia capacity to retain and provide exchangeabe cations. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is consideraby enhanced as the soi organic matter content increases. Utiizing organic means to maintain soi fertiity and judiciousy adding inorganic nutrients gets best resuts. Enhancing the soi organic matter content is essentia for maintaining soi heath. 7.5 Foiar Nutrition Foiar nutrition has many advantages ike easy absorption, acceeration of growth, transocation of metaboites, and utimatey greater yied increase. Higher efficiency of pant uptake of nutrients appied through its foiage compared with soi appication has been reported. Foiar nutrition is recommended for severa crops to hep overcome nutrient deficiencies and aso to promote growth. The recommendation for rice suggested in Tami Nadu is two sprays of a foiar combination that has 2% DAP + 1% MOP + 1% urea, first at panice initiation, and then at the first fowering stages in addition to the appication of recommended doses of N, P, K through the soi. Panchagavya, an organic preparation using various cows' products, is very popuar with organic farmers. In Sanskrit, Panchagavya means the bend of five (pancha) products obtained from the cow. A these five products are individuay caed Gavya and are thus coectivey termed as Panchagavya. This contains ghee, mik, curd, cow dung, and cow's urine. Panchagavya had reverence in the scripts of Vedas (devine scripts of Indian wisdom) and is part of Vrkshyurveda (Vrksha means pants and ayurveda means heath system). The texts on Vrkshayurveda are 83 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

86 systematizations of the practices that farmers foowed at fied eve ong ago, paced within a theoretica framework. It defined certain pant growth stimuants; among them, Panchagavya was an important one that enhanced the bioogica efficiency of crop pants and the quaity of the resuting grains, fruits and vegetabes ( n.com/forums/organicfarming/15995-panchagavyahow-make.htm). 7.6 Use Efficiency of Nutrients In most sois, appication of chemica fertiizers is necessary if high-yieding, fertiizerresponsive cutivars of crops are grown with improved cutura practices. There are two reasons for not getting expected yied eves even after the appication of chemica fertiizers to crops. Either the recovery of fertiizer nutrients is poor, or the efficiency with which the nutrients are taken up and used for grain production is ow. The factors governing fertiizer efficiency incude the seection and adoption of: a) right source, b) right quantity, c) right time, and d) right method of fertiizer appication. Among these, the appication of the fertiizer nutrients at the right time based on the needs of the crop, the peak period of absorption, and the thoroughness of assimiation of a particuar nutrient, have been found much usefu to increase the use-efficiency of the appied nutrients without any additiona cost for the fertiizer nutrient input. A arge number of experiments have been conducted in India to determine the optimum timing of fertiizer appication for different crops, and it is generay agreed that for most crops, fertiizer appication at the critica stage(s) of crop growth is necessary for getting highest yieds and for improved use-efficiency of fertiizer nutrients. Recovery of the fertiizer nutrients appied at different growth stages may vary widey. Sow-reease fertiizers and fertiizers coated with materia ike neem cake enhance the efficiency with which the nutrients are utiized by controing the reease of the nutrients and minimizing osses. 7.7 Nitrogen Management Rice and wheat are highy responsive to nitrogen (N) and are the major consumers of fertiizer N in the country. The efficiency of appied N in Indian sois for rice generay ranges from 25 to 45%, compared to 50 to 60% in upand crops. Severa new approaches, theories, concepts, and toos have been empoyed; and severa N management techniques ike spit appication of N, better methods of appication, integrated N management, sow/controed reease of N, modified forms of N fertiizers ike urea super-granues, expoiting bioogica N fixation, eaf coourbased N appication, etc., have come up for adoption by farmers. The resuts of a number of experiments have reveaed that rice generay responds significanty up to 120 kg N ha, athough in some paces positive response to higher doses of N has aso been reported. Appications in excess of this are argey wasted and have negative environmenta impacts on groundwater. G x E interactions (between genetic potentias and environmenta factors) have a great roe on the response of the crop to N appication. Spit appication comes out as a key feature of N recommendations. This invariaby eads to ower osses of N and better N-use efficiency. Besides being easy to adopt, it aso provides a certain fexibiity to the farmer in taioring N appications to crop and weather conditions. Spit appication at critica stages of crop growth is the singe most widey used practice for increasing nitrogen-use efficiency. The exact schedue of spit appications (number and timing of spits) is not the same for a conditions. The number of spits needed usuay increases: i) in coarse-textured sandy sois, particuary under fooded /irrigated systems or high rainfa regions; ii) where arger amounts of N are to be appied; and iii) where the crop is of onger duration. 84 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

87 Leaf Coour Chart-Based Nitrogen Appication The eaf coor chart (LCC) is an inexpensive and simpe too to monitor eaf greenness and guide the appication of fertiizer N to maintain optima eaf N content, appying N ony when there is demand by the crop. Thus, this is a need-based N appication and ensures better use-efficiency. A standardized pastic LCC with four panes (Figure 7.2), ranging in coor from yeowish green to dark green, has been deveoped and promoted across Asia. The threshod vaue requires caibration for each variety and ocation. In this approach, a standard eve of N at different growth stages of the crop is recommended to be appied at each time of measurement if the observed LCC vaue fas beow the threshod eve, and the eve of N is a fixed dose for that stage. The tota N appied wi vary as N is appied ony if the LCC vaue fas beow the threshod vaue. In Tami Nadu, LCC-based N appication is recommended as part of SRI practice. The procedure for LCC-based N appication is as foows: 1. Measure coor of the youngest, fuy-expanded and heathy eaf from 10 randomy-seected pants. a) Pace the eaf on top of the eaf coor chart (LCC). Do not detach the eaf. b) Repeat eaf coor measurements every 10 days, starting from 14 days after transpanting (DAT) or 21 days after seeding emergence, and continuing to panice emergence. 2. Appy N fertiizer whenever the eaf coor is beow the critica vaue. a) Use a critica vaue of 3 or 4, depending on the crop estabishment method, season, and cutivar. b) Vaidate critica vaue for oca conditions. Figure 7.2 Four-pane Leaf Coour Chart 85 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

88 7.8 Organic Manures Use of fertiizers and chemicas in agricutura production has been regarded as a necessity to produce more food to meet the requirements of a growing popuation. Introduction of highyieding varieties has contributed to food security in the country. Yied maximization has been the major objective, and sustainabiity issues have remained unattended to. The yied pateau in some crops, extensive use of chemicas for some crops, chemica residues reported in the food chain, and environmenta hazards have brought up the issue of reverting to oder practices of "organic farming" in irrigated agricuture. Organic farming aspires to achieve a compex mix of agronomic, environmenta, socia, and ethica objectives, which set the target for the deveopment of a farming system in its particuar ocation. The addition of organic materias in the form of manures and crop residues pays a vita roe in restoring and maintaining soi fertiity whie improving the physica, chemica and bioogica properties of soi. Organic manures, besides suppying essentia nutrients, wi add to the favourabe conditions for soi microbes by being a source of carbon for them. The roe of microbes even if fertiizers are appied shoud not be ignored. For exampe, if urea is appied, the nitrogen from it wi become avaiabe to the pants ony if the amide form of nitrogen in urea is converted into an inorganic form (NH4 or NO3) by the microbes nitrosomanas and nitrobacter. It shoud aways be remembered that pants take up nitrogen in inorganic form ony, and they do not recognize the source of it, i.e., whether it is from an organic or inorganic source. This said, however, the process of avaiabiity and uptake is inherenty bioogica. Large appications of inorganic N can ater the popuations of soi biota, incuding N-fixing microbes, in ways that are not advantageous to soi and pant nutritiona processes. Continuous appication of organic matter in the form of compost, farmyard manure, and pant residues is needed to maintain or increase soi organic carbon. Soi organic carbon eves are a good indicator of native fertiity. In genera, paddy sois are fairy poor in organic carbon (~ 5 g kg- 1). Thus, it is essentia to use more organic biomass with most sois to achieve and sustain good fertiity status. Utiization of crop residues can reduce the need to use inorganic inputs, recognizing that this woud aso reduce the poution of surface and groundwater, in addition to owering costs of production. In India, neary 100 to 115 MT of crop residues are either wasted or burnt, depriving arabe sois of this restorative input. Crop residues have been traditionay used to improve and maintain soi productivity. It is estimated that 120 x 106 kg yr rice residue, out of 180 x 106 kg yr (assuming that 1/3of the residue is used as feed for animas and for other purposes), can be returned to the soi to enhance soi quaity; this wi contribute miion tonnes of N+P2O5+K2O to the soi, considering the nutrient content in rice straw as 0.61% N, 0.18% P2O5 and 1.38% K2O (Tandon, 1996). The recycing of crop residues has the advantage of converting a surpus farm waste into usefu products for suppementing the nutrient requirement of crops and for saving foreign exchange otherwise spent on fertiizers. Growing green manure crops, their in-situ incorporation, and appying green eaf manures are aso recommended practices, but very few farmers adopt these practices. Many farmers who have previousy been appying organic sources of nutrients before using inorganic fertiizers have ignored them competey in recent years, with the resut that soi heath in terms of organic carbon and microbia activity has been jeopardized. The steady decine in anima popuation in recent decades has meant reduction in suppies of catte manure, and farmyard manure has become a difficut resource to obtain. 86 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

89 The fertiity of soi depends not ony on its chemica composition, but aso on the quaitative and quantitative nature of the microorganisms inhabiting it. Minera nutrients, organic matter, and biochemica growth factors necessary to meet the microbia nutrient requirements generay exist within appropriate ranges of temperature, moisture and ph for microbia growth. It is stated that one hectare foot (one hectare to a depth of 30 cm) contains 2 to 10 metric tonnes of iving microorganisms. Soi microorganisms pay many important roes in natura ecosystems. Without microorganisms, soi woud be an inert geoogica or minera mass incapabe of supporting pant ife, and without pant ife, the anima ife that it sustains woud not be possibe. 7.9 Soi Biofertiity One of the main activities of microorganisms in nature is to break down compex organic matter into simpe chemica compounds, so there is an endess cyce of synthesis and destruction, with a dynamic equiibrium maintained in soi microbia popuations. Another important roe of certain soi microorganisms is fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Approximatey 139 miion metric tonnes of nitrogen are added to the soi every year by different nitrogen-fixing systems. Soi microorganisms pay important roes in other natura cyces, such as transformations of phosphorus, suphur, iron and other mineras in their respective cyces, and for the avaiabiity of other minor eements. Aso, most sois contain microbia popuations with the necessary genotypic capacity to catayze a requisite reactions for ecosystem deveopment. Beneficia activities of microorganisms in the soi Decomposition of pant residues and organic materias eads to humus synthesis and to mineraization of organic nitrogen, suphur, and phosphorus. Increasing pant nutrient avaiabiity (P, S, Mn, Fe, Zn and Cu) through symbiotic mycorrhiza associations, production of organic cheating agents, oxidationreduction reactions, and phosphorus soubiisation. Bioogica nitrogen fixation by free-iving bacteria in the root zones of gramineae pant species and cyanobacteria, associative microorganisms, and symbiotic bacteria with egume and non-egume pants. Promoting pant growth through the production of pant growth hormones, protection against root pathogens and pseudopathogens, and enhanced nutrient-use efficiency. Controing deeterious microorganisms and pants (pant diseases, soi nematodes and insects, weeds). Biodegrading synthetic pesticides or other soi contaminants. Enhancing drought-toerance of pants. Improving soi aggregation. The use of azoa, bue green agae (BGA), Azospirium and phosphobacteria in rice crop production is becoming werecognized. There have been new research focuses on deveoping microbia consortia as we as bioinocuants for targeting micronutrients. Earthworms are ubiquitous in most sois and have become unwitting symbos of a heathy, iving soi. They can contribute in severa ways to soi heath. Most notaby, earthworm burrows can occupy as much as 1% of the soi voume aiding in infitration and fow-through of water, as we as providing pathways for root exporation and fauna habitat. Their feeding habits can hep 87 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

90 homogenize the topsoi and, in the case of surface feeders, incorporate arge amounts of surface itter into deeper soi eves. Their digestive process reeases nutrients and fragments of pant residues, eaving behind fertie casts and mucus burrow inings. Vermicomposting has become very popuar in mobiizing organic manures. Other soi organisms such as termites and ants, mites, spiders, coemboa etc. aso pay important roes in soi food webs, mobiizing, storing and reeasing nutrients through a compex set of inter-species reationships. Soi bioogica fertiity has been gaining attention recenty, and the soi biota are now better recognized as the key drivers of soi fertiity and productivity that they are (Thies, 2006). Understanding the operative reationships between soi biodiversity and fertiity coud aow ecosystem managers to encourage the presence of organisms that are beneficia to soi systems intended for crop and anima production, as we as to overa ecosystem heath (Thies and Grossman, 2006) Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms in Rice Symptoms of nutrient deficiency or toxicity are not aways readiy apparent in a growing crop. Often, more than one nutrient or growing condition may be invoved. In many fied situations, when a deficiency is identified, it may be too ate to introduce treatments to correct the probem in the current crop. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium are mobie nutrients, and deficiency symptoms appear in the odest (ower) eaves first as the nutrient gets moved to youngest eaf. Cacium, iron, zinc, manganese, and suphur are immobie nutrients, and their deficiency symptoms appear in the youngest (upper) eaves first as the nutrient becomes part of pant compounds. The functions and deficiency symptoms of the most important nutrients for rice are presented in Tabe 1. Tabe 7.1 Functions and deficiency symptoms of important nutrients in rice Nutrient Functions Deficiency symptom Effect of deficiency Nitrogen Essentia component Od eaves, and sometimes Stunted yeowish of amino acids, a eaves, become ight pants nuceotides and green and chorotic at Poor tiering chorophy their tips. Leaves die under Contribute to height Except for young eaves, severe stress. Number of tiers and which are greener, deficient Smaer eaves spikeets eaves are narrow, short, Entire fied may Size of eaves and erect, and emon-yeowish. appear yeowish. grains Deficiency often occurs at Eary maturity or Spikeet fertiity critica growth stages such shortened growth Protein content of as tiering and panice duration grains initiation, when the demand for N is argest. 88 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

91 Nutrient Functions Deficiency symptom Effect of deficiency Phosphorus Root deveopment Stunted, dark green pants Earier fowering with erect eaves. Pant deveopment is retarded. and ripening Stems are thin and spindy Reduced tiering Active tiering Young eaves may appear to The number of Grain deveopment be heathy, but oder eaves eaves, panices, Food vaue of grain turn brown and die. and grains per Paying an important Red and purpe coors may panice may aso roe in the formation deveop in eaves if the be reduced. of pant hormones variety has a tendency to and maintenance of produce anthocyanin. membrane integrity Leaves appear pae green Acting as an essentia when N and P deficiency constituent of occur simutaneousy. adenosine triphosphate (ATP), nuceotides, nuceic acids, and phosphoipids Potassium Paying an essentia Dark green pants with Response to N and function in yeowish-brown eaf margins, P is constrained by osmoreguation, or dark brown necrotic spots insufficient K. enzyme activation, first appear on the tips of Effects on the reguation of ceuar oder eaves. number of ph, ceuar Under severe K deficiency, spikeets per cation-anion baance, eaf tips are yeowish-brown. panice, reguation of Symptoms appear first on percentage of transpiration by oder eaves, then aong the fied grains, and stomata, and eaf edge, and finay on the grain weight. transport of eaf base. photosynthetic Upper eaves are short, products droopy, and dirty dark green. Tiering promotion Oder eaves change from Size and weight of yeow to brown and, if the grains deficiency is not corrected, Toerance to adverse discooration graduay cimatic conditions, appears on younger eaves. odging, insect pests, Leaf symptoms of K deficiency and diseases. are simiar to those of tungro Strengthening straw virus disease. Unike K and stems of the rice pant deficiency, however, tungro occurs as patches within a fied, affecting singe his rather than the whoe fied. 89 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

92 Nutrient Functions Deficiency symptom Effect of deficiency Zinc Paying an essentia More common on young or Under severe roe in the foowing midde-aged eaves. deficiency, tiering biochemica processes: Dusty brown spots appear decreases auxin metaboism, on upper eaves of stunted Time to crop nitrogen metaboism, pants, sometimes two to maturity may be cytochrome and four weeks after transpanting, increased. nuceotide synthesis, Midribs near the eaf base of Growth may be chorophy production, younger eaves become greaty reduced and enzyme activation chorotic; eaves ose turgor 2-4 weeks after Acting as an essentia and turn brown as botches transpanting, component in the appear on the ower eaves uneven pant ceuar membrane growth and as we as being patches of poory present in some estabished his in essentia enzymes the fied Activation of many Increased spikeet enzymatic reactions steriity Iron Formation of Inter-veina yeowing and Decreased dry chorophy chorosis of emerging eaves. matter production Inhibition of K A eaves become chorotic Reduced absorption and turn whitish under severe chorophy Eectron transport in deficiency concentration in photosynthesis eaves Constituent of Reduced activity of components for enzymes invoved photosynthesis in sugar Eectron acceptor in metaboism. redox reactions Sources: Nutrient Management In SRI So far, no specific nutrient management recommendations have been made for SRI crops. SRI is not necessariy an 'organic' management strategy. Fr. de Lauanié deveoped the first version of SRI methods during the 1980s reying on chemica fertiizer, since that was understood to be the way that yieds coud be best enhanced, especiay on Madagascar sois which were judged to be quite deficient by standard soi chemistry anayses. When the government's subsidy for fertiizer was removed in the ate 1980s, he switched to using compost, and found that SRI resuts became even better. He discovered empiricay the merit of the advice from organic farmers: Don't feed the pants - feed the soi, and the soi wi feed the pants. There can be sois where imited or no avaiabiity of chemica nutrients wi be constraining. Where there are deficits that cannot be fied by soi reserves or biomass amendments, inorganic fertiization may be necessary. In fact, rice pants wi not take up 90 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

93 nutrients in excess of their interna needs for pant growth and maintenance. It is a fact that pants have been growing on the earth's surface for over 400 miion years without exhausting their suppy of nutrients. Even 99% recycing of nutrients woud not have sustained continued fertiity for this ong uness there were endogenous processes in pants and in soi systems that continuay repenish nutrient suppies, not reying upon manmade inputs (Uphoff, 2008). The main function of compost is not so much to suppy the pants directy with nutrients (NPK), as to enhance the structure and functioning of soi systems. When sois are fu of ife, they can mobiize arge amounts of nutrients and particuary micronutrients, which are essentia to pant growth and heath but which are not provided in NPK fertiizer. Moreover, they can faciitate many beneficia processes in the soi. Organic manures are recommended in SRI cutivation since they are found to give better crop responses. Enrichment of the soi for nutrient suppy with tank sit (40 50 t ha ), FYM/compost (15 t ha ), and/or incorporation of day-od green manures grown in situ such as sunnhemp/dhaincha (Photo 7.1) are idea for basa incorporation. Since not a rice farmers are in a position to adopt organic farming methods, Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) is generay recommended for SRI. INM is not merey appication of fertiizers aong with organic manures. It incudes the appication of avaiabe organic sources ike catte manure, poutry manure, vermicompost, green manures, green eaf manures, biofertiizers, and suppementing with fertiizers in adequate spits to meet the nutrient demands of the crop at different growth stages. Mobiizing organic sources is not an easy task if every rice farmer wants to use more of them. One easy soution coud be growing giricidia on the paddy fied bunds and fences (Photo 7.2). Giricidia (Giricidia sepium or Giricidia macuata) is a fastgrowing, tropica eguminous tree that adapts very we in a wide range of sois, ranging from eroded acidic sois (ph ), fertie sandy sois, heavy cay, and cacareous imestone, to akaine sois. Giricidia toerates fire, and the tree quicky re-sprouts with the onset of rain. Growing giricidia pants on farm bunds serves the dua purpose of producing green eaf manure, rich in N, under fied conditions, and they aso hep in conserving soi through reduced soi erosion. This egume is rootnoduating, N-fixing, and mutipurpose, toerant to pruning. Giricidia contains 2.4% nitrogen, 0.1% phosphorus, 1.8% potassium, and 1.2% cacium. If stem cuttings are panted, they root and sprout, becoming a reguar source of green manure after three years. From wegrown trees, kg of green eaves wi become avaiabe. Giricidia was recommended to the farmers of Tami Nadu in the 1970s, and serious steps were taken to popuarize it. But, it became 'history' as farmers have forgotten about it. Sri Lankan farmers are growing giricidia on their fied bunds, however, and are using the green manure (Photo 7.3). Many farmers are aso recycing the rice straw. Straw shoud be heaped and some FYM shoud be sprinked on it to faciitate decomposition (Photo 7.4). Photo 7.1 Sunnhemp crop Photo 7.2 Giricidia on fied bunds 91 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

94 Experiments conducted at the China Nationa Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou, showed that the highest yied in SRI was obtained with equa proportions of organic and inorganic nutrient appications rather than a 25:75 ratio or 100 % organic (Lin et a. 2011). The soi environment created by SRI's wider spacing of pants, its unfooded water regime, and the churning up of the soi by weeder use are found to encourage a different microbia and nutrient dynamics in the soi. The effect of combined inocuation of Azospirium and Trichoderma harzianum has been found to be more pronounced in SRI (Ravi et a. 2007). Photo 7.3. Giricidia oppings appied in the fied Use of just chemica fertiizers can be effective for SRI, and organic SRI farmers do not use chemica fertiizers. The recommended doses of fertiizers for a conventiona rice crop specific to the region may be adopted unti SRI-specific recommendations are generated. In a Participatory Technoogy Deveopment Study in Kunduz river basin of Afghanistan, Thomas and Ramzi (2011) found that the grain yieds under SRI were 66 % higher than with traditiona methods, despite using much ess fertiizer or not using fertiizer at a. Ceesay et a. (2011) did not find much effect on the yied of SRI crop by increasing the nitrogen doses by 2 to 3 times (Tabe 7.2). Photo 7.4. Rice straw recyced Tabe 7.2 Grain yied and water productivity under different fertiizer doses Treatment Continuous fooding with recommended fertiizers ( NPK) with oca practices Grain yied (t ha ) SRI with recommended fertiizers ( NPK) SRI with higher N ( NPK) SRI with very high N ( NPK) Source: Ceesay et a. (2011). Water productivity (kg grain kg tota water input) Transforming Rice Production with SRI

95 7.12 Nutrient Remova by SRI Crop Experiments conducted at Coimbatore have shown that under the same nutrient appication eve, SRI pants take up more nutrients. Simiar observations were made by Barison and Uphoff (2011), with the further observation that SRI phenotypes produce more grain weight per unit of nutrient taken up. This can mean that nutrient recovery by the pant is greater in SRI crops or because the SRI pants' extensive root systems remove more nutrients from the soi than are suppied externay. One of the concerns in SRI nutrient management is whether there is depetion of nutrients from the soi because of the higher pant growth and grain yied associated with higher nutrient uptake. Ony ong-term experiments can resove this issue. But, some of the experiments conducted so far have not shown that the avaiabe nutrient status was reduced after the SRI crop. The deayed senescence and the higher LAI present higher N in the eaves after fowering in SRI pants and aso probaby there is esser transocation of N from the eaves to the grains to faciitate greater carbohydrate synthesis. Studies carried out by the Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), Hyderabad, for two seasons showed that even though SRI resuted in higher productivity, the nutrient uptake was simiar with marginay higher nutrient-use efficiency (8, 8 and 12% of N, P and K) without depeting the avaiabe nutrients compared to transpanting (Mahender Kumar et. a. 2009). Incorporation of weed biomass and higher root and stubbe biomass from the SRI crop probaby enhance the nutrient avaiabiity in the soi. Studies by Barison and Uphoff (2011) showed that there were no substantia differences in the nutrients accumuated by the SRI rice pants compared to those conventionay grown, but there have not been any significant diution of pant nutrients within the pant by the higher yied obtained with SRI. There were simiar P eves measured in the soi of pots where both SRI and conventiona rice were grown, yet 66% more P was accumuated in the above-ground biomass of SRI pants. A non-farm survey indicated a doubing of N uptake by pants grown with SRI methods in comparison to conventiona methods, eventhough the SRI and conventiona pots had simiar soi fertiity in terms of chemica avaiabiity. The higher uptake of N by SRI pants suggests possiby greater activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria iving as endophytes within roots, or by free-iving microbes within the rhizosphere, or possiby even within the phyosphere (Chi et a. 2005). Whie admitting that there is not a satisfactory scientific basis at present to account for a of the nutrient reationships with SRI, Uphoff has proposed some hypotheses on the nutrient uptake of rice under SRI as foows: Rice pant growth - rather than being just the resut of the uptake of nitrogen (N) - is aso a cause for such uptake, especiay the rapid growth that can be induced by SRI management practices. SRI's promotion of the rapid growth of roots and tiers promotes and acceerates the uptake of N by rice pant roots. SRI methods maintain effective nutrient uptake by roots within a heathy rice rhizosphere for a onger period than with traditiona rice cutivation methods. SRI methods by producing a much greater root system that can expore a greater voume of soi enabe the rice pant to extract more, though often minor quantities, of the trace eements needed for best and heathiest growth. The SRI soi management practices, combining aerobic and anaerobic soi conditions, 93 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

96 woud enhance N avaiabiity, either through greater bioogica nitrogen fixation or through more diverse forms of N being made avaiabe to the pant root with aerobic soi conditions. Mechanica (rotary) weeding aerates the soi as we as removes weeds, thereby improving soi oxygen status, stimuating faster decomposition of organic matter, and hence suppying N and other nutrients in better synchrony with pant demands than in the traditiona rice system These are a pausibe expanations, but there needs to be systemative evauation and basic research done to get a grip on the causa mechanisms invoved in the repeatedy observed superior crop performance of SRI rice Summary The SRI management practices of ower panting density, intercutivation, appying more organic manures, and imited irrigation create a different kind of nutrient dynamics in the soi which is not sufficienty understood. Since the grain yieds in SRI are higher, it is easy to assume that nutrient mining is taking pace; but this assumption is based on the knowedge gained from study of non-sri rice-growing practices. The behavior of the rice pants under SRI management is quite different, exhibiting very different growth responses. It is probabe that the efficiency of the SRI crops to utiize nutrients is higher than with non-sri crops. Physioogica studies have shown that SRI pants have onger periods of photosynthesis and higher photosynthetic efficiency, and there is better ight utiization besides proonged and better root activity, making the pants heathier than with non-sri crop (see Chapter 10). A these might hep SRI pants to produce 'more with ess.' The nutrient management in SRI is particuary focused on suppying more organic manures to buid up soi fertiity and the ife in the soi. It is no wonder that many organic rice growers have embraced SRI immediatey. SRI is making more farmers reaize the importance of soi heath by appying more organic matter to sustain the structure and functioning of soi systems. 94 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

97 8 INTERCULTIVATION Intercutivation is an operation for soi cutivation that is performed in the standing crop, between pants, with hand toos or possiby mechanized impements. This provides the crop with a better opportunity to estabish itsef better and to grow more vigorousy upto the time of maturity. This resuts from good soi aeration and better deveopment of root systems. The intercutivation operation is most obviousy seen as necessary to hep contro the growth of weeds, but it may aso serve as a moisture-conservation measure by cosing cracks in the soi. Active soi aeration is a function usuay overooked when intercutivation is referred to as 'weeding.' The toos best used for intercutivation depend upon the nature of the crop, the soi characteristics, and the water regime. Hand hoes, harrows, and spades can be used in sma andhodings whether the crop is broadcast or ine-sown. Partiay mechanized rotary hoes, conoweeders, etc. are used in inesown crops. Buock-drawn impements ike the desi pough are usuay used in rainfed environments. Motorized intercutivators and impements attached to mini-tractors or reguar tractors are aso used to some extent. In contemporary rice cuture, intercutivation is not considered as a very important agronomic practice. However, it has been practiced to some extent in the past, primariy as a weed contro measure. With SRI, where weeds are not controed by fooding, it assumes great importance, but as noted above, the soi aeration through intercutivation is an even greater contribution to SRI performance than is its weed contro. 8.1 Weed Management in Rice Weeds compete with rice pants for moisture, nutrients, and ight, and they aso crowd the pants physicay. If weeds are aowed to grow unrestricted, they can reduce the yied of wetand rice by up to 36%, and of dry and rice by as much as 84% (Matsunaka, 1983). The best method of weed contro depends upon the type of rice cuture. Reductions in abour avaiabiity have pushed a transition from traditiona hand weeding to rotary weeders, and then to herbicides as the primary means of weed contro. Weed contro methods in irrigated wetands incude cutura, manua, mechanica weeding, spraying, and bioogica contro techniques (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). Fooding is the most extensivey adopted ecoogica method for controing weeds in irrigated rice, and in fact this is the principa reason for submerging rice fieds. The weeds that survive fooding can be pued out by hand, or if the rice has been panted in rows, mechanica weeders are used. In some paces, owand rice farmers trampe weeds into the soi instead of hand puing (Nyarko and Datta, 1991) In dry-seeded wetand cuture, most farmers practice ony hand weeding, from once to three times. Sometimes the second or third weeding is done after the rice is fooded. Rotary weeders and herbicides are not used. Hand weeding is sti the ony effective method to contro weeds in dryand rice, athough buock-drawn harrows are used in some paces. No rotary weeders or chemica means are used. For hand-weeding, besides ordinary khurpies (an indigenous digging too) and hand-hoes, certain specia forms of weeders such as Eureka Weeder, Hazetine Weeder, and Excesior Weeder have been found very usefu. Buock-hoes were aso used a century ago (Mukerji, 1907). For rice cutivation, hand weeding usuay takes around 120 hours ha ; mechanica weeding requires around hours ha. Hand weeding is most usefu for removing annua weeds and certain perennia weeds that do 95 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

98 not regenerate from underground parts. It is a practica method of removing weeds within rows and his where a cutivating impement cannot be used; but it requires more abour than other direct weed contro methods (IRRI, 2009) In India, under owand conditions, it takes about hours ha to do hand weeding, depending on the degree of weed infestation. In row-seeded or transpanted rice, where weeds can be controed by the use of mechanica weeders, it can take hours ha, depending upon weed infestation and soi conditions (Parthasarathi and Negi, 1977). Hand weeding of young weeds when the rice crop is sti in its two-eaf to three-eaf growth stages is extremey difficut. Therefore, hand weeding is generay deayed unti weeds are arge enough to be grasped easiy. This method requires adequate soi moisture to ensure that weeds can be easiy pued up. After such weeding, the weeds usuay have to be removed from the fied to stop them from regenerating when eft sitting in the fied water. This exports nutrients from the soi. 8.2 Mechanica Weeding The rotary weeder was apparenty first deveoped by a Japanese farmer in The singe-row rotary weeder has been reported to require abour hours to weed 1 ha, and it is difficut to use because it must be moved back and forth (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). IRRI deveoped a push-type cono-weeder that uses a conica-shaped rotor to uproot and bury weeds. Compared to the conventiona push-pu rotary weeder, the singe-row cono-weeder is about twice as fast (40-50 abour hours ha ), and the two-row conoweeder is 3-4 times faster (25-35 abour hours ha ). However, mechanica weeding may be ess effective than hand weeding because weeds within the crop rows are not removed. Competition from those weeds that survive can impede crop growth and yied. The chaenges for mechanica weeding are that: (a) it requires row-panted crops, and (b) it is very difficut if the soi surface is dry, or if the soi sets hard (IRRI, 2009). If the soi is too dry, the weeder ros over the soi surface without burying the weeds. The conoweeder is aso ineffective in standing water (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). The push-type rotary weeder mixes weeds with mud between rows and has been the most successfu too. A comparative study on different methods of weeding as showed that the abour for two rotary weedings (115 hours ha ) is about haf that for two hand weedings (202 hours ha ). However, grain yied was ower, and the reason for this coud be due to the inabiity of rotary weeding to remove weeds within or cose to rice his (De Datta, 1981). Human-powered rotary weeding combined with other methods of weed contro has been reported to be widey used in some provinces in the Phiippines, and some modifications of this basic device have been used in many countries in South and Southeast Asia (Photos 8.1 and 8.2). Gasoine-powered sma weeders have aso been popuar in Japan (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). Power weeders were deveoped in the eary 1970s both in India and Phiippines. It may be noted that the weeders used earier were meant for contro of weeds. Rotary weeders did not become used widey in India despite being recommended (Ramaiah, 1954). When Venkatasubramanian (1958) compared the system of buk panting pus hand weeding, with ine panting (25 cm row spacing) pus use of rotary weeder, and intercutivation, it was found that the rotary weeder was more economica (Tabe 8.2). The IRRI Rice Fact Sheet (2003) on mechanica weed contro has recognized the fact that soistirring seems to increase root and shoot growth, tiering, and grain yied. Use of a weeder in rice cutivation is, however, not mentioned in the recent Handbook of Agricuture produced by the Indian Counci of Agricuture (ICAR, 2010). 96 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

99 8.3 History of Intercutivation in Rice Stirring the soi once in a fortnight unti the rice pants are about 1-½ feet height had been emphasized a century ago by Mukerji (1907). It is fascinating that the importance of intercutivation was recognized so ong before now (Thiyagarajan and Gujja, 2009). Vaidyaingam Piai (1911) advocated shaow digging of the inter-row spaces with a spade 20 days after transpanting, and again at days after transpanting. He recommended removing soi from around each hi to pace manure near the pant root zone. For his first crop of gaja panting, each hi was pressed with the foot. The shaow digging of inter-row spaces and pressing each hi with the foot represent a conceptua advance as these practices aimed not ony at weed contro but aso introduced the practice of disturbing the soi simiar to the intercutivation with a mechanica weeder that is recommended in SRI today. These practices indicate some understanding on the farmer's part that disturbance to the soi around the his has beneficia effects. No modern rice cutivation methodoogy seems to have promoted this concept except SRI, which underscores the importance of active soi aeration. In describing the practices of stabe and high-yieding rice cutivation, Matsushima (1980) endorsed inter-tiage after the roots of the transpanted seedings are reestabished, and he favoured the practice of removing the soi around the base of the pant hi by hand, to make the hi spread out and promote tiering. Matsushima found these practices difficut, however, so did not strongy urge them. Seko and Kuki (1956) studied the effects of intercutivation in paddy fieds for four years ( ) and reported that: (a) cutivating the soi depressed the growth of rice temporariy, but after 1-2 weeks the growth became more vigorous; however, they found no significant difference in yied; (b) cutivating the soi caused some negative effects on growth and yied under adverse environmenta conditions such as ow air temperature and insufficient sunshine; (c) by cutivating soi, the roots of the rice pants in the shaow part of the soi were cut or stirred; when new roots grow, the number of tota roots and weight became greater than in non-cutivated soi; further, those roots which had been cut eongated rapidy; (d) redox potentia was high after intercutivation, but it became ower than non-cutivated soi after 3-4 days; and (e) the NH4-N content of the soi increased due to mixing up of the oxidized uppermost ayer into the reduced ower ayer. Seko and Kuki (1956) concuded that in intercutivation, weeding shoud be considered a more important purpose than cutivating the soi, and it is enough to operate the weeder to contro the younger weeds and to mix in the top-dressed fertiizer. They wrote that it is unnecessary to repeat cutivating the soi severa times successivey. This concusion is now chaenged by SRI. Reviewing the theories on intercutivation, Nojima (1960) mentioned that the foowing theories have been beieved since the 17th century: (a) A kind of physico-chemica change occurs in the soi which causes decomposition of organic matter in the soi and thus increases the suppy of nutrients; (b) Intercutivation decreases the amount of toxic gases in the soi and increases the amount of usefu oxygen accessibe there at the same time; (c) Cutting of roots promotes the growth rate of pants; and (d) The cumuative effect of a these processes is that the fina yied is increased to a great extent. These concusions differ from those of Seko and Kuki (1956) and are cose to the thinking with SRI. But Nojima himsef did not recommend frequent weeding up to the time of canopy cosure. 97 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

100 8.4 Intercutivation In SRI Intercutivation of the rice crop has become usuay uncommon in irrigated rice environments, as noted above. However, the introduction of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has brought a new dimension in the agronomy of rice cutivation wherein intercutivation with a weeder is one of the six principes which have a significant beneficia infuence on the growth of the rice crop. The differences in weed management in conventiona and SRI methods of cutivation are presented in Tabe 8.1. Tabe 8.1 Weed contro methods in conventiona and SRI cutivation In SRI, the intercutivation with a mechanica weeder is done at day intervas from panting, moving between the squarepanted his in both directions (Photo 8.1). This operation not ony incorporates the weeds into the soi, to decompose and return nutrients to it; it aso mixes and aerates the wet soi (Photo 8.2). Mechanized inter-row cutivation has the advantage that it aerates the soi, which appears to hep crop growth (IRRI, 2009). Method of cutivation Weed contro method Conventiona panting Recommendation in Tami Nadu, India : Hand weeding twice, at 15 and 35 DAT, or use. of a herbicide at 3-7 DAT, pus one hand weeding at 35 DAT Recommendation in Handbook of Agricuture, ICAR (2010): Hand weeding 2-3 times at 20-day intervas from 20 DAT. If weed probem is acute, herbicide pus need-based hand weeding 20 days ater. IRRI Rice Fact Sheet (2003): Hand weeding at and DAT, repeated once or twice more at and DAT; or Mechanica contro with rotary hoe at 102 or DAT, and repeat its use once or twice at and DAT. System of Rice Intensification Intercutivation with a weeder at 10-day intervas, from 102 days after panting unti the canopy coses, upto 4 times (102 DAT, DAT, DAT, DAT). Cutivate between the his in two directions, perpendicuary, and remove the remaining weeds cose to the pants, if any, by hand 98 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

101 Photo 8.1 Intercutivation by conoweeder Photo 8.2 Intercutivation by rotary weeder The concusions of Seko and Kuki (1956) and Nojima (1960) that intercutivation has no specific effect on the rice crop other than weed contro, was probaby due to the cimatic conditions of Japan, or perhaps because in their studies, the intercutivation operation was carried out within a month after panting. In SRI, the practice of intercutivation is recommended to be foowed unti the canopy coses, and more importanty, whether there are weeds or not; the principe is to intercutivate the soi as active soi aeration, not just to remove weeds. The experience in India is that farmers see dramatic increases in the growth of their pants after intercutivation, especiay the first weeding/soi aeration after panting. The intercutivation operation in SRI, if done severa times, can add 1 to 3 tha yied without other soi amendments, by inducing better soi heath and more nutrient cycing and soubiization through microbia activity (Uphoff, 2008). This practice adds active soi aeration to the passive soi aeration that resuts from SRI water management practices (no continuous fooding). The growth of phosphobacteria and possiby of N-fixing bacteria can be enhanced by aternativey wetting and drying the soi (Uphoff et a. 2009). There is enough experimenta evidence and farmers' experience in India to say that over and above weed contro, intercutivation has significant benefits (more detais in Chapter 10). It is important that mechanica weeding shoud be suppemented by hand puing of weeds that are cose to the rice pants and are not removed by the weeder; the time required for weeding by this combination is ess than for hand puing aone (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). The study by Ramamoorthy (2004) has showed how this can affect the tiering of the particuar hi with unremoved weeds (Photo 8.3). 99 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

102 Photo 8.3 Weeds growing within the hi (right side) and not removed by weeder. Both are SRI pants Nyarko and Datta (1991) emphasized that to achieve the best resuts in transpanted rice, a weeder shoud be run in two directions, at right anges to each other. This view, which coud not be impemented in simpe inepanted crops (whether by abour or machine) has been made possibe in SRI where square panting is recommended. According to Nyarko and Datta (1991), some farmers did not use rotary weeders for these reasons: (1) Using a rotary weeder is inconvenient if the dominant weeds are creeping grasses or sedges; (2) If weeding is done ate, rotary weeders cannot contro weeds as we as hand weeding can; (3) If pudding is not done propery, the soi can become too hard and too shaow for a rotary weeder to push the weeds into the mud (this is particuary true for newyestabished paddy fieds); (4) In many cases, the avaiabe rotary weeders do not fit the system; for exampe, the desirabe pant spacing and the width of the avaiabe rotary weeders are not compatibe; and (5) Sma farm sizes may make using a rotary weeder uneconomica. A the above reasons appy to the present situations except for the ast (5), which is not true. We find that margina farmers are abe to do the intercutivation operation without depending upon outside abourers. Especiay farmers with sma andhodings benefit from the cost-effective yied increase the intercutivation can give. Having a sma fied is no barrier to weeder use. 100 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

103 8.5 Types of Weeders used in SRI When weeders were used for weeding purposes ony, four decades ago, besides the singerow mode, there were two-row modes, anima-drawn three-row modes, and tractor-powered weeders aso avaiabe (Photo 8.4 to 8.6) (Stout, 1966). However, the use of these weeders had become extinct and was dormant unti the introduction of SRI. When SRI was first introduced in Madagascar, the rotary hoe was surface of the soi. A conoweeder weighs about 7.5 kg and can be operated ony by men abourers. A rotary weeder, being ighter (about 2 kg), can be operated by women abourers aso. The efficiency of rotary weeders has been improved by providing ba bearings in their assemby as introduced by an Andhra Pradesh farmer, which makes them easier to push. A arge Severa aternative designs in the hand-operated weeder for SRI have come out in the ast five years to save abour, time and energy, and aso to suit particuar types of soi. One of the significant impacts of SRI is the tendency of some farmers to modify their weeder design and construction to suit their conditions and convenience. Some manufacturers aso have modified versions (Photos 8.7 to 8.16). Photo 8.4 Japanese rotary weeder used in 1960s Photo 8.5 Vertica axis weeder used in 1960s. Photo 8.6 Motorized weeder used in 1960s. being recommended. It was aso caed as the Japanese weeder. In China, it is caed a 'wof-fang' weeder because of the sharpypointed 'teeth.' In India, when SRI was introduced, two types of weeders were being recommended: the conoweeder, and the rotary weeder (Photo 8.7). The conoweeder has hoow cones with tooth bars that churn the soi and remove weeds. It moves more easiy over the number of weeder designs have been evauated and pubicized by WASSAN (Watershed Support Services and Activities Network) in Hyderabad under the guidance of the farmer Kishan Rao. The Mandava weeder, named after the Mandava viage of Kishan Rao, is now being extensivey used by farmers in severa states. 101 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

104 Photo 8.7 Rotary, cono and drum weeders Photo 8.8 Singe-row Mandava weeder Photo 8.9 Two-row Mandava weeder Photo 8.10 Puing and pushing type of three-row weeder (Madagascar) Photo 8.11 Simpe weeder designed by Nong Sovann (Cambodia) with wooden axe, arge nais, rake, and meta rods, costing ess than USD 3. Photo 8.12 Roer weeder (Madagascar) Photo 8.13 Indigenous weeder (Tripura) Photo 8.16 Weeder exhibition at SAMBHAV, Odisha Photo 8.14 Super-simpe weeder (Nepa) made from nais and wood, used ike a broom, constructed for about USD A workshop was hed in farmers' fieds in Andhra Pradesh in 2005 where different kinds of weeders were demonstrated and evauated by farmers and manufacturers. ( ments/sri_impements_ravindr a.pdf) (Shambu Prasad et a. 2008). A compendium on weeders has been pubished by WASSAN showing a great variety of weeders Photo 8.15 Gauge whee-type weeder deveoped by a farmer (Tami Nadu) ( Weeders_Manua_Book.pdf). Most of the farmers practicing SRI in arger areas emphasize the need for a motorized weeder. Some farmers, researchers and private companies are attempting to deveop such motorized weeders (Photos 8.17 to 8.20). In scaing-up activities for SRI, weeders are often suppied at a subsidized price by state governments. 102 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

105 Photo 8.17 Singe-row motorized weeder (private) Photo 8.18 Motorized weeder deveoped by S. Ariyaratna (Sri Lanka) Photo 8.19 Three-row motorized weeder (TNAU) Photo 8.20 Two-row motorized weeder (private) One of the farmers in Tami Nadu modified the conoweeder to have a ridger attachment for creating furrows in between the rows and ridges aong the rows. His vision was that this wi aso hep in preventing the mortaity of the pants during monsoon rains (Photos 8.21 &8.22). Photo 8.21 Sma ridger attached to conoweeder Photo 8.22 Ridges and furrows made by the modified weeder 103 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

106 8.6 Labour Requirements for Intercutivation Studies conducted in Madagascar (Barison, 2003) cacuated that the abour requirement for weeding was man days ha and man days ha for conventiona and SRI method of cutivation, which were 21% and 25% of tota abour use. Such a high requirement of abour for SRI weeding reported from Madagascar has not been observed in India. Intercutivation with a weeder for four times pus remova of eft-out weeds requires 38 abourers per ha, whie conventiona weeding with women Tabe 8.2 Cost of weeding and intercutivation in Tami Nadu with conventiona weeding and mechanized hand weeding over years and ocations Method of weeding Type of abour Wages/ abour day) Labourer requirement / acre Cost of? weeding (Rs/acre) Rice Research Station, Tirur, Tami Nadu, 1958 (Venkatasubramanian, 1958) Conventiona random panting Women (hand weeding twice) naya paise Line-panted (rotary weeder three times) Men naya paise Farmer s fied, Tirunevei, Tami Nadu, 2003 (Thiyagarajan et a. 2005) Conventiona random panting Women Rs ,280 (hand weeding twice) SRI square-panted (conoweeder 4 times pus hand weeding of eft-out weeds) Men Rs Regiona Research Station, Paiyur, Tami Nadu, (six-season average) (Vijayabhaskaran and Mani, 2008) Conventiona random panting (herbicide foowed by hand weeding Men and Rs ,380 once at 45 DAT) women Square-panted (conoweeder three times, pus hand weeding of eft-out Men and Rs weeds) women V.K.V. Ravichandran, Farmer, Nanniam Tami Nadu, 2009 (persona communication) Conventiona random panting (hand Women Rs ,400 weeding thrice) SRI- square-panting (conoweeder Men Rs ,350 three times, pus hand weeding of Women Rs eft-out weeds) 104 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

107 abourers for two times at 15 and 35 DAT consumes 80 abourers per ha. The cost for the conventiona method of weeding was Rs. 3,200 per ha, and for SRI it was Rs. 1,520 per ha (Thiyagarajan et a. 2005). The number of abourers required for hand weeding or using a weeder wi vary with ocation and season, to be sure. Tabe 8.2 shows such variations, indicating the abour cost and efficiency. The four different comparisons when aggregated show the rotary or conoweeder reducing farmers' weeding costs by about one-third. A survey with farmers showed that SRI farmers had a 43 % reduction in their overa abour costs (Ravindra and Bhagya Laxmi, 2011). Using a mechanica weeder 3-4 times in a crop season as recommended, faces probems which are mosty associated with abour avaiabiity. If a singe abourer does the operation on one hectare of SRI crop with 25 x 25 cm spacing, he wi have to wak 40 km to use the weeder in one direction, and 80 km in both directions. This is a mathematica projection if weeding is carried out by one person. (The same cacuation coud be appied for severa operations in conventiona cutivation). If 10 peope do this work, each wi just wak 8 km per time (both directions). The weeding operation is one of the major difficut parts in SRI, and we see a ot of variations in its adoption, ike doing one direction ony, 1 to 4 times; or doing both directions 1 to 4 times. It is important to do the first intercutivation before 15 days after transpanting for maximum benefits. In using the weeder, there exist a ot of variations in the acceptance itsef. Some abourers do not compain, whie others resist, saying that they experience shouder pain, especiay when using the conoweeder. Some are enthusiastic about the new technoogy, saying it eases their work. The mindset of the abourer greaty infuences the efficiency of weeder use. Sometimes, in some soi types, the weeder gets stuck often, increasing the frustration of the abourer. This is one of the reasons why many SRIpracticing farmers are asking now for a power-operated weeder. One of the significant changes brought about by weeder use is the shift in empoying women abourers for hand weeding, competey eiminating their roe in most paces, because 'mechanica work' is considered to be 'men's abour.' In some paces, weeding operations have been taken over competey by men, reeasing women from this part of the crop cyce. Whether this is something good or bad for women depends on whether the work of hand weeding is considered as aborious and even drudgery, or as desirabe source of income. Where ighter-version weeders ike the rotary weeder are avaiabe and appropriatey designed, women do not hesitate to use them. Experiments at ANGRAU on the physioogica work oad of women when using the manua conoweeder in SRI cutivation, in comparison to conventiona methods of (hand) weed contro, has reveaed that conoweeders can increase the productivity of women's abour in weeding by two times and can save 76% of women's time through the improvement brought in their pace of performance (Aum Sarma, 2006). On average, the number of abourers required to cover an acre in both directions may vary from 3 to 5. There are a few cases of higher abour requirement for weeder use aso, but this is not the common experience. Some other abour-reated issues on weeder use are: In abour-scarce areas, higher wages may be demanded for performing weeding. Groups of abourers often join together and go for contract weeding operations, moving from fied to fied together for a fixed payment. Most margina farmers do their SRI weeding operation entirey by famiy abour, 105 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

108 competey eiminating their weeding cost. But they cover the paddy area by taking more time, 2-3 days per acre. Instances of a farmer doing the weeding operation a by himsef have aso been reported. Since the weeding requirement is common to a farmers with either conventiona or SRI cutivation, avaiabiity of abour determines the timeiness of weeding and the avoidance of oss of yied. Some SRI farmers have reported that this probem is mitigated by use of mechanica weeders. There are severa instances where no abour-reated probems were encountered in any of the SRI operations. 8.7 Reducing the Drudgery of Weeder Operation Weeder operation is reported to be one of the difficut practices in SRI mainy due to the drudgery invoved in using handoperated weeders. Some of the suggestions for reducing the drudgery of weeder use are: Modifying the weeder design with ba bearings to reduce friction, as done by an Andhra Pradesh farmer. Having a wooden hande for the weeder (especiay rotary weeder) to reduce the weight of the weeder. Having a set of (say, 10) trained abourers for doing weeding in a viage and empoying them by contract. With experience and cooperation, they can make the operation more efficient. Instead of using the weeder in both directions at 10-day intervas, use it in one direction the first time, and then in the opposite direction after seven days, and repeat this severa times. Use of a motorized weeder. There are efforts going in India, Maaysia, Phiippines and other countries to design and buid such weeders wesuited to SRI cutivation. It is expected that within a year or two, appropriate motorized weeders wi become avaiabe, which wi make SRI adoption much easier and more attractive. For some sois, depending upon their cay content, the most suitabe weeder shoud be chosen or the weeder design shoud be modified to suit the sois. 106 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

109 8.8 Issues Reated to Intercutivation in SRI Most of the SRI farmers in Odisha adopt this method of weed management to increase productivity. However, access to appropriate weeders is sti a major chaenge, and the current suppy of a singe category of weeder for use on a types of soi is a probem (Shambu Prasad et a. 2008) Weeder operation in both directions wi not be difficut if panting is done propery in squares. If a marker is used, either a rake-marker or a roermarker, geometric spacing is easiy faciitated; if ropes are used, some care is needed by the abourers to aign the ines propery in both directions. Procurement and suppy of weeders at the time of requirement is crucia in the initia stage of SRI promotion. Severa NGOs have contributed significanty by procuring the weeders from outside and suppying them to oca farmers. In the TN-IAMWARM project of Tami Nadu, specia training is being organized for viage artisans to manufacture weeders ocay and aso to make markers. The foowing points summarize the issues reated to the intercutivation in SRI: First use of the weeder at days after transpanting is crucia in SRI and shoud not be missed. Herbicides are not recommended in SRI because they do not contribute to soi aeration, which a mechanica weeder does. Moreover, they can adversey affect the soi biota, which is important for nutrient mobiization and for achieving 'the SRI effect.' Some water shoud be there on the fied whie using the weeder to make pushing the weeder and moving the soi easier. It is important to remove eftout weeds by hand. The abour for this hand weeding shoud be minima. Some earthing up around pant cums takes pace when the weeder is used. This makes the pants to produce new roots which increase root capacity and activity. If a weeder is used after a top dressing of urea, this wi incorporate the fertiizer and increase its use-efficiency. The suitabiity of different types of weeder is sitespecific and depends upon soi conditions and abourers' mindset. It woud be idea to manufacture the weeder by ironsmiths in the nearby area to get suitabe modes appropriate to oca conditions. Rather than distribute standard modes free to farmers, some arrangements woud be preferabe for sma down payments to give farmers access to a weeder, and then they can pay the remainder at harvest time, when money is in hand. Farmers can earn from their SRI harvest many times more than the cost of the weeder, and this way, they are abe to assess appropriate designs and quaity construction from manufacturers, buying weeders that are best suited to their needs. The benefits of intercutivation in SRI are reviewed in Chapter Transforming Rice Production with SRI

110 8.9 Intercutivation in Dryand SRI Appying SRI principes and practices in rainfed rice cutivation is being taken up in some parts of India, where ine sowing with wider spacing to faciitate weeder use is practiced. The practices are sti to be standardized. The AME Foundation working with rainfed rice farmers in the Dharwad area of Karnataka is heping them to adopt some of the SRI principes. In the conventiona system, farmers do intercutivation with a simpe buock-drawn impement (Photos 8.23 and 8.24). A buock-drawn three-row weeder (Photo 8.25) and a cyce-whee intercutivator are being tried now (Photo 8.26). Photo 8.23 Intercutivator in conventiona rainfed rice Photo 8.25 Three-row weeder Photo 8.24 Buock-drawn wooden harrow Photo 8.26 Cyce weeder 8.10 Summary Intercutivation with mechanica weeders in SRI not ony pays a roe in the contro of weeds but aso has been found to have a beneficia effect on the growth of the crop. With appropriate modes and skis, farmers can greaty reduce their cost of weeding aso. Some of the constraints in using the weeder are associated with avaiabiity of weeders for which some poicy support from extension agencies is needed. The abour mindset which is often negative can be sorted out through education and training. 108 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

111 9 PESTS AND DISEASES IN SRI Insect pests attack a portions of the rice pant and at a stages of pant growth. Feeding guids consist of: (1) root feeders, (2) stem borers, (3) eafhoppers and pant hoppers, (4) defoiators, and (5) grain-sucking insects. The incidence of pests and diseases in SRI crop appears to be infuenced by the microenvironment created for pants, starting with younger seedings, more widey spaced, with ess water standing in the fied, and ater on, having profuse vegetative growth and doing intercutivation at reguar intervas. The resuting rice pants themseves appear to be stronger and more resistant to chewing and sucking insects, perhaps because of the roots' greater siicon uptake under aerobic soi conditions. The resistance of a rice crop grown under SRI management to pests and diseases has been frequenty reported by farmers and has aso been studied experimentay to some extent. However, the interaction of pathogens with SRI crops is yet to be studied in detai. 9.1 Insect Pests The incidence of different insect pests ike thrips, whor maggot, eaf hoppers, pant hoppers, ga midge, stem borer, and eaffoder in SRI crops has been studied to some extent Thrips Usuay, thrips (S. biformis) are a major probem at seeding stage, both in the nursery and in transpanted fieds. David et a. (2005) in their study of comparative pest incidence in nurseries found that nursery seedings conventionay grown supported over 10 times more popuation of thrips, with four times more damage, than was seen with seedings under SRI nursery management (Tabe 9.1). Shorter nursery duration may enabe them to escape infestation as observed with S. mauritia, or with ess severe damage due to S. biformis. Tabe 9.1 Pest abundance in nursery Insects and their damage / popuation SRI cutivation (Mean ± SE) Conventiona cutivation (Mean ± SE) t vaue SRI as % of conventiona Cut worm 0.0 ± ± ** 0% (% damaged eaves per seeding) (0.0) (19.1) Thrips (per seeding) 0.5 ± ± ** 8.2% (0.9) (2.5) Green eaf hopper (per seeding) 0.1 ± ± ** 25.0% (0.8) (0.9) BPH (per seeding) 0.0 ± ± ** 0% (0.0) (0.8) Whor maggot 0.8 ± ± ** 8.6% (% damaged eaves per seeding) (0.9) (9.1) Figures in parentheses are transformed vaues. **Significant difference ((P<0.001) Source: David et a Transforming Rice Production with SRI

112 Different irrigation practices may aso essen the thrips probems in the nursery. Being much smaer, SRI seedings may be submerged even by a thin fim of water on the soi that wi disodge thrips (Reissig et a. 1986). Sprinking of water with a can may aso get rid of thrips as they are easiy washed away by rainfa. At the vegetative stage, coser spacing and heavy irrigation of pants woud encourage thrips popuations (Venugopa Rao et a. 1982). SRI management is different in that it is characterized by wider spacing and aternate wetting and drying (Tabe 9.2). Tabe 9.2 Pest abundance in main fied of conventiona and SRI crops Insects and their damage / popuation SRI cutivation (Mean ± SE) Conventiona cutivation (Mean ± SE) t vaue SRI as % of conventiona Whor maggot 17.9 ± ± ** 77.2% (% damaged eaves per hi) (18.0) (19.1) Thrips (per hi) 6.6 ± ± ** 32.7% (2.2) (4.1) Green eaf hopper (per hi) 0.6 ± ± ** 54.5% (1.0) (1.2) BPH (per hi) 1.1 ± ± ** 40.7% (1.2) (1.8) Whor maggot 5.6 ± ± ** 63.6% (% truncated eaves per hi) (5.9) (9.1) Ga midge 5.0 ± ± ** 45.5% (% siver shoot per hi) (6.8) (19.1) Stem borers 11.7 ± ± ** 160.3% (deadheart/white ear per hi) (15.5) (10.0) Leaffoder 20.3 ± ± ** 312.3% (scraped eaves per hi) (21.7) (11.8) Earhead bug (no. per hi) 0.9 ± ± NS No change (1.1) (1.1) Figures in parenthesis are transformed vaues. ** significant difference (P<0.001)NS : not significant Source: David et a Transforming Rice Production with SRI

113 9.1.2 Whor Maggot Adut whor maggot (H.phiippina) is abe to ocate rice pants ony by the refected sunight from the water surface (Reissig et a. 1986). Even though conventiona nursery beds are aternatey fooded and drained at eary stages, the seedings aong the edges are aways nearer to stagnant water in furrows. This resuts in more egg-aying (oviposition) on them. The modified SRI mat nursery is probaby ess attractive to these fies as they are not attracted to direct-seeded fieds or to seed beds..thus, SRI seedings may carry on them fewer eggs or maggots than do those from a conventiona nursery (David et a. (2005). Adut fies continue to ay eggs on transpanted seedings, and arva feeding on the growing point of shoots resuts in severe stunting and poor estabishment of seedings. The fies prefer to ay eggs on pants in fooded pots during the first 3-4 weeks after transpanting compared with rice pants growing in saturated but unfooded fieds as with SRI. Maggot infestation has been reported to be reduced with an increase in pant density, which is much ess when maggot attacks. Further, SRI seedings are one week younger than conventiona ones at the time of panting. This coud cause them to be more susceptibe to H. phiippina. More fies coud be sighted on conventiona seedings mosty because of the differences in irrigation practice between the two systems after the initia draining of water. The weeding method may aso contribute to the incidence of fewer aduts on SRI pants. The rotary weeder utiized at 125 DAT, triggers root growth and tiering. This is not done in conventiona fieds which are fooded to assist easy hand weeding. This coud hep the fies easiy ocate the pants for oviposition. In SRI, the rotary weeder even causes the water fim to disappear, probaby making the seedings, though smaer, ess recognizabe to the fies after weeding (David et a. 2005). Padmavathi et a. (2007) observed that SRI pants had more eaves damaged by whor maggot as compared to conventiona methods, however. So, more research on this is needed Hoppers In genera, eafhoppers (famiy Cicadeidae) attack a aeria parts of the pant, whereas panthoppers (famiy Dephacidae) attack the basa portions (stems). Both eafhoppers and panthoppers (order Hemiptera) are sucking insects which remove pant sap from the xyem and phoem tissues of the pant. Severey damaged pants dry up and take on the brownish appearance of pants that have been damaged by fire. Hence, hopper damage is commony caed "hopper burn". These insects are severe pests in many Asian countries where they not ony cause direct damage, by removing pant sap, but are aso vectors of serious rice diseases, such as the rice tungro virus transmitted by the green eafhopper (Nephotettix virescens) and the grassy stunt virus transmitted by the brown panthopper (Niaparvata ugens) ( ers/heinrich.htm). SRI practices have an in-buit mechanism to suppress brown panthopper (BPH) as we as green eafhopper (GLH) popuations. Severa factors ead to the abundance of Nephotettix spp. and N. ugens. Dense panting, continuous fooding, and higher appications of inorganic nitrogen are important among them (Shuka and Anjaneyuu, 1981; Karuppusamy and Uthamasamy, 1984). Pant density usuay affects the immigration and distribution of BPH after transpanting by creating a more favourabe microcimate (Garcia et a. 1994). Athough the number of seedings per hi per unit area is higher with conventiona methods, the microcimate in SRI coud be the same or even more favourabe to BPH owing to an even arger number of tiers per unit area at the ater stages, despite having transpanted a singe seeding per hi. Increased eves of nitrogen appication ead to BPH abundance. SRI not ony increases N avaiabiity, but aso sustains it so that pants remain green and more attractive to pests unti harvest. Draining the fied contros BPH popuations (Das and Thomas, 1977) as BPH is never a probem in upand rice. Predators which can contro these pest popuations, especiay C. ividipennis, were found to be significanty more numerous in SRI pots, activey preying on the eggs of hoppers. This indicates that BPH and GLH shoud not be as serious a probem in SRI (David et a. 2005). 111 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

114 9.1.4 Ga Midge Dense panting, appication of nitrogen fertiizers, presence of weeds, and continuousy standing water, a favour heavy midge infestation, which decines during dry weather and due to the activity of parasitoids as with conventiona methods. Earier, aternate wetting and drying was reported to increase ga midge incidence (Karuppusamy and Uthamasamy, 1984).. However, sparse panting when couped with intermittent irrigation may provide an environment ess favourabe for ga midges as observed in SRI. The extent of arva parasitism due to the parasitoid, Patygaster oryzae Cameron, may vary between conventiona and SRI methods, owing to spacing and irrigation practices which infuence not ony crop growth and microcimate, but aso natura enemies. Midges cause more damage with increased N fertiization as we. Athough SRI pants are ikey to derive more N from the probabe changes in soi conditions, midges did not cause more damage in SRI (Tabe 9.2), where suppression of weeds which act as aternative hosts coud hep to reduce ga midge attack compared to hand weeding with conventiona methods (David et a. 2005) Stem Borers and Leaffoder Stem borers consist primariy of insects in the epidopterous famiies, Noctuidae and Pyraidae. The adut moths ay eggs on rice eaves, and the arvae when they hatch bore into the stem. Feeding in the stem during the vegetative growth stage of the pant (seeding to stem eongation) causes death of the centra shoot, eading to what are caed "dead hearts." Damaged shoots do not produce a panice, and thus, produce no grain. Feeding by stem borers during the reproductive stage (panice initiation to mik grain) causes a severing of the deveoping panice at its base. As a resut, the panice is unfied and whitish in coor, rather than being fied with grain and brownish in coor. Such empty panices are caed "whiteheads" ( ers/heinrich.htm). A arge group of insects beonging to severa insect orders feed on rice eaves. Most common are the arvae and aduts of beetes (order Coeoptera), arvae of the order Lepidoptera, and grasshoppers (order Orthoptera). Defoiation reduces the photosynthetic capacity of the rice pant, and thereby decreases yieds. However, when feeding damage occurs eary in rice growth, pants have an abiity to compensate for damage by producing new tiers. Thus, rice pants in their activey tiering stage of growth can toerate a certain eve of eaf damage without any yied oss. Stem borers and eaffoders were the two kinds of pests that increased their popuation in SRI pots much more than in pots with conventiona management (David et a. 2005). This is probaby due to the effects of SRI management resuting in more productive phenotypes in terms of tier number, eaf area index (LAI), and yied. When continuousy fooded, 75% of rice pant roots remain in the top soi (6 cm) at 28 DAT (Kirk and Soivas, 1997), whie with SRI, the roots go deeper (105 cm) with a 45% increase in dry weight (Tao et a. 2002). Apart from improving soi aeration, rotary weeding prunes the roots to some extent, encouraging growth of more proific root systems couped with more attractive pants, which these two pests prefer. Large stems, heavy foiage and thick sheath favour the deveopment of Chio suppressais (Waker) and S. incertuas (Chienyun, 1985) which usuay increases with increase in pant density (Singh and Pandey, 1997). Irrigation methods and variations in water depths have been reported to have no significant infuence on C. medinais. However, draining the fied suppresses yeow stem borer (Fang, 1977), a major pest of deep water rice. Use of nitrogenous fertiizers predisposes rice pants to borer and foder infestation. Therefore, persistence of the 'edge effect' unti grain maturity may be attributed to the abundance of both pests in SRI where aerobic and anaerobic soi conditions occur aternatey, contributing to enriched pant nutrition, 112 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

115 especiay greater N avaiabiity than norma from the increased N mineraization (Birch, 1958). Thus, SRI pants ensure a more uxuriant growth, attracting more moths to sheter and oviposit (Chandramohan and Jayaraj, 1977). The fag eaves of SRI pants remain dark green even up to the time of harvest due to ess senescence of eaves during the grain-fiing period. In SRI, both stem borer and eaffoder moths were more abundant at the ater stages, the peaks of which coincided with that of insect predators that are abundant in rice ecosystems and subsist on insect pests (David et a. 2005). Experiments conducted at DRR, Hyderabad, in 2006, showed that yeow stem borer damage at maximum tiering and booting stages was ower in SRI as compared to conventiona methods. But at reproductive stage, the damage (white earheads) was high in SRI (Padmavathi et a. 2007). Some differences in the response of different varieties to pests when under SRI management have aso been reported. Ravi et a. (2007) observed that BPT5204, which is susceptibe to stem borer, showed esser white ear damage under SRI (11.3%) when compared to conventiona management (17.5%). The variety ADT48, known as a ess-susceptibe cutivar, experienced a higher eve of eaffoder damage under SRI (15.0%) when compared to conventiona method (1.0%). The studies conducted by Sumathi et a. (2008) on the effect of manures on SRI crops showed that appication of chemica fertiizers with and without organic manures increased the eaffoder damage. Leaffoder damage was minimum when FYM ony was appied. 9.2 Specific Effects of SRI Practices on Pest Incidence Fied trias conducted at the TNAU Agricutura Coege and Research Institute, Kiikuam, during to compare the abundance of insect pests and natura enemies between the conventiona and SRI methods of cutivation showed that eaffoder, stem borers, and predators (Paederus fuscipes Curtis, Cyrtorhinus ividipennis Reuter) were found to be significanty more abundant, whie Spodoptera mauritia Boisduva, Hydreia phiippina Ferino, Nymphua depunctais Guenee, Orseoia oryzae Wood- Mason, Niaparvata ugens Sta and Nephotettix spp. were significanty ess abundant in SRI than with conventiona methods (David et a. 2005). Exposure to more sunight and air due to wider spacing may hep in reducing BPH incidence. As most of the weeds act as aternate hosts to major pests, remova of them at reguar intervas by intercutivation with mechanica weeders reduces Fied experiments conducted in Keraa have showed that the incidences of stem borer and eaffoder were significanty higher in SRI than norma method of cutivation (Karthikeyan et a. 2008). pest incidence and restricts further spread and deveopment. At the tiering stage, vigorous growth with more tiers and foiage observed in the SRI crop may attract more defoiators such as cutworm, ear-cutting caterpiars, and eaffoder (Padmavathi et a. 2007). Beneficia arthropod diversity (tota abundance and species richness) was high in SRI pots as compared to conventiona pot management (Padmavathi et a. 2007). The water management practice with SRI is reported to have specific effects on pest incidence. Ravi et a. (2007) found that with SRI, eaffoder damage was higher and stem borer damage was ess when compared with conventiona method (Tabe 9.3). They aso observed that aternate wetting and drying (AWD) faciitated higher eaffoder damage (21.2%) over fooding, but the effect on stem borer damage was the reverse. 113 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

116 Tabe 9.3 Effect of water management on pest incidence (%) in SRI, with two varieties Treatment Leaffoder damage Stem borer damage ADTRH1 ADT48 ADTRH1 ADT48 Conventiona panting & fooding SRI panting & conventiona fooding SRI panting & AWD Studying the effects of individua components of SRI on pest incidence, Ravi et a. (2007) found that intermittent irrigation had a negative impact on whor maggot; young seedings reduced thrips damage both in nursery and main fied; and both wider spacing and intermittent irrigation contributed to a reduction in BPH incidence. Wider spacing and intercutivation favoured eaffoder damage, which was associated with uxurious crop growth, higher chorophy content, and wider chorophy A and B ratio. The authors reported reduction of eaffoder damage in SRI when nitrogen appication was guided by Leaf Coour Chart. A fied survey (121 farmers) conducted in Andhra Pradesh showed that 70% of the farmers did not fee a need to take up any contro measures with SRI, whereas with conventiona methods, they had used at east one spray of chemica insecticides. 35% of SRI farmers had used indigenousy-prepared insecticides ike Panchagavya, Amrita Jaam, and neem for protection against pests (Padmavathi et a. 2008). Based on severa fied experiments with SRI, Ravi et a. (2007) concuded that insect pests, i.e., stem borer, ga midge, whor maggot, and BPH were ess active, but eaffoder caused significant damage. A mutiocation tria in five ocations for two years (2006 and 2007) showed that the incidences of stem borer, ga midge, and BPH were reativey ess in SRI, whie the incidence of eaffoder, GLH, and whitebacked panthopper was higher when compared to conventiona cutivation (Katti et a. 2008). Experiments conducted during and at the Regiona Agricutura Research Station, Pattambi, Keraa using two rice varieties, i.e., Jyothi and the hybrid CORH 2 under norma system and system of rice intensification, reveaed that stem borer was significanty ower in SRI (4.82% in Jyothi and 2.35% in CORH 2) during the vegetative phase, compared to the standard method of cutivation (9.75% in Jyothi and 9.85% in CORH 2), whie at the reproductive phase, there was no significant difference between the two systems of cutivation. The incidences of whor maggot and caseworm were ower under SRI system, but the incidence of eaffoder was higher in the crop under SRI than the standard system. The occurrence of natura enemies ike spiders and arva parasitoids was higher in SRI, whie damsefy popuations were ower in SRI system in comparison to the standard system of cutivation (Karthikeyan et a. 2010). 114 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

117 9.3 SRI and Rats Rats are one of the most serious pests of rice, and they are extremey difficut to contro. As in the contro of insect pests, conservation of natura enemies is perhaps the most efficient approach. Unfortunatey, the best natura enemy of rats is snakes, and many farmers are reuctant to encourage arge snake popuations. Another effective natura enemy is barn ows ( Modue4.htm). SRI farmers in Tripura and other states often construct bird-stands in the midde of their fieds to attract ows and raptors to perch there and thus reduce the intrusion of rats and some rice-eating birds. Many SRI farmers in Tami Nadu have reported that rat damage was amost ni in SRI crops, athough neighbouring non-sri crops were affected by rat damage. No research study has been taken up on this, however. The wider spacing between pants gives rats ess cover in the eary stages of pant growth. 9.4 Pest Management in Rice Integrated pest management (IPM) through a smarter understanding of pest dynamics uses a variety of different strategies to minimize pest damage whie eiminating or reducing pesticide use. IPM encourages farmers to imit pest damage through the use of pest- resistant varieties, by observing the activity of pests and their natura enemies, understanding the difference between when pest eves are a probem and when they are acceptabe, and deciding rationay whether action is needed. Chemicas are used ony as a ast resort, and their appication is aimed at maximizing natura bioogica contro ( Using chemica protection that eiminates or reduces pests' natura enemies, referred to as beneficias, is sef-defeating. Even some neutra insects can be beneficia if they hep to sustain the popuations of the predators of pests. Contro measures for some of the common rice pests are given in Tabe SRI and Non-Target Organisms Misra et a. (2007) studied, for two years, the popuation density of non-target organisms in the sois in SRI and conventiona rice cutivation at different dates after transpanting. Pooed data showed that SRI pots were harbouring more Enchytraeids popuation (3,609 m-2) than the conventionay transpanted pots (3,338 m-2); the coemboan popuations were not different (3,892 and 3,889 m-2), and the soi mite popuations were 2,663 and 2,601 m-2, respectivey. The authors pointed out the potentia of SRI for increasing the soi heath and biodiversity. 9.6 SRI and Disease Incidences Many species of bacteria, fungus, nematode, virus and mycopasma-ike organisms cause diseases in rice. Bacteria eaf bight, for exampe, is caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. This disease is observed on both seedings and oder pants. On seedings, infected eaves turn grayish green and ro up. As the disease progresses, eaves turn yeow and then become straw-coored and wit, eading whoe seedings to dry up and die. Bast is considered a major disease of rice because of its wide distribution and destructiveness under favorabe conditions. A aboveground parts of the rice pant are attacked by the fungus. Susceptibiity to bast is inversey reated to soi moisture. Pants grown under owand condition (i.e., fooded soi or with high soi moisture) become more resistant, whie pants grown under upand conditions become more susceptibe. 115 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

118 Tabe 9.4 Damage, economic threshods, and suggested measures for management of common rice pests. Pest Characteristic damage Economic threshods Contro measures Stem borer Death of centra shoot (dead heart,dh), 10% DHs or 1 egg mass/m2 Stubbe destruction; panting of toerant varieties white ear (WE), oss 1 moth/m2, or ike Vikas, Sasyasree, Ratna; of tiers adut mae chemica contro when other moths/pheromone measures are not sufficient trap/week Ga midge Centra eaf sheath 5% SS (at active Eary panting; use of modified to a siver tiering stage) resistant varieties such as shoot (SS), oss of Phaguna, tiers Surekha, Suraksha; chemica contro when other measures are not sufficient Brown pant hopper Pants wit and dry 10 insects per hi Resistant varieties; &white-backed Hopper burn at vegetative stage; aeyways formation; panthopper 20 insects/hi at draining the fieds; judicious ater stages N use; chemica contro when other measures are not sufficient Green eaf hopper Vector of tungro 2 insects/hi in Resistant varieties; disease; pants wit tungro endemic chemica contro when other and dry in severe areas; measures are not sufficient cases insects/ hi in other areas Leaffoder Leaf damage; 3 damaged eaves Judicious N use; destruction poory-fied grains /hi (post-active of aternate hosts; chemica tiering stage) contro when other measures are not sufficient Cutworm Defoiation and damage 1 eaf/hi stray Fooding; chemica contro to rachiae incidence prior to when other measures are harvesting not sufficient Gundhi bug Partia chaffy grains 1 nymph/adut per Remova of aternate host hi pants; chemica contro when other measures not sufficient Source: Padmavathi, Transforming Rice Production with SRI

119 Rice sheath bight occurs throughout rice-growing areas in temperate, subtropica, and tropica countries. It is found in diverse rice production systems, whether upand, rainfed, or irrigated ( rg/ipm/index.php/diseases-cropheath-2733). In , an evauation done in Vietnam by its Nationa IPM programme across eight provinces, comparing SRI pots with neighbouring farmerpractice pots, found that the prevaence of four major rice diseases and pests (sheath bight, eaf bight, sma eaffoder, and brown pant hopper) was greaty reduced on SRI pants, 55% ess in the spring season, and 70% ess in the summer season (Dung, 2007). Researchers at the China Nationa Rice Research Institute have found sheath bight reduced by 70% in SRI fieds in Tian-tai township of Zhejiang province (persona communications). In controed trias, the index of sheath bight with SRI management was found to be 2.1% compared with 14.9% in contro pots (Lin, 2010). Overa, the studies on the effect of SRI on disease incidences are very imited so far. Fied experiments conducted during and by Sinha and Kumar (2007) showed that sheath bight incidence was reduced significanty due to SRI when compared to standard method of cutivation (Tabe 9.5). Tabe 9.5 Sheath bight incidence and grain yied under SRI and standard method of cutivation. Method of cutivation Sheath bight incidence (%) Grain yied (t ha ) Sheath bight incidence (%) Grain yied (t ha ) Standard SRI SRI and Nematodes Any change in cutivation system has a concomitant effect on the rice ecosystem and associated bioogica communities. Pant parasitic (root-feeding) nematodes are an important component of the microfauna associated with the rhizosphere of rice pants. Hirschmanniea oryzae and M. graminicoa are common pant parasitic nematodes associated with irrigated rice systems, but Hirschmanniea spp., which are speciaized to thrive under anaerobic ecosystems, are commony predominant. Both nematodes occur in irrigated rice. The reported buid-up of nematodes in rice fieds when converted from food irrigation to aternate wetting and drying (aerobic) conditions (Bouman, 2002) has raised concerns on such possibiities when SRI is foowed (Prasad et a. 2002). There was greater increase of M. graminicoa in SRI pots than in conventiona irrigated rice pots indicating that SRI is more favourabe to this nematode. The aternate wetting and drying with weeding by a hand-operated rotary weeder that is foowed under SRI resuts in aternating periods of aerobic and anaerobic soi conditions, and this might have permitted the mutipication of M. graminicoa (Seenivasan et a. 2010). 117 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

120 Prasad et a. (2008) hypothesized that switching to SRI might resut in a gradua decine in popuations of rice root nematode species, which prefer irrigated systems, and an increase in popuations of more pathogenic species such as root-knot and esion nematodes, which prefer upand and aerobic environments. Appication of Super Pseudomonas as a seed treatment (@ 10 g/kg of seed) decreased the popuation of the rice root nematode, Hirschmannieaoryzae and the root-knot nematode, Meoidogyne graminicoa, by 67-73% (Proceedings of Rice Scientists Meet, TNAU, 2008). Research in northern Thaiand has showed that SRI practices contributed to higher popuations of root-knot nematodes which offset the potentia productivity gains from SRI management (Sooksanguan et a. 2009). Possiby atered schedues of wetting and drying coud reduce or minimize nematode damage by creating anaerobic soi conditions that disrupt nematode growth cyces. But such experimentation and vaidation remains to be done in areas where root-knot nematodes are endemic. Where significanty higher yieds are obtained with SRI management, as reported from a wide variety of paces, this parasite is not evidenty a constraint. Attention must be paid to it, however, wherever the water and oxygen status of sois is modified. 9.8 Summary SRI has both advantages and disadvantages in terms of insect and other pest abundance. Cuturay, it departs from traditiona methods in the management of nursery, panting and spacing, weeding, irrigation, and inorganic N appications, eading to production of more tiers and foiage couped with grain yied. Each component of SRI is reated to the abundance of one or more pests as we. Thus, SRI encompasses severa IPM cutura techniques which suppress most pests. Overa, there are more gains in the suppression of pests and diseases reported with SRI management than there are increased osses. But the atter must be attended to get the most net benefit from SRI methods. Nitrogen management, a crucia factor affecting the incidence of stem borers and eaffoders, hods the key to managing both of these pests in SRI. Overuse of insecticides may cause them to die or ead to resurgence of eaffoder as both are highy responsive to nitrogenous fertiizers. Thus, insecticides and nitrogen fertiizers need to be appied more judiciousy in SRI to manage these two pests. LCC may be popuarized to avoid appication of nitrogenous fertiizers in excess when the pants remain greener from SRI advantage. Ravi et a. (2007) have suggested biointensive pest management in SRI, invoving different components ike the use of botanica pesticides, augmentative reease of egg parasitoids (Trichoderma spp.) and pathogens (Bacius thuringiensis), and the use of nove toos ike pheromones and ight traps. The interaction of SRI practices with responses of the rice crop to various pests and diseases is yet to be understood thoroughy. However, pubications ike 'Integrated Disease Pest Management in SRI Paddy' (SRI Secretariat, 2011) have become usefu for SRI practitioners. 118 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

121 10 EFFECTS OF SRI ON SOIL AND CROP PERFORMANCE SRI is certainy a major breakthrough in rice cutivation. More than just improving practice, it has contributed to different thinking that can enabe farmers to get more production from their existing, avaiabe resources. It chaenges the conventiona approach of pursuing high-input-oriented agricuture to get more production. SRI reverses the ogic of current thinking about modernizing agricuture for the simpe reason that more productivity can be achieved just by modifying common agronomic practices for transpanted rice. Rice farmers do not need to earn something entirey new and unfamiiar, but instead they just ater practices that they are accustomed to doing. The SRI principes, when adopted propery and with understanding, resut in a crop that grows in a different manner, not experienced with any other method of rice cutivation. Using just 160,000 seeds (seedings) in a hectare and getting 350,000,000 to 400,000,000 seeds back represents an output of 7 to 8 t ha grain yied from 3.2 kg of seed weight (individua grain weight assumed to be 20 mg). This is a very wecome production resut brought about by SRI methods (Figure 10.1). This return of 2,000-2,500 times is remarkabe, and this ratio can be even greater when soi fertiity is acceerated through promotion of biodiversity and abundance of ife in the soi. Figure 10.1 SRI crop growth cyce 119 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

122 This is the outcome of the effects brought about by the SRI principes individuay and through synergy. Much experimenta evidence and many farmer experiences confirm this SRI effect on yied. How and why this happens is understood to some extent, but it remains to be expained fuy. For the first severa weeks after transpanting his or her fied, a first-time SRI farmer wi be disheartened as the fied wi ook at first ike it has not even been panted. Further, he wi receive criticisms from famiy members and passers-by for severa weeks. But within a month, in response to SRI practices the crop wi begin surprising everyone with its profuse tiering. There wi be growing confidence as the time of harvest approaches and a big surge of satisfaction when the crop is 'in the bag' (Figure 10.2). Fied immediatey after panting with singe seedings Same fied at tiering stage Same fied at harvest stage Figure 10.2 SRI rice fied at panting, tiering and harvest stages Evauation of SRI Evauation of SRI outside Madagascar began ony in 1999, amost two decades after it was deveoped in that country by Fr.Lauanié. Some scientists in India, Indonesia and China began systematic experiments empoying accepted scientific methods at the start of the past decade, and some farmers and NGOs in India particuary showed interest in SRI because of its orientation towards organic farming. Research on SRI in India Standard experiments on SRI were first initiated in Tami Nadu Agricutura University (TNAU) from 2000 onwards, and SRIreated research is sti going on in the University. The experiments conducted during were aimed at understanding the infuence of SRI principes on crop growth, crop physioogy, rhizosphere soi dynamics, and soi microbioogy. Water saving was documented to the extent of 47% without detrimenta effect on yied. The most important resut observed was the significant effect of weeder use on grain yied. Two reasons for this were inferred: the green-manure effect of returning weeds into the soi to enhance soi organic matter, and the soi-aeration effect of breaking the surface horizon to increase oxygen avaiabiity for roots and the soi biota. Since then, various experiments were initiated and are sti being conducted. After 2003, a variety of studies by scientists across the country have been carried out. Three Nationa Symposia on SRI, organized and hed in 2006, 2007 and 2008 at Hyderabad, Agartaa, and Coimbatore, provided opportunity to bring together information coected from such scientific studies from a across India. These studies compared 120 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

123 the performance of SRI vs. conventiona cutivation; the effects of changes made in seeding age, spacing etc.; the effects of SRI management on pest and diseases, water productivity, and nutrient uptake; the adoption dynamics of SRI, etc. Research carried out so far has focused particuary on root growth, crop growth, tiering, odging, crop duration, physioogy and yied attributes, and aso changes in soi bioogy, pest and disease incidences, and nutrient dynamics. On-Farm Evauations A the agencies invoved in promoting SRI started with onfarm evauations and demonstrations, combining these with different kinds of training. The first evauations commenced in 2003 in Tami Nadu, Tripura, and Andhra Pradesh, and ater by severa civi society organizations (CSOs) in different parts of the country such as PRADAN, Peope's Science Institute, AME Foundation, and the Green Foundation. In Tripura, the Department of Agricuture started SRI demonstrations in , with the number of farmers using the new methods increasing from 44 in that first year,to 162,485 in The joint WWF-ICRISAT project supported systematic evauation of SRI methods by the state university, ANGRAU, and a oca NGO, CROPS, in Waranga, through on-farm fied trias in 11 districts of Andhra Pradesh over severa years, starting with the rabi season of Since then, on-farm evauations have been carried out in many different regions of the country. The changes brought about in the growing environment of the pants due to the use of young singe seedings, wider spacing, soi-aerating weeder operations, and reduced, controed irrigation have been found to have a positive infuence on the growth of pants as we as on the soi dynamics in a manner not found in non-sri cutivation. From whatever scientific and fied observations are avaiabe, it can be stated that there are significant effects on the crop as we as on the soi system. These can be grouped into two categories: Creating a better growing environment for the pants Expoiting more fuy the genetic potentia of rice pants 10.2 Creating a Better Growing Environment for Rice Pants above and beow the Ground The number of seedings panted per square meter being usuay 16, when 25x25 cm spacing is adopted, the space for the photosynthesis in eaves and room for root growth beowground is greater than in conventionay-panted crops. This makes for ess competition for sunight, water, and nutrients. Cessation of continuous fooding avoids anaerobic soi conditions that permit ony anaerobic soi organisms to survive, and soi churning by intercutivation with a mechanica weeder changes the physica, chemica and bioogica conditions of the soi. Together, they induce an array of changes in the growth of the crop and in soi conditions. 121 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

124 Effects of SRI Practices on the above Ground Environment The main effect on the aboveground environment is on the avaiabiity of more sunight for the eaves and enhanced canopy photosynthesis because of the wider spacing and singe seeding per hi. It is known that the ower eaves suppy most of the photosynthate to rice pant roots (Tanaka, 1958). So, any imitation on the abiity of these eaves to carry out photosynthesis (due to crowding and shading) wi have an adverse effect upon the roots' growth and capacity for metaboism. This aggravates the negative effects of hypoxic soi conditions upon roots' heath and functioning (Uphoff, 2008). Experiments conducted in Indonesia in 2002 showed that the radiation intercepted, increased with wider spacing; with conventiona narrow spacing, the ower third of eaves did not receive enough sunight to accompish photosynthesis. So, instead of contributing to the pants' poo of photosynthate, these eaves reied upon that poo for their own metaboism, becoming in effect parasitic (Tabe 10.1). Tabe 10.1 Radiation intercepted (ux), at heading stage, of Ciherang variety at different spacings, Sukamandi, dry season, 2002 Spacing (cm) 20x20cm 30x30cm 40x40cm 50x50cm Pant popuation m Radiation above canopy Radiation beow canopy % radiation beow canopy Note: Radiation intercepted above and beow the canopy is average of 8 points measured in each pot, observed at 9:240:40 am, 14 Juy Source: Data coected by Dr. Anischan Gani, Agency for Agricutura Research and Deveopment rice research station at Sukamandi (reported by Uphoff, 2008) Resuts of the experiment conducted by Thakur et a. (2011) showed that during the initia growth stages unti 40 days after germination (DAG), the canopy of the crop under standard management (SMP) with conventiona fooding intercepted more soar radiation than did the SRI canopy with aternate wetting and drying. But, beyond 50 DAG, ight interception with SRI was significanty more than with SMP. At the panice initiation stage, ight interception reached 89% in SRI, whie it was ony 78% in SMP canopies, giving a 15 % advantage. The study showed that SRI eaves had higher ight utiization capacity and greater photosynthetic rate, especiay during the reproductive and ripening stages of the crop. The above-ground environment under SRI is expected to maintain a different micro-cimate and to have its own favourabe impact not ony on the growth of the crop but aso on pest and disease interactions; but this has to be studied more. The reduction or absence of rodent damage in SRI fieds, reported by many farmers, is probaby due to the changed above-ground environment. 122 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

125 Effects of SRI Practices on the Beow- Ground Environment The beow-ground environment under SRI is aso different from conventiona cutivation in terms of more room for root growth, root activity, nutrient avaiabiity, soi microbia activity, soi aeration, and redox potentia. These effects have been studied to some extent. Root Growth and Activity Athough root growth is a pant behavior, it is considered under this heading as the changed soi environment pays a major roe in it. A number of experiments and farmer experiences have shown how the root system of SRI crop is distincty different from that of a conventiona rice crop. Photos 10.1 and 10.2 show the impressive root system observed in farmers' fieds. SRI methods achieved better noda root deveopment than conventiona methods at the initia growth stage when soi nutrients were not a imiting factor. Reduced intra-hi competition favoured the deveopment of more atera roots (Mishra and Saokhe, 2011). According to Lin et a. (2011), root growth was positivey and significanty infuenced by aerobic irrigation and by organic manure appication. They aso reported that higher the proportion of organic appication for a given eve of N provision, the stronger was the reduction of the soi. Rice pants in the SRI pots had 10 times more root mass, about 5 times more root ength density, and about 7 times more root voume in the top 30 cm of soi profie, compared with roots in the pots of fooded rice (Rupea et a. 2006). Barison and Uphoff (2011) found that, on average, uprooting singe SRI pants required 55.2 kg of force per pant, whie puing up cumps of three conventionay-grown pants required 20.7 kg per hi. Photos and Extensive root system of singe his observed by farmers (Jharkhand and Tami Nadu). 123 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

126 Root voume (m m-2) SMP SRI -2 Root voume (m m ) SMP SRI Figures 10.3 and 10.4 Root voume and root ength density under standard management practice (SMP) and SRI. (Source: Thakur et a. 2011) Observations of Thakur et a. (2011) showed that SRI crop had 40% more root voume per sq.m and 125% more root ength density than the crop under standard management practice (Figures 10.3 and 10.4). Whie degeneration of roots is common in fooded soi (Kar et a. 1974), with SRI water management there was negigibe root degeneration. Brownish roots due to coating of ferrous compounds and degeneration are common from the panice initiation stage onwards. Drained fied conditions enhanced the root oxidizing power and reduced the fraction of dark cooured roots (Ramasamy et a. 1997). Under SRI, whitish roots with virtuay no degeneration are observed by farmers, indicating ceary a different environment faced by the roots (Photos 10.3 and 10.4). Mishra and Saokhe (2011) have documented how fooding and crowding of pants eads to degeneration of roots. It is considered that SRI root system is more active than in conventiona rice crop. Thakur et a. (2011) found greater xyem exudation rates from SRI roots, indicating enhanced root activity. Mishra and Saokhe (2011) observed higher root-oxidizing activity at the ater growth stage of the SRI crop. The higher root biomass in SRI pants wi estabish a arger rhizosphere, and according to Armstrong (1970), pants with arger rhizosphere regions wi be significanty better protected from absorbing arge amounts of reduced products and the oxygenation of sma atera roots is higher than the primary roots. 124 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

127 Effects of Intercutivation The intercutivation operation brings about considerabe changes beow the ground which have been found to be refected in crop response. Photo 10.3 Comparison of roots of conventiona and SRI crop Photo 10.4 Competey white roots in SRI at panice initiation stage. Grian yied (kg/ha) HW GLM+HW IC GLM+IC Figure 10.5 Effect of intercutivation on the grain yied of rice. HW: hand weeding; GLM: green eaf manure; ZIC: intercutivation with weeder 4 times. The importance of intercutivation and its interaction with green eaf manure (GLM) and young seedings was brought to ight by the studies of Thiyagarajan et a. (2002). In their experiment, 14-day-od seedings, singe seedings per hi, 20 x 20 cm spacing, aternate wetting and drying, and NPK appication were common factors; the treatment differences were made in GLM appication and in weeding. When no GLM was appied, intercutivation with weeder increased yied by 7.0% over hand weeding. Appication of GLM when combined with hand weeding reduced the yied by 19.3%, but when hand weeding was repaced by mechanica intercutivation, there was a 13.7% increase in yied. This showed that the negative interaction of GLM with young seedings was reversed and turned positive when intercutivation was done; the impact was to the extent of neary 2 t ha (Figure 10.5). The decrease in redox potentia due to organic manure appication and the increase of the same due to intercutivation (Jayakumar et a. 2005; Sudhaakshmi et a. 2007; and Lin et a. 2011) may be the causes for these effects. Further, mixing aerobic and anaerobic soi horizons may contribute to greater bioogica nitrogen fixation (Magdoff and Boudin 1970). 125 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

128 Data coected from 76 farmers using SRI methods in Madagascar in the season showed that each weeding beyond two added 1 to 2.5 t ha to yied (Uphoff, 2002). In Nepa, data from 412 farmers showed that farmers who used the weeder three times got yieds of 7.87 t ha, 2 t ha higher than the majority of farmers who weeded ony twice (5.87 t ha ). Farmers who weeded ony once owered their yied (5.16 t ha ) by 600 kg ha compared to those who did two weedings. Vijayakumar et a. (2004) aso found a significant yied increase of 9.7% (with 20 x 20 cm pant spacing) and 11.1% (with 25 x 25 cm pant spacing) which coud be attributabe to weeder use when compared to conventiona weeding (herbicide + hand weeding) using 14-day-od seedings and imited irrigation. The experiments carried out for two seasons by Ramamurthy (2004) on intercutivation showed very interesting resuts (Tabe 10.2): Four times intercutivation (T2) resuted in significanty higher yied and east cost of production of grain (Rs 4.57 kg) than conventiona methods having two hand weedings (T1) or herbicide pus one hand weeding (T3) in the first season. But in the second season, nonremova of eft-out weeds by weeder significanty reduced the grain yied, and the cost of production was the highest (Rs.6.80 kg grain). This effect might be ocation- and seasonspecific with respect to weed species and growth. Comparison of other treatment resuts (T1-T4) aso showed the necessity of removing eft- out weeds after intercutivation. Using the weeder after the remova of a weeds by hand had significanty higher effect (T6-T7) than doing it vice versa, showing that incorporating the weeds reduced the grain yied in these trias. Maximum yied was obtained when the intercutivation was done after remova of weeds at 15 and 35 DAT in both the seasons. Athough the cost of this method was highest (Rs.5,112 ha ), the B:C ratio was higher (2.11 and 2.34) than conventiona weed contro methods. This effect showed that remova of weeds without incorporation and subsequent soi stirring by the weeder has more beneficia effect. It is, however, sti to be verified whether this is site-specific. 126 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

129 Tabe 10.2 Effect of weeder use on grain yied, cost of weeding, cost of grain production, and B:C ratio (Ramamurthy, 2004) Treatment number Treatment detais Treatment effect Grain yied (Rs. ha ) Weeding cost (kg ha ) Cost of production per kg grain (Rs) B:C ratio EXPT EXPT-2 EXPT EXPT-2 EXPT EXPT-2 EXPT EXPT Transforming Rice Production with SRI

130 SRI-practicing farmers fee that the pruning of the roots by the weeder has a simiar infuence ike the pruning the shoots of guava, grapes, mango, etc. The regeneration of roots due to the pruning effect has been confirmed by Jayakumar et a. (2005). The intercutivation aso resuts in some earthing-up effect, and Ramamoorthy (2004) found new roots formed above the origina soi eve because of this (Photos 10.5 and 10.6). Enhancing Soi Bioogica Activity Appication of organic manures to the soi in SRI is favourabe to microbes as these materias become a source of energy for them. Besides, aternate wetting and drying combined with intercutivation practice adds active soi aeration to the passive soi aeration that resuts from SRI water management practices which, as seen above, can enhance the growth of phosphobacteria and possiby of N-fixing bacteria by aternativey wetting and drying the soi (Uphoff et a. 2009). Research on the effect of SRI on soi bioogica activity is very imited and needs more attention. However, some research information on soi microbia activity is avaiabe. Studies done at three different ocations, at Tami Nadu Agricutura University (TNAU) and the Internationa Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India, and at the nationa agricutura university in Indonesia, Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB), ooked at the effects of changes in water regime and associated SRI practices on microbia popuations and activity in the rhizosphere soi of rice pants. Photo 10.5 Earthing-up by intercutivation Photo 10.6 New roots grown because of earthing-up by weeder Data from the three studies showed SRI management associated with some significant differences in soi microbia popuations; higher eves of enzyme activity in SRI pant rhizospheres, indicative of increased N and P avaiabiity; and more soi microbia C and N, which woud enarge the nutrient poo for both pants and microbes. These studies, athough more exporatory than concusive, showed enough simiarity to suggest that SRI practices, which make paddy sois more aerobic and enhance soi organic matter, are supportive of enhanced popuations of beneficia soi organisms. If this reationship is confirmed by further assessments, it coud 128 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

131 hep researchers and practitioners to improve paddy production in resourceconserving, cost-effective ways (Anas et. a. 2011). Gayathry (2002) investigated the impact of the SRI management practices of younger seedings, soi-aerating weeding with a mechanica weeder, water management to avoid continuous soi saturation, and green manures to enhance soi organic matter. These practices, in combination, had positive effects on soi biota (Tabe 10.3). Gayathry found that the numbers of a aerobic bacteria in the SRI rhizosphere were increased by more than 50% before and during panice initiation, compared to those in the rhizosphere of conventionay grown rice of same variety. The popuations of Azospirium aso increased simiary, whie Azotobacter, another diazotroph (N-fixing bacterium) and phosphate-soubiizing bacteria increased by even more, by about 75%. During panice initiation, the numbers of diazotrophs were more than twice as high under SRI management as with conventiona practice. Throughout the crop cyce, not ony were more bacteria found in SRI rhizospheres overa, but there were even more of those species that enhance nutrient avaiabiity for pants. The eves of enzymes that refect the processes of N and P mobiization and uptake in the soi were aso measured. This showed enzyme eves significanty greater at amost a phases of crop growth when SRI practice atered the management of pants, soi, water and nutrients (Tabe 10.4). Tabe 10.3 Microbia popuation in the rhizosphere soi in rice crop under two different crop management conditions, Coimbatore, wet season, Crop growth stage Parameter Treatment Active tiering Panice initiation Fowering Maturity Tota bacteria Azospirium Azotobacter Tota diazotrophs Phosphobacteria Conventiona SRI Conventiona SRI Conventiona SRI Conventiona SRI Conventiona SRI Transforming Rice Production with SRI

132 Tabe 10.4 Microbia activities in the rhizosphere soi in rice crop under two different crop management conditions, Coimbatore, dry season, Crop growth stage Parameter Treatment Active tiering Panice initiation Fowering Grain fiing Maturity Dehydrogenase activity Conventiona (μg TPF g soi 24 hr ) SRI Urease activity Conventiona (μg NH4-N g soi 24 hr ) SRI Acid phosphate activity Conventiona (μg p-nitropheno g soi hr ) SRI Akaine phosphate activity Conventiona (μg p-nitropheno g soi hr ) SRI Nitrogenase activity Conventiona (nano moes C2H 4 g soi 24 hr ) SRI (square root transformed vaues of popuation per gram of dry soi) Conventiona: 24-day-od seedings; irrigating to 5 cm depth one day after disappearance of ponded water; hand weeding twice; recommended fertiizers SRI: 14-day-od seeding; 2 cm irrigation (after hairine crack up to panice initiation and after that one day after disappearance of ponded water); rotary weeding 4 times at 10 day interva; recommended fertiizer pus green eaf manure Studies conducted at the Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, showed that dehydrogenase activity in the soi increased by 23% in the rhizospheric and buk soi during vegetative stage in SRI pants as compared to those transpanted conventionay (Mahender Kumar et a. 2009). Lin et a. (2011) observed that more input of organic materia and aerobic irrigation (AI), both, respectivey, and together, increased the numbers of actinomycetes significanty. When organic fertiization was increased from 25 to 100% with AI, the increase in actinomycete numbers was 292%,whie with inundated (anaerobic) soi, the increase was ony78%. When organic fertiization was 25%, shifting from continuous fooding (CF) to AI increased actinomycete number by 26.7%, whie with organic fertiization of 50 and 100%, the respective increases were 41.8 and 178.2%. 130 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

133 10.3 Expoiting More Fuy the Genetic Potentia of Rice Pants The dramatic changes in observabe phenotypes that SRI practices underscore the importance of ooking beyond genetic traits and of deaing with GxE (genetic-environmenta) interactions (Uphoff, unpubished) Fied experiments and on-farm observations have shown that rice pants grown under SRI management behave differenty from what is usuay observed in conventiona and standard non- SRI practices. These changes are manifested in terms of root growth and function, profuse tiering, non-odging, proonged eaf greenness, higher number of panices and number of grains per panice, and ower spikeet steriity which are easiy observabe. Changes measurabe in the aboratory and using instruments incude physioogica and phytochemica parameters Root Function Thesis research by Nisha (2002) confirmed that pants grown with SRI methods had greater root ength and root voume, as we as about 40% higher root cation exchange capacity (CEC) and about 27% more ATPase activity and cytokinin content of roots (Tabe 10.5). CEC refects the capacity of roots to absorb cations and thus vita nutrients. ATPase is a key enzyme required for the absorption of nutrients, and cytokinin is a growth hormone Tabe 10.5 Root characteristics and activity in the crop under different crop management conditions, Coimbatore, India, wet season, Parameter Treatment Transp anting Crop growth stages Active tiering Panice initiation Fowering Tota root ength (m) Conventiona SRI Root voume (cc hi ) Conventiona SRI ATPase activity of Conventiona NA fresh root (µg of inorganic P g hr ) SRI NA CEC of dried and Conventiona NA mied roots (me 100 g of dry root) SRI NA Cytokinin content of Conventiona NA roots (pmo g ) SRI NA Conventiona practice: 24-day-od seedings; irrigating to 5 cm depth one day after disappearance of ponded water; hand weeding twice; recommended fertiizers; SRI practice: 14-day-od seedings; 2 cm irrigation, after hairine cracks in the soi surface appeared, up to panice initiation; after PI, irrigate one day after disappearance of ponded water; inter-cutivation with rotary weeder 4 times at 10-day intervas; recommended fertiizer pus green eaf manure. Source: Nisha (2002). 131 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

134 invoved in cytogenesis, being synthesized in the root tips and transocated to other parts of the pant. SRI root systems were thus not ony arger, but can function more effectivey in support of rice pants' growth and grain production. These data were consistent with the reports that SRI methods affect the size and performance of roots, which woud reciprocay have positive effects on the soi biota through root exudation (Anas et a. 2011). Higher root oxidizing activity at the ater growth stage of the SRI crop, aong with better root distribution in the soi, might be reated to the deayed senescence and proonged photosynthetic activity of the ower eaves and consequenty to higher yieds that is observed in SRI-grown pants (Mishra and Saokhe, 2011) Phenotypica Changes Thakur et a. (2009) showed that aterations in management practices can induce mutipe, significant, and positive changes in phenotype from a given rice genotype. The increase in yied with SRI when compared with those used with recommended management practices reached 42%, and it was associated with various phenotypica aterations such as onger panices, more grains panice 1, higher percent of grain-fiing, more open pant architecture with more erect and arger eaves, more ight interception, higher eaf chorophy content at ripening stage, deayed senescence and greater fuorescence efficiency, higher photosynthesis rate, and ower transpiration. Profuse tiering, eaves' remaining green even after physioogica maturity, and resistance to odging are observed in the fied (Photos 10.7 to 10.12). Photo 10.7 Enhanced tiering in normay shy-tiering variety ASD16 Photo 10.8 Profuse tiering Photo 10.9 SRI eaves remaining green at harvest stage Photo Non-odging of SRI crop seen in the background, with normay-grown crop in the foreground Photo More than 100 panices from a singe seeding Photo More than 350 grains in one SRI panice 132 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

135 SRI and Rice Genotypes On-farm evauations and farmers' experiences have showed that practicay a genotypes, i.e, and races, high-yieding varieties, hybrids and scented varieties, have responded to SRI management positivey. A highyieding variety ASD16, considered as a shy-tiering variety by breeders in Tami Nadu, has showed profuse tiering with SRI methods (Photo 10.11). Many of the varieties grown under SRI in farmers' fieds have exceeded the expected yied decared by breeders. Observations in Tripura showed that the grain yieds of a genotypes incuding and races were increased under SRI (Tabe 10.6). In Timbuktu region of Mai, evauation by farmers showed that a five varieties raised with SRI methods yieded more than pants of same variety using standard methods as a contro. The yied increase under SRI ranged from 44 to 99% (Styger et a. 2011).Simiar positive response of a five varieties studied in Afghanistan has been reported by Thomas and Ramzi (2011). Mutiocation trias conducted by DRR have showed significant differences between the varieties under SRI management. In genera, it was observed that, compared with standard transpanting, hybrids performed better (with a 4-42% yied advantage) than did other improved varieties (with a 2-7% increase). The hybrids KRH2, HRI 126 and PHB-71 and DRRH2 performed better as compared to the varieties (Mahender Kumar et a. 2009). The very ow seed requirement for growing rice with SRI methods is beneficia in conserving and mutipying traditiona varieties with specia quaities. It aso makes the adoption of hybrids more feasibe for sma and poor farmers who otherwise find the cost of purchasing hybrid seed prohibitive. Tabe 10.6 Grain yied of varieties, hybrids and and races in Tripura (t ha ) Conventiona Minimum Maximum Minimum SRI Maximum High yieding varieties Hybrids Land races Scented and races Average Grain Quaity The effects of SRI on the quaity of grains have aso been reported. The quaity of the seed produced in SRI is far superior to the seed produced conventionay (Subba Rao et a. 2007). The quaity traits of basmati rice was aso found to be enhanced in SRI (Tewari and Barai, 2007; TidaRiceands Pvt. Ltd., 2008). A higher miing percentage has aso been reported. 133 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

136 10.4 Synergistic Effects One of the significant knowedge advances generated from fied experiments is appreciation for the synergistic effects of SRI practices. Such an outcome has not been reported in any other existing package of practices. These appear to resut from the way that beneficia bioogica processes are promoted through simpe but unconventiona management practices which require ony abour and ski. This strategy of agricutura advancement is different from one that reies on genetic modifications and on inputs of fertiizers and other chemicas (Uphoff, 2008). Factoria trias combining various SRI practices have demonstrated a synergy among these practices that heps to expain the positivesum increases (Rajaonarison 2000; Andriankaja 2001). Ony four factors, i.e., seeding age, number of seedings per hi, compost appication, and water management were considered in an ambitious pair of factoria trias under contrasting agroecoogica conditions. Intercutivation was not incuded, and the spacings of trias (25 vs. 30 cm) were within the recommended distance range for SRI, so the fu set of SRI practices was not evauated in these trias. To do so woud have required four times more trias, and N's of 288 and 240 were aready very demanding of the researchers. From Figures 10.6 to 10.9, one can see how the addition of SRI practices raises yied steadiy from conventiona practice. This invoved fooded (saturated) soi, oder seedings (20 days is actuay quite younger than the norm for farmer practice, which is 30 to 50 days), three pants per hi, and appication of NPK fertiizer (the recommended dose of mixture), athough not a practices made equa contributions. On better (cay) soi, the SRI practices evauated (not testing wider spacing and not incuding soi-aerating weeding) raised yied by more than three times, whie on poorer (oam) soi, they effected a triping of yied. It is evident that among the practices evauated within this set of trias, the age of seeding had the most powerfu effect, with water management (aerobic soi conditions) as the next most infuentia factor. The fertiization effect might have been more powerfu for NPK if an improved variety had been used in the trias, instead of a oca variety, which responded we to compost (Uphoff, 2008) A conventiona A SRI 8 7 Cay Soi Grin yied (t/ha) Grain yied (t/ha) Loam Soi 0 Cay Soi Loam Soi 0 Compost Singe seeding Young seeding Aerobic soi Figure 10.6 Grain yied under conventiona and SRI practices (Source: Andriankaja, 2001) Figure 10.7 Grain yied with one SRI practice incuded (and the other three practices being conventiona) (Source: Andriankaja, 2001) 134 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

137 9 8 7 Cay Soi Loam Soi Grain yied (t/ha) Singe seeding + compost Young seeding + compost Aerobic soi + singe seeding Aerobic soi + compost Young seeding + singe seeding Aerobic soi + young seeding Figure 10.8 Grain yied with two SRI practices incuded (the other two practices being conventiona) (Source: Andriankaja, 2001) Grain yied (t/ha) Cay Soi Loam Soi Young seeding + singe seeding + compost Aerobic soi + singe seeding + compost Aerobic soi + young seeding + compost aerobic soi + young seeding + singe seeding Figure 10.9 Grain yied with three SRI practices incuded ( the remaining practice being conventiona) (Source: Andriankaja, 2001) Rajendran et a. (2005) studied the respective contributions of the practices, when a other SRI practices were kept equa and the non-adoption of respective individua SRI principes was studied. The increase in yied due to a SRI practices over conventiona practice in these trias was 48.8%. In comparison with fu use of SRI practices, the greatest yied reduction occurred when intercutivation was not done (19.0%) (Tabe 10.7). Simiary when compared to conventiona practice resuts, missing intercutivation brought about the argest (20.1%) decrease in yied. These resuts showed intercutivation as more important than the other principes (younger seedings, singe seeding per hi, and intermittent irrigation) under the tria conditions. 135 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

138 Tabe 10.7 Respective contributions of individua SRI practices on grain yied Seeding age (days) No. of seedings per hi Weeding practice Irrigation practice (kg ha ) Grain yied Increase over conventiona (%) Increase over fu SRI use (%) 15 1 Intercutivation Intermittent 7,061 (+) Intercutivation Intermittent 5,864 ( (-) Intercutivation Intermittent 6,138 (+) 29.4 (-) Hand weeding Intermittent 5,698 (+) 20.1 (-) Intercutivation Fooding 6,425 (+) 35.4 (-) Hand weeding Fooding 4,745 - (-) 34.2 Source :Rajendran et a Summary The agronomic practices foowed in SRI has been found to create a different environment for the rice pants resuting in more favourabe growth and better physioogica functioning eading to higher yieds. The infuence of SRI practices on the soi bioogica and nutrient dynamics appears to enhance the response of SRI pants. However, more research is required to fuy understand soi-pant-waternutrient-biotic interactions within the SRI system. Because SRI resuts depend more on the interaction among a number of factors, some of them being bioogica and inherenty quite variabe, such resuts commony range fairy widey, more than if just a singe externa input is being put into this compex soi-pant-waternutrient-biotic environment. The principes of SRI, if understood propery and if appied through appropriate practices, have significant effects on the pants and soi. These have been experienced by now severa miion SRI farmers around the word and in numerous experimenta evauations. But a ot more is sti to be understood. It has to be remembered that amost a of the previous scientific knowedge generated about rice pants' performance and response has been derived from pants grown with non-sri agronomic practices oder seedings, crowding and fooding in both nurseries and main fieds, roottraumatizing transpanting, anaerobic soi condition, and inorganic nutrient appications, with itte enhancement of soi organic matter and no active soi aeration. Comparisons with information and knowedge generated under such conditions are not necessariy appicabe to SRI crops because they represent phenotypes that are different in structure and functioning from rice pants grown under conventiona management. 136 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

139 11 BENEFITS OF SRI The benefits of adopting SRI in rice production are mutifod. The overa benefits accruing to the individua farmer are increased production and net income, and for some farmers it enhances their househod food security. The water-saving part of the benefit has huge impications for the society and country as a whoe in addressing the hydroogica poverty and heavy energy utiization for pumping irrigation water. There are various benefits experienced by farmers in terms of enhanced efficiency of their inputs for rice production (seeds, water, abour, nutrients) and aso some socia benefits GRAIN The yied increase by adopting SRI has been observed in onstation experiments, on-farm evauations, and by farmers themseves. Because the yied gains are driven by bioogica processes rather than mechanistic response to externa inputs, the gains are quite variabe and range widey, 25%, 50%, 100%. But the resuts are aso occasionay negative, and sometimes (when the soi bioogica dynamics are most favourabe) they can be quite spectacuar. Some persons regard this variabiity as invaidating a SRI reports, expecting that there shoud be just one SRI resut that is correct. But in fact there continues to be a wide range of resuts that are a correct, for their respective combinations of conditions. Grain yied in rice is determined by the number of panices per unit area, the number of grains per panice, and grain weight. The higher yied in SRI is associated with higher number of panices and number of grains per panice. Thakur et a. (2011) reported 23.7% more panices per sq.m, 40.5% more grains per panice, and 2.9% higher grain weight in the SRI crop compared to the crop of same variety grown with best recommended practices from the Centra Rice Research Institute of India. Variations in the effect of SRI practices on yied attributes are aso reported. Zhao et a. (2011) reported that whie the number of panices per unit area and the grain weight were more in SRI, the number of grains per panice was ower than in the conventiona food-irrigated crop. Most studies, on the other hand, report higher number of grains per panice. How different varieties respond to SRI practices varies, as do the responses of rice crops to SRI methods under different soi, cimatic and other conditions. Yied information from different countries has shown considerabe country-to-country and intracountry variations, for both SRI and conventiona management. Overa, the average yied advantage with SRI practices appears to be over 60 % (Kassam et a. 2011). Another assessment averaging resuts from 11 studies across 8 countries reported a 47% average increase in yied (Africare/Oxfam America/WWF- ICRISAT Project, 2010) Experimenta Evidence Avaiabe data from SRI experiments across India show an increase in grain yied up to 68%. A few experimenta resuts obtained across the country are summarised in Tabe Transforming Rice Production with SRI

140 Tabe 11.1 Grain yieds in SRI recorded in experiments across India Grain yied ( t ha ) S.No Location % increase Source Conventiona SRI / decrease 1 Tami Nadu Rice Research Institute, TNAU, Aduthurai Rajendran et a Research stations, ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh 3 Indira Gandhi Agricutura 5.90 (2006) University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 4.30 (2007) 4 Agricutura Research Institute, Patna, Bihar 5 Pandit Jawahara Nehru Coege of Agricuture and Research Institute, Karaika, Puduchery 6 ICAR Research Compex, Umiam, Meghaaya 7 Centra Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha Maikarjuna Reddy et a Chitae et a Ajaykumar et a Sridevi and Cheamuthu, (2005) 4.70 (2006) 4.90 (2005) 5.60 (2006) Munda et a Rao et a Regiona Agricutura Research Station, Shiongani, Assam 9 Agricutura Research Station, UAS, Kathaagere, Karnataka Bora and Dutta, (2005) 9.10 (2006) Jayadeva et a Main Rice Research Station, AAU, Nawagam, Gujarat 4.00 (2006) 4.70 (2007) Chauhan et a Birsa Agricutura University, Ranchi, Jharkhand Singh et a Deras Farm, Mendhasa, Thakur et a. Khurda District, Odisha DRR/ICRISAT Farm, Hyderabad Gujja and Thiyagarajan, Transforming Rice Production with SRI

141 Though evidences of increased yieds due to SRI are more, there is a case of no such increase reported by Anita and Cheappan (2011) under humid tropica conditions of Keraa. At the Indian Agricutura Research Institute (IARI), SRI was first evauated in 2002 and compared with transpanted pudded rice (TPR); wet seeded pudded rice (WSR); SRI; dry seeded rice (DSR); dry seeded rice on fat beds (FB); and dry seeded on raised beds (RB). The grain yied was highest in SRI (5,452 kg ha ), but statisticay simiar to TPR (5,440 kg ha ). However, water productivity was significanty higher (Choudhury et a. 2005) On-Farm Trias Resuts of evauations in farmers' fieds showed yied advantages of 1.5 t ha in Tami Nadu, and 1.67 t ha in Andhra Pradesh. On-farm evauations in Tripura with different and races, high-yieding varieties and hybrids showed that irrespective of the varieties, yied increases under SRI were up to 100%. The evauations carried out by PSI (Peopes' Science Institute, Dehradun) in Himacha Pradesh and Uttarakhand (2007) showed an average increase in yied of 89% over conventiona cutivation. SRI resuts have often showed greater yieds on farmers' fieds than on experiment stations, for reasons not yet researchers or carified. This is the reverse of usua situation where farmers have a hard time repicating researchers' resuts. With SRI it is often vice versa. Grain yieds obtained by farmers of different states in SRI and non- SRI cutivation are presented in Tabe The yied increase is seen to have varied from 23.0 to 96.4%, with a simpe average of 45%. The data from Andhra Pradesh show fuctuations in yied advantage. Tabe 11.2 Average grain yieds in SRI and conventiona cutivation observed in farmers' fieds in severa states. S.No State Year Season Grain yied (t ha ) Conventiona SRI Increase Percent increase 1 Tami Nadu Rabi Rabi Andhra Pradesh 2003 Kharif Rabi Kharif Rabi Tripura 2006 Kharif Himacha Pradesh 2007 Kharif Uttarakhand 2007 Kharif Bihar Kharif Keraa Late second season Gujarat 2007 Kharif Punjab 2007 Kharif Source: Presentations in Nationa Seminar on SRI, 2007 and Transforming Rice Production with SRI

142 Photo 11.1 Happy SRI farmer with a 10 t/ha yied crop Photo 11.2 A proud SRI farmer showing SRI panices from her fied There are arge inter-country variations in SRI resuts (Tabe 11.3), refecting differences in soi, cimatic, and other conditions (Kassam et a. 2011). These data show a range of 11 to 204%, with an average of 69%; excuding the two extreme vaues, the average is 58%. Tabe Grain yieds recorded in on-station and on-farm trias in other countries S.No Country Year Conventiona Grain yied (t ha ) SRI Increase On-station trias 1 Hangzhou, China Eastern region, Gambia Southern region, Iraq Eastern region, Madagascar On-farm trias 5 Baghan Province, Afghanistan Eastern Province, Indonesia Centra and northern regions, Madagascar Timbuktu, Mai Centra Provinces, Panama Source: Kassam et a. (2011) 140 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

143 Farmer Experiences The grain yieds obtained by farmers in arger areas, unike demonstrations, refect the response in farm fieds. The variations in these yieds may aso refect the extent of adopting the SRI principes. A ot of information is avaiabe on the experience of the farmers who have been associated with some civi society organizations. A few exampes are given here. PRADAN started promoting SRI in 2003 with 4 famiies, which grew up to 6,200 famiies in In 2008, 43.7% of the cooperating farmers in Puruia district, West Benga, harvested 6-8 t ha yied, and 24% harvested yieds of 80 t ha. In rainfed areas of Puruia district, the average productivity with SRI was 7.7 t ha, in spite of high incidence of disease and pest attacks couped with dry spes immediatey after transpanting and during grain-fiing stage of the crop. 90% of the farmers had yieds above 5 t ha, which is around 2.5 times the district average ( ries/india/inpradan406.pdf). Evauations carried out by PSI (Peopes' Science Institute, Dehradun) in Himacha Pradesh and Uttarakhand in 2006 showed that in HP, the average productivity of paddy went up from 3. 2 t ha to 5.0 t ha (about 56%), and in UKD, the average yied jumped about 77% from 3.1 t ha to 5.5 t ha. The resuts from 2007 showed that the non-sri yieds stood cose to 2.8 t ha, and the SRI yieds were around 5.4 t ha, giving an average increase of 89%. The average grain yieds obtained by farmers in conventiona and SRI cutivation in various river basins assisted by the Word Bank-IAMWARM Project in Tami Nadu are presented in Tabe Average yied with conventiona methods ranged from 3.5 t ha to 5.3 t ha, whie the SRI yieds ranged from 4.5 t ha to 10.0 t ha. The increases in yied ranged from 16.2 to 46.5%, with an average of 28.3% (Thiyagarajan et a. 2009). Fied reviews have concuded that not a of the recommended SRI practices have been used by farmers, or used as recommended, so these resuts are from what shoud be considered as 'partia SRI.' This probem of assessing what represents fu or correct SRI is a widespread one for this innovation, since SRI use, with its set of haf a dozen practices, is a matter of degree more than of kind. Tabe 11.4 Yieds obtained by farmers in different river sub-basins under Word Bank-IAMWARM Project, Tami Nadu, River sub-basin Source: Thiyagarajan et a Grain yied (kg ha ) Range of grain yieds with SRI Increase in SRI over conventiona Conventiona SRI Minimum Maximum (%) Aiyar 3,484 4,488 2,958 6, Arjunanadhi 5,488 6,375 4,000 7, Kottakaraiyar 4,044 5,023 2,625 7, Manimuthar 4,185 5,596 4,000 7, Pambar 4,050 4,924 3,040 6, South Vear 4,100 6,005 3,040 7, Upper Vear 5,250 7,140 4,313 9, A paddy yied of 22.4 tons/hectare reported from the SRI pot of a farmer in Darveshpura viage (Naanda district, Bihar state), Shri Sumant Kumar, has attracted considerabe attention as it surpasses the previousy accepted word record yied of 19 tons/ha reported from China(The Pioneer, Nov. 27, 2011: htm). Since four other farmers in the viage, aso first-time SRI practitioners, achieved paddy yied eves of 18 or 19 tons/ha, Sumant Kumar's achievement was not an isoated occurrence. 141 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

144 11.2 Househod Food Security The increased productivity by adopting SRI has been a boon to famiies which grow rice for their own consumption, especiay in rainfed areas. The annua per capita rice consumption in eastern India is higher than rest of the country: 133 kg versus 37 kg in the western region, 39 kg in the northern region, and 113 kg in the southern region (Singh and Singh 2000). A study report on the enhanced househod food security in Jharkhand (NABARD 2011) demonstrates the potentia of SRI in this regard (Tabe 11.5) Tabe 11.5 Househod food security and SRI Landhoding (acres) With traditiona methods No. of days of food security With SRI methods Additiona days of food security (41.8 %) (55.2 %) > (126.4 %) Source: NABARD (2011) 11.3 Straw Yied Information on straw yied is not reported much, and the numbers have not aways been consistent with respect to the effects of SRI. A number of SRI farmers have reported increased straw yied aong with increased grain yied. On-farm evauation in Tirunevei District, Tami Nadu, showed a 29% increase in straw yied aong with a 27.7% increase in grain yied (Thiyagarajan et a. 2005). The straw voume with the SRI method is usuay much higher, providing more fodder to the catte of the mountainous rice areas of Himacha Pradesh and Uttarakhand, for exampe, which wi in turn hep to increase the farm yard manure (Sen et a. 2007). A fied experiment conducted in Hyderabad in showed that the straw yied with SRI was 8.17 t ha whie in contro pots (farmer's practice) it was 6.27 t ha, an increase of 33.5%. The experiment aso showed that under organic SRI (SRI-ORG), the straw yied was 1.7 t more than conventiona SRI (Figure 11.1) even though there was not much difference between the two sets of practices in grain yied. A contradictory resut was reported by Thakur et a. (2011), wherein there was a 20.6% reduction in straw yied of SRI when compared with standard management practice, athough the SRI grain yied was 47.7% higher, showing consideraby higher harvest index. Ravindra and Bhagya Laxmi (2011) aso reported a 19% reduction in straw yied of the SRI crop from a survey with SRI farmers in Andhra Pradesh. Straw Yied (t/ha) SRI-ORG SRI Contro Figure Straw yied in SRI, organic SRI and contro, Hyderabad, Transforming Rice Production with SRI

145 11.4 Land Saving Photo 11.3 Inter-space in banana fied was utiized for SRI nursery Since grain productivity is higher under SRI, farmers cutivating rice for home consumption ony can reduce their area under rice and can diversify their farming system with other remunerative crops. Further, the and area required for an SRI nursery is just one-tenth of the area required for conventiona cutivation, so managing a separate fied for the nursery, as is generay practiced, is not necessary. In fact, some farmers have raised their SRI nursery in their home backyards or on house terraces or even on roofs. One farmer in Tami Nadu raised his nursery in a banana fied (Photo 11.3). A farmer who raised a conventiona nursery but then panted with SRI methods coud reaize the savings in SRI nursery (Photo 11.4) Photo 11.4 Unused conventiona nursery (in background) of a farmer who raised it for conventiona panting but then did SRI panting 11.5 Seed Saving The nursery required for one ha under SRI management coud be raised using just kg seed as against kg ha under conventiona method. For conventiona panting, farmers generay use high seed rates, up to 75 kg ha. In the case of hybrids, 66% of seed cost coud be saved by adopting SRI method. The significant seed saving wi promote higher seed mutipication rate, greater purity of seed (singe seeding panting), and faster avaiabiity/spread of reeased varieties (Mahender Kumar et a. 2010). Styger et a. (2011) reported 80-90% saving of seeds in Timbuktu, Mai. The seed-saving part of SRI is very much appreciated by practicing farmers, especiay the poor, as their seed cost wi not be prohibitive to commence rice cutivation. In fact, SRI farmers are advised to coect good panices from their standing crop before harvest (as ony kg is required for 1 ha) and store the seeds for next season (good quaity seeds can be recyced for three seasons). The seed saving of kg ha wi improve househod food security of resource-poor farmers. With the introduction of SRI in Tripura, the tota seed requirement has decreased as can be seen in Tabe On a regiona and country scae, the quantity of seed that can be saved by SRI adoption wi have added advantages in reduced storage faciities and transport of seeds. Another benefit of the very ow seed rate with SRI is the easiness and cost reduction in seed treatment. 143 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

146 Tabe 11.6 Year-wise savings of seeds in Tripura Year Area under SRI(ha) Requirement of seeds under recommended practice kg ha Requirement of seeds under SRI 5 kg ha Net savings (tonnes) , ,497 1, ,462.3 Source : SRI Fact Sheet Tripura. WWF-ICRISAT Project, Water Saving Not much systematic research has yet been done on water management options and optimization within the framework of SRI management (Kassam et a. 2011). However some standard experiments have shown significant water saving in SRI cutivation, averaging 33.5% (Tabe 11.7). Tabe 11.7 Water use in conventiona and SRI cutivation and water saving in SRI S.No. Conventiona Water used SRI Water saved (%) Reference 1 16,634 (m3 ha ) 8,419 (m3 ha ) 49.4 Thiyagarajan et a. (2005) 2 13,055 (m3 ha ) 8,906 (m3 ha ) 32.0 Mahenderkumar et a. (2010) 3 1,223 x 104 (/ha) 952 x 104 (/ha) 22.2 Thakur et a. (2011) 4 1,774 mm 1,298 mm 26.8 Zhao et a. (2011) 5 34,500 (m3 ha ) 21,600 (m3 ha ) 37.4 Hameed et a. (2011) 11.7 Labour Saving One of the criticisms on SRI was that it is 'abour-intensive'. The extra time needed to master the new techniques, and to negotiate new divisions of rice-production abour, are essentiay transitory adjustments (Ravindra and Bhagya Laxmi 2011). Experiments conducted in Coimbatore showed a 41% increase in abour productivity in the wet season of and a 13% increase in the dry season of 2002 (Thiyagarajan et a. 2002). Experiments conducted in Keraa have shown that cono-weeding reduced the abour required for weeding by 35 man-days ha and abour cost by Rs 3,125 ha (Anita and Cheappan 2011). Severa observations with farmers have shown that SRI requires ess abour than conventiona cutivation. The onfarm trias in Tamiraparani river basin showed an overa reduction of 8% in abour inputs, with a significant shift of abour inputs for weeding from women to men (Thiyagarajan et a. 2005). Women's inputs overa decined by 25%, argey due to a shift in the gendered division of abour. Men's inputs increased by 60% when they took over mechanica weeding as this was considered more appropriate for maes. This transfer of responsibiity was made more acceptabe within househods by a more than 144 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

147 doubed net income per hectare. Labour requirement was mainy reduced by ess time for seeding puing and transpanting. Many SRI farmers report amost negigibe expenditure on seeding puing as one or two abourers ony are required, compared to 60 abourers for conventiona seeding puing and transport. Labour saving in weeding is aso reaized by many farmers because the mechanica weeder reduces the time needed for this operation. It has been observed that farmers having ony about 1 acre of and do not need to depend upon externa abour for any of their fied operations and can manage with their own famiy abour, empoying a machine for harvesting Cost Saving On-farm trias in the Tamiraparani river basin in 2003 showed that there was a 11% reduction in overa costs of cutivation (Thiyagarajan, 2005). Based on 12,133 on-farm comparison trias that covered a tota area of 9,429 ha in Eastern Indonesia, Sato et a. (2011) reported that an average yied increase under SRI management of 3.3 t ha was achieved with about 40% reduction in water use, 50% reduction in chemica fertiizers, and 20% ower costs of production. A survey in Mahabubnagar District of Andhra Pradesh with 55 SRI and 55 non-sri farmers (Ravindra and Bhagya Laxmi 2011) showed a yied advantage of 18% achieved by SRI methods with a decrease in tota expenditure of Rs.9187 ha. This represented a 50% reduction in input costs, with 43% ower abour costs Net Income There are severa exampes showing significanty increased net income by adopting SRI which have been documented in the Proceedings of Nationa Seminar on SRI, conducted during 2007 at Tripura and in 2008 at Coimbatore. Pubications of the WWF-ICRISAT project on farmer experiences on SRI aso have many such cases reported. Studies in Gambia showed that the net returns with current production techniques was $37.30 ha whie with SRI methods, the net returns were $ ha (Ceesay, 2011). A few exampes from different parts of India are given in Tabe Tabe Net income obtained in conventiona and SRI cutivation Location Net returns (Rupees ha ) Increase in net income (%) Reference Tirunevei District, Tami Nadu 11,149 23, Thiyagarajan et a Madanapai, Andhra Pradesh 11,830 31, Radha et a Tripura 15,007 39, SRI Fact Sheet, Tripura, WWF-ICRISAT Project, 2008 Mahbubnagar, Andhra Pradesh 22,257 41, Ravindra and Bhagya Laxmi, Transforming Rice Production with SRI

148 11.10 Nutrient use Efficiency Experimenta evidence has showed higher nutrient efficiency in SRI crops compared to conventiona crops. Jothimani (2004) studied the effect of controed-reease nitrogen fertiizer on an SRI crop, and found that partia factor productivity (kg grain produced per kg N appied), agronomic efficiency (kg grain increase per kg N appied), physioogica efficiency (kg grain produced by kg N taken up by crop), and recovery of appied N were a higher for the SRI crop than for the conventionay-panted crop (Figure 11.2). Nutrient use efficiency was marginay higher in SRI (by 8, 8 and 12% for N, P and K, respectivey, during kharif and 5% for N during rabi) compared to standard transpanting (Mahender Kumar et a. 2010). Higher N use efficiency for SRI practices, as we as higher water use efficiency, was reported by Zhao et a. (2009). Barison and Uphoff (2011) found that concentrations of N and K in the grain were higher in SRI pants than conventiona rice, whie concentration of P was ower. In the rice straw, concentration of a the nutrients was ower in SRI pants. As SRI yieds were higher than for conventiona crop, the tota uptake of the nutrients was thus higher in SRI pants. P was more efficienty used in grain production than N and K in SRI cutivation (Tabe 11.9). Nutrient concentrations in sink storage were not very different between conventiona and SRI methods, but grain yieds were significanty higher. This coud be attributed to conventionaycutivated pants having ower root capacity to take up nutrients in the ater stages of pant growth and/or to ower remobiization of previousy stored shoot nutrients Conventiona SRI Kg(Kg II) /% Partia factor productivity Agronomic efficiency N use efficiency Physioogica efficiency Recovery efficiency Figure 11.2 Nitrogen use efficiency of cutivar ADT43 with conventiona and SRI cutivation (Source: Jothimani, 2004) 146 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

149 Tabe 11.9 Nutrient concentration, nutrient uptake and interna use efficiency of nutrients in conventiona and SRI pants. Parameter Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Conv. SRI Conv. SRI Conv. SRI Concentration in the grain (g kg) Concentration in the straw (g kg) Tota uptake (g kg) Interna efficiency (kg grain kg nutrient) Source: Barison and Uphoff (2011) Cimate Change Adaptation The benefits of SRI are manifod, and various observations of crop performances have shown the potentia of SRI in addressing the chaenges of cimate change aso. Experiences of escaping drought by SRI crops have been observed in both irrigated and rainfed areas ( _For_The_Panet.pdf ; Patwardan and Pate 2007). During 2009 kharif, out of 526 meteoroogica districts in India for which data are avaiabe, 215 districts (41%) received excess/norma rainfa and the remaining 311 districts (59%) received deficient/scanty rainfa. The agricutura operation of paddy was severey affected due to scanty rainfa in the eary part of the monsoon. Paddy cutivation area thus came down to akh hectares, compared to a norma area of akh hectares. A survey on droughtcoping abiity of SRI vs. CMP (common management practices) rice cutivation was carried out in Jharkhand, Maharashtra, West Benga, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Manipur and Uttarakhand by contacting 241 farmers who were using both methods. The resuts showed that the average grain yied under SRI was 54% higher than CMP, showing the abiity of SRI crops to cope up with drought ( The smaer nursery required and the shorter nursery period for SRI faciitates the raising of staggered nurseries to adjust to deayed onset of the monsoon in rainfed areas. An emphasis on providing surface drainage in SRI wi hep to drain excess rainfa. Contributions of SRI to cimate change adaptabiity are summarised in Tabe Transforming Rice Production with SRI

150 Tabe SRI benefits supporting farm househod resiience and cimate change adaptabiity. Reported and Vaidated Benefits Higher yieds per unit of and, abor and capita invested Lightened workoad for women Reduced requirements for irrigation water Reduced seed rate Reduced reiance on chemica fertiizers, herbicides, and pesticides Resistance to odging and storm damage (possiby aso cod spes) Increased resistance to pest damage Increased drought toerance Shorter growing season Contribution to Resiience and Cimate Change Adaptabiity Grain yieds are increased on an average by 20-50%. This not ony generates more food, but reeases some and and abor for other productive activities, buffering househod resources. Higher productivity per unit of and reduces pressure to expand cutivated area at the expense of other ecosystems. Women farmers widey report that SRI methods save them time and reduce the drudgery of rice cutivation, due to ess time for nursery management and transpanting, ease of working with smaer seedings and ess time aboring in standing water. It frees their time for activities of their choice (such as vegetabe growing for profit or improved famiy diet) and enabing other famiy members to seek non-farm empoyment, thereby diversifying househod income. With SRI, irrigation water use is generay reduced by 25-50%, as water is managed to maintain mosty-aerobic soi conditions. Farmers can continue to cutivate rice where water is becoming scarcer or rains unpredictabe, and can mitigate osses from ate monsoons or ess rainfa. Less water used at the head of canas means more water is avaiabe for farmers at the end. Water can be freed up for other crops and peope, and for the maintenance of natura ecosystems. Since farmers need 80-90% fewer seeds for transpanting, they need much ess space to sow the seed nurseries. Fooded nurseries are panted with a seed rate of g/m2 whereas SRI nurseries are panted with a seed rate of ony 20 g/m2, eaving farmers more rice to use for food rather than panting. Smaer nurseries are easier to manage and require a ot ess and, freeing up and for other crops. The high and rising cost of fertiizer and other inputs is one of the main attractions for farmers to use SRI as it aows them reduce chemica appications without oss of yied. Fewer chemicas around farmsteads has heath benefits for peope and their ivestock. Reduced chemica oads, and higher soi and water quaity has beneficia effects throughout the environment. Cimate change is contributing to more frequent and more severe storms, which cause rice pants to fa over or odge. This can be devastating to farmers. A faen crop is vunerabe to rotting and aso more difficut to harvest. SRI practices produce stronger straw (tiers) and arger, deeper root systems that make rice pants ess susceptibe to being bown down or pushed over. Cimate change is expected to increase the prevaence and distribution of pest species as temperatures and rainfa patterns change. With SRI management, farmers observe ess oss to pests and diseases even though they use fewer agrochemicas. SRI rice pants exhibit stronger root systems that grow deeper into the soi profie. At greater depth they can access deeper reserves of soi moisture (and nutrients). This is a particuary important given the increasing risk of rainfa variation during the growing season. SRI crops can often be harvested 1-2 weeks, even sometimes 3 weeks earier than the same variety conventionay grown. This has economic and environmenta advantages. Farmers can use the same fied for a short-season crop ike a vegetabe, or can pant a foowing crop such as wheat sooner to get higher yied. A shorter growing period reduces water needs and the crop s exposure to pests and storms that arrive ate in the season. 148 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

151 Reported and Vaidated Benefits Reduced seed rates and panting times give more fexibiity Increased production and marketing potentia from traditiona varieties keeps them viabe Improved farmer knowedge, experimentation and innovation Diversified cropping systems Contribution to Resiience and Cimate Change Adaptabiity If a farmer s crop succumbs to adverse weather patterns, farmers can more easiy find the seeds and time to repant the nursery and repant since SRI requires ony one-tenth of the seeds and seedings can be panted within 85 days of sowing, rather than Peope reiant on traveing after panting to find paid work can get on the road much sooner and if they have to return to repant a faied crop they ony have to come home for a short time. With SRI methods, farmers are abe to achieve higher yieds from their traditiona varieties, most of which are better adapted geneticay to a range of cimate stresses. These oca varieties often command a better price in the market. Rice biodiversity has pummeted since the 1960s; however, studies show many traditiona varieties offer higher iron and protein content. Rehabiitation and conservation of andraces and oca cutivars can give more genetic diversity for deaing with adverse growing conditions. Good SRI extension promotes farmer initiative and evauation It encourages farmers to take more responsibiity for adaptation and innovation, contributing to human resource deveopment in rura areas and the prospect of farmers being abe to identify and expoit other innovations as they emerge. With higher yieds per unit of and, some farmers convert part of their and to growing more nutritiona and more profitabe crops, fruits, vegetabes, egumes and sma ivestock that diversify their diets and raise incomes. Reductions in chemica use makes farming systems more compatibe with fish, ducks and other non-crop components. More diversification of cropping systems heps to restore biodiversity and sequester carbon in the soi. Source : Summary SRI is more than an agronomic package of practices to boost the rice productivity. Rather, it is a set of ideas or principes for improving the growing environment of rice pants beow and above ground, to be adapted to oca conditions and constraints. The advantages accruing to SRI cutivation are manifod, benefiting not ony the rice farmers but aso with positive infuence on the iveihoods of farm famiies; agro-ecoogica sustainabiity; agro-industria deveopment and agri-business; and overa impacts on the state / nationa economy. Benefits Reaized by Farmers Nursery area (for panting 1 ha) can be reduced from 800 m2 to 100 m2. Seed requirement is reduced from kg ha to kg ha. Nursery maintenance is reduced from days to 104 days. Nursery costs are reduced by about 68%. Seeding puing costs are reduced from Rs.800 to Rs.150. Labour requirements for panting can be reduced from 60 to 35 days. Labour requirements for weeding are reduced by as much as50%. Savings can be made in water, eectricity for pumping, and abour for irrigation. Lodging of crops due to storms or wind is reduced due to stronger pant roots and tiers. Crops on baance have ess susceptibiity to damage from pests and diseases. Rat damage is amost ni in some cases. 149 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

152 Earier maturity (up to 10 days) is seen in many cases. Grain yied is increased on average by 1.5 t, athough with considerabe variation. Straw yied is increased on average by 2.6 t. Higher net income for farmers is achieved, up to 165%. Known shy-tiering varieties are found to produce a higher number of tiers. Good panices from the SRI crop can be handpicked for meeting seed requirements of the next crop with higherquaity stock. Higher miing outturn (by 10-20%), with more kg of poished rice per bushe or bag of paddy rice. This is attributabe to ess chaff (fewer unfied grains) and ess broken grains (ess shattering during miing). This is a 'bonus' on top of the higher production of paddy rice. Ecoogica And Agroecoogica Benefits No use of herbicides. Reduced or possiby no use of chemica fertiizers. Enhanced soi bioogica activity in the soi and greater soi heath. Adaptabiity to hazards of cimate change (more drought toerance, resistance to storms, reduced pest damage, toerance of coder temperatures once estabished). Benefits For Agroindustry Possiby some greenhouse gas mitigation as methane emissions from rice paddy fieds (no onger fooded and anaerobic) can be reduced without offsetting increases in N2O, according to severa studies in Indonesia, Nepa and India. Reduced carbon footprint from tota production process; possiby greater carbon sequestration in the soi due to a buid-up of soi organic carbon through organic fertiization, arger root systems with SRI pants, and increased root exudation. Conserving rice biodiversity (good response from indigenous varieties from SRI management) pus buffering of biodiversity in genera (ess requirements for irrigation water, reducing competition with natura ecosystems; more production from aready-cutivated area so there is ess pressure for expansion of agricuture into uncutivated areas). Opportunities for deveopment and suppy of toos and impements for SRI. Better quaity grain with higher miing out-turn. Benefits To States / Nation Substantia reduction in the need for storage and suppy of seeds. Increasing nationa and househod food security. More scope for reducing poverty because new methods with minima capita requirements are accessibe to the poor, without taking oans, suitabe for use on even sma parces of and, giving higher production from aready avaiabe resources through using them more productivey. Low-cost strategy to government for meeting food needs and reducing poverty. Reduced requirements for irrigation water for rice cutivation, and reduced need for power subsidies for pumping groundwater. Fied experiences have demonstrated the benefits of adopting SRI that wi address the concerns of rice farmers as we as poicy makers. Reaizing this and taking positive steps to promote SRI in a rice growing areas is the best agenda for nationa food security. 150 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

153 12 SRI EXTENSION, ADOPTION AND CONSTRAINTS The efforts taken to promote SRI in India are unique as they have been essentiay vountary and not promoted by any officia process. The roe of civi society organizations in this aspect has been an unprecedented one in agricutura extension. However, the extent of spread and adoption of SRI has aso been infuenced by certain imitations. In severa states, ike Bihar, Tami Nadu and Tripura, it has been see that spread can become rapid when there is active support from government agencies, especiay if acting in concert with farmeroriented NGOs Spread of SRI in the Country SRI was introduced into the country in 2000, and extension efforts commenced in 2003 in Tami Nadu, Tripura, and Andhra Pradesh. The spread of SRI in other states was rather sow, but picked up from 2006 on with the active invovement of a variety of interested stakehoders. A the agencies invoved in SRI extension started with demonstrations in farmers' fieds. Most governmentsupported programmes have had an eement of subsidy buit in, mainy providing SRI toos and in some cases other inputs. Most CSOs have concentrated on capacity-buiding with technica backstopping by engaging and training oca resource persons. The dissemination and adoption of SRI in India has been on different scaes in different parts of the country. In some paces, SRI has been embraced by organic farmers aso as a specia group. A nationa movement to promote SRI began from 2006 by organizing a series of nationa symposia, estabishing googe groups and websites, pubishing newsetters, and deveoping poicy frameworks by the initiative and support of severa agencies. Research in SRI to compement the extension effort was imited to TNAU and ANGRAU in the beginning, but sowy, ICAR institutes (DRR, CRRI, and regiona centres) and other state agricutura universities have started working on SRI. There is sti more to be done on research as many questions on the effects of SRI principes on soi and pant system remain unanswered. Aso there is no study on the ong-term effects on soi fertiity of practicing SRI. However, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyaay (BCKV) has started such research with active support from SDTT. Some ATMA programs and KVKs have taken initiative with SRI at oca eves, and the Directorate of Rice Deveopment in Patna became invoved with SRI evauation and spread earier than some other agencies. The Nationa Food Security Mission began supporting SRI extension in targeted food-insecure districts in SRI is a striking case of 'and to ab', reversing the usua 'ab to and' presupposition. New crop production techniques have usuay come from research estabishments after standard experimentation and evauation. SRI has not come through that channe, however, but is being foowed by increasing numbers of farmers: first dozens, then hundreds and thousands, and now hundreds of thousands. Sti, SRI requires research support not ony to expain how it makes the difference from conventiona and existing recommended practices, but aso to understand the effect of the modified agronomic practices on the soi-pant-water system. Athough considerabe research efforts are underway, there is no systematic and organized research to address the broader issues concerning SRI. More importanty, there are no nationa poicies and institutiona mechanisms for investment in SRI research. Efforts have aso been taken to deveop a nationa poicy on SRI adoption and scaing-upas part of achieving nationa food security whie reducing water constraints and conficts. An initiative has now been taken up to estabish a Nationa SRI Consortium to streamine and guide the promotion and scaing-up of SRI. A state-eve Consortium is aso active in Andhra Pradesh, and there are bodies, each different, operating now in states ike Bihar, Odisha, and Himacha Pradesh. 151 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

154 12.2 Institutiona Architecture In SRI Extension At present, SRI has been promoted through mutipe streams of funding as we as impementation agencies (Tabe 12.1 ). Tabe 12.1 Sources of funding and impementing agencies for SRI extension S. No. Source of funding Impementing agencies 1. Donors (e.g., SDTT, WWF, Deshpande Foundation) 2. Nationa Bank for Agricuture and Rura Deveopment (NABARD) 3. Autonomous societies (e.g., SERP, Bihar Rura Liveihood Promotion Society, etc.) 4. GOI Ministry of Agricuture, (under NFSM, RKVY, specia projects, etc.) 5. State Governments (using combination of NFSM, RKVY, MNREGA, and Word Bank resources) 6. State Agricutura Universities / ICAR / Externay-funded projects NGOs (paying roe as innovation incubators) NGOs (upscaing of innovations in contiguous areas) NGOs, CBOs (scaing at district eve) State Depts.of Agricuture, Project staff Own grass root Departmenta staff + NGOs Scientists and fied staff of SAUs / KVKs The NGOs / CSOs have adopted a unique mode of creating oca resource persons in the viages (either oca farmers or oca iterate persons) who give technica support and advice throughout the impementing period. These peope are trained by master trainers of the organizations. Some input incentives are aso often provided. Some NGOs have approached the task of training through Farmer Fied Schoos. The cose rapport between NGOs and farmers has been very hepfu in gaining acceptance of SRI. Government/externayfunded project support usuay incudes materia incentives for SRI toos (weeders and markers), and aso for inputs ike seeds and fertiizers are given. A of the impementing agencies arrange for trainings, demonstrations and exposure visits Patforms for Mainstreaming SRI It is unusua to create patforms to promote a singe method of cutivating a crop. This is another way in which SRI is unique. SRI extension is being promoted in manners unpracticed before. The SRI extension seen in India is itsef a revoution in agricutura extension, perhaps contributing to new and better modes of operation Seminars The prospects of SRI were first discussed in India during an 152 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

155 Internationa Symposium on 'Transitions in Agricuture for Enhancing Water Productivity' hed at the Agricutura Coege and Research Institute of TNAU, Kiikuam, Tami Nadu, in September Dr. Norman Uphoff (Corne University), Dr. Bas Bouman (IRRI), and Dr. Christopher Scott (IMWI) were among the participants. Reaizing the potentia of SRI for water saving and responding to the need for creating more awareness, a series of Nationa Seminars on SRI in India was organized by the WWF-ICRISAT project in coaboration with severa other stakehoders, first in Hyderabad in 2006, hosted by ANGRAU; then in Agartaa in 2007, hosted by the Govt. of Tripura; and finay in Coimbatore in 2008, hosted by TNAU. WWF took the initiative to deveop a nationa patform to faciitate: 1) coaborative synergies among key stakehoders, namey, nationa and state research institutes, agricutura universities, civi society organizations, government officias, and donors; 2) research and extension activities; 3) synthesis and sharing of information; and 4) diaogue among stakehoders from the farm eve to nationa eve. These symposia have served many purposes: faciitating cross-earning, supporting the deveopment of networks of interested individuas and groups, strengthening the efforts of farmer-innovators, and refining the research agenda for persons engaged with eucidating the issues concerning SRI. Proceedings of the seminars have been made avaiabe. Seminars have aso been organized by CSOs at nationa and state eve with support from donor agencies ike SDTT and NABARD in Assam, Manipur, West Benga, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Uttarakhand. The WWF-ICRISAT project aso organized workshops to converge ideas on up-scaing SRI in the country by inviting poicy makers from the Panning Commission, the Ministry of Agricuture, and State Governments to interact with civi society representatives and farmers Organic Farming Movements The emphasis on increasing use of organic manures, recommended use of hand mechanica weeders as an aternative to weedicides, and making use of agrochemicas for pant protection ess necessary and ess economic has attracted the organic farmers a over the country towards SRI.Estabishments ike the Organic Farmers' Association in Tami Nadu, SAMBHAV in Odisha, CIKS in Chennai, and the Richharia Foundation in Chhattisgarh are activey promoting organic SRI Pubications An array of manuas, books, video fims, reports, newsetters, proceedings, fact sheets, and case history compendiums have been made avaiabe by severa agencies to disseminate the knowedge on SRI. These coud be accessed through the websites isted in Tabe Eectronic Media Onine discussion groups and websites on SRI have been created to promote information and discussion among farmers, civi society organizations, researchers, and others interested in SRI (Tabe 12.2). An SRI Internationa Network and Resources Center (SRI-Rice) is operating from Corne University in USA, providing vauabe information service on SRI ( 153 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

156 Tabe 12.2 Eectronic support for SRI extension. Name SRI-India network sriindiagooge group SRI-Orissa SRI CSO website SRI internationa website SRI training website JaiSRI network Nature of activity Website providing information on SRI Onine discussion and sharing information Onine discussion and sharing information Providing information on SRI Maintenance IP address a/ SRI website Providing SDTT, SRI, sri.org/ - information Secretariat, on SRI Bhubaneswar Advance and share knowedge on SRI Mutimedia tookit Onine discussion and sharing information WWF- ICRISAT project, Hyderabad SDTT SRI Secretariat, Bhubaneshwar Odisha SRI Learning Aiance, Bhubaneswar WASSAN, Secunderabad SRI Internationa Network and Resources Center (SRI- Rice), Corne University Word Bank Institute SRI Consortium rary/245848/index.htm jaisri@srigoogegroups.com 12.4 Poicy Support from Governments The Governments of Tami Nadu and Tripura took an eary ead in promoting SRI on a arge scae. The initiatives from other State Governments were ukewarm for quite some time. But now, the state Governments of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh have taken poicy decisions to scae up SRI in their respective states. The Ministry of Agricuture, Govt. of India, has supported the promotion of SRI to a imited extent through the Nationa Food Security Mission (NFSM). 154 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

157 Government of India Poicy support for SRI from the Govt. of India has not been very ambitious so far. The NFSM targeted an increase in rice production of about 10 miion tonnes by 2012 with an aocation of Rs. 5,000 crores. NFSM specificay has targeted 133 districts out of the tota 534 riceproducing districts in the country. SRI is one among the strategies in the project, and ony a few states have activey taken up SRI under this scheme. The Directorate of Rice Deveopment (DRD), Patna has been active in impementing this activity. During , 4,915 demonstrations with an aocation of 86 akh rupees were carried out. Efforts are now on to project SRI as one of the soutions towards food security during the Twefth Five Year Pan Tami Nadu Reaizing the need for raising tota rice production and productivity, the TN Department of Agricuture has taken up an ambitious pan to promote SRI in the state. Athough SRI was officiay recommended for adoption in the state by TNAU aready in the year 2003, the extension of the technique was initiay sow, owing to apprehensions surrounding the principes of SRI. However, a stream of convincing success stories from farmers has enabed the scaing up of SRI adoption in the state. The Department of Agricuture has incuded SRI in a existing and new programmes, ike the Integrated Cerea Deveopment Programme (ICDP) and Nationa Food Security Mission (NFSM) that focus on increasing food production. The NFSM project is being impemented in Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Pudukottai and Namakka districts. The farmers there are given certified seeds, weeders and markers. During , SRI was demonstrated in 11,320 ha under the ICDP by extending a subsidy of Rs. 2,000 per ha and imparting training to 56,600 farmers. This contributed to the spread of SRI on 4.2 akh hectares during that year, and productivity of 10 t ha was achieved by some farmers who used the methods propery. During the kuruvai season 2008, 420 crop-cutting experiments with SRI were conducted across the state. Yieds recorded in 92 measurements, from 25 sq.m each, showed an average yied of 7.4 t ha which is neary 40 % more than the state average. Triggered by the success, the Department has embarked on scaing up SRI and has set a target of 11 akh hectares (about 55% of tota rice area in a year) in The Department is aso panning to use aser eveers to hep farmers achieve good eveing for their SRI panting. The state government has recenty announced a Rupees five akh cash award to farmers registering maximum production, under SRI. Farmers who had cutivated paddy over a minimum of 50 cents of and where eigibe for this award and the conditions incude a minimum produce of 2500 kg per acre Tripura Tripura aunched a Perspective Pan for Sef Sufficiency in Food Grains by 2010 in 2001, about the same time that the first tests of SRI suitabiity under Tripura conditions were done. In 2002, the first SRI trias/demonstrations began with 44 farmers; the next year, this number was doubed. With evident success, the number of farmers using SRI methods grew to 440 and 880 in the next two years. The continuing good resuts persuaded the state's poitica eadership to support SRI extension to enabe reaching the goa of sef-sufficiency. In 2005, one-third of the state's agricutura budget was reaocated to SRI extension, and under the eadership of Dr. Baharu Majumdar, the number of SRI users topped 70,000 in and reached about 250,000 farmers within two more years. During a midterm review, it was observed that the growth rate of food production was not at a desired eve to minimize the gap of food requirements for the state. Hence, the government decided to cover at east 1 akh ha paddy area through SRI which wi increase rice production by a minimum of 1 akh tonnes by as SRI methods were adding at east 1 t ha to farmers' present production eves. SRI is being promoted under the 155 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

158 Tripura State Pan and the Government of India's (GOI) Macro Management Scheme. Research has been conducted soey under the State Pan, and popuarization/ adoption in fieds was done through convergence of the State Pan and the Macro Management Scheme of GoI. Panchayati Raj institutions have been coaborating in SRI demonstrations across the state, more activey than in other states of India. Training programmes have been conducted ocay for a categories of fied functionaries. District-eve trainers' teams were deveoped through rigorous on-farm practica and theoretica training who have imparted training to grass root-eve fied staff Andhra Pradesh The state Department of Agricuture organized its first SRI demonstrations since , and a thrust had been given to SRI promotion since rabi season , organizing at east one demonstration in every Gram Panchayat in the state. This was at the impetus of the state agricutura university (ANGRAU). Under the Nationa Food Security Mission (NFSM), 1,680 SRI demonstrations were targeted for (1,272 demonstrations for the kharif season, and 408 demonstrations for the rabi season) with a financia outay of Rs.5.0 Rs.3,000/- per demonstration and with financia assistance of Rs. 3000/- for purchase of conoweeders. Aso, 4,446 one-acre demonstrations were organized during under the Work Pan (Rice) with a tota outay of Rs.26.7 miion in the 11 non-nfsm districts of East Godavari, West Godavari, Prakasam, Kurnoo, Ananthapur, Kadapa, Chittoor, Waranga, Rangareddy, Nizamabad, and Karimnagar. A Consortium on SRI has been formed in the state in 2010, and impementation of SRI in the state is in fu swing now to bring 8.5 akh ha under SRI. The state Government has aso decided to set up 110 SRI Centres to reduce abour costs by providing machinery, soi puverisers, transpanters, weeders, harvesters, and other impements on hire to farmers. The government wi give 50 per cent and 25 per cent subsidy for setting up SRI Centres Bihar The State Government has taken up a fast-track mode of promoting SRI and expects to cover 3.5 akh ha of rice area under SRI management (about 10% of the rice area of the state) during through its Rura Liveihood Programme. Probaby ony about haf this much area was actuay brought under SRI management, but a combination of SRI methods and good rainfa has contributed to a 2011 kharif harvest about doube the usua eve, and four times the drought-affected 2010 kharif production. The government has been encouraged by resuts and farmer acceptance (paddy yied averaged 8.2 t ha in Gaya district, where SRI work was initiated by PRADAN in 2006), so that a target of 1.4 miion akh hectares, 40% of the state's paddy area, has been set for kharif Jharkhand The state Agricuture Department has introduced an award scheme for farmers to encourage them to take up SRI. Under the scheme named Birsa Krishi Padam, a cash reward of Rs. 2 akh wi be given to a farmer at the state eve who demonstrates maximum yied and carries out rice cutivation using SRI techniques on a pot measuring 4 hectares or more. At the state eve, three farmers wi be seected for second prize carrying a purse of Rs. 1 akh each, and 10 farmers for third pace for a cash reward of Rs 50,000 each. The scheme wi be foowed up at bock eve. At the district eve, the best performing farmer wi be rewarded with Birsa Krishak Deep Sarvashrestha carrying a cash reward of Rs 15,000. For this category, the farmer must take up rice cutivation using SRI techniques on a pot measuring not ess than 2 hectares. Four more farmers, two each for second and third prize, wi be seected for a cash reward of Rs. 12,000 and 10,000 each, respectivey. At the bock eve, best performing farmer wi be feicitated as BirsaKrishak Sri Sarvashreshta aong with a cash reward of Rs. 5,000. The second and third pace hoders wi be given prizes worth Rs. 3,000 and Rs. 2,000 each, respectivey. 156 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

159 Other States In Punjab, promotion of SRI started in Gurdaspur district through the Department of Agricuture's ATMA program. The State Governments in Odisha, Uttarakhand, Himacha Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh have taken positive steps to promote SRI in their respective states. The foowing Tabe 12.3 presents the current targets to promote SRI in some of these states. Tabe Area to be managed under SRI methods targeted in different states State Tota rice area (akh ha) SRI area targeted (akh ha) % rice area under SRI Tami Nadu Tripura Chhattisgarh Andhra Pradesh Jharkhand Bihar Uttar Pradesh Financia Support from Non-governmenta Organizations Financia support to promote SRI in different parts of the country is being provided by various agencies ike Word Bank, the WWF-ICRISAT project, the Nationa Bank for Agricuture and Rura Deveopment (NABARD), the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT), and the Deshpande Foundation Word Bank In Tami Nadu, an amount of Rs crores has been aocated in the Word Bank-funded IAMWARM project for supporting SRI during the period to The programme is being impemented both by the state's Dept. of Agricuture and the Tami Nadu Agricutura University. Word Bank support for promoting SRI in other states is aso taking pace, such as through the Bihar Rura Liveihood Promotion Society, with an IDA (soft) oan to the state government WWF-ICRISAT Project WWF-supported programmes have incuded research to generate scientific understanding of SRI principes, initiatives to support SRI introduction in different agrocimatic conditions, fied trias and demonstrations, farmer interaction workshops and fied days, fied-based resource centres, media events, capacitybuiding of change agents in the government and NGOs, and poicy advocacy at state and nationa eves. The project has funded CSO and university initiatives in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Himacha Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Odisha to promote SRI and has aso provided financia assistance for SRI-reated pubications. From 2004 to 2010 this was done in conjunction with the joint 'Water, Food and Environment' Diaogue Project with the Internationa Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hyderabad Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT) SDTT began working on SRI from 2006, and SRI programme was adopted by SDTT under its Natura Resources and Rura Liveihoods initiative. Food Security for Sma and Margina Farmers was identified as a key focus area for its country programme, and Rs crores were aocated for a dedicated program on SRI. Currenty, SDTT is coaborating with 161 NGO partners in 104 districts of 10 states (Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand), assisting 65,000 farmers in poverty-defined areas. SDTT has aso set up a SRI 157 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

160 secretariat at Bhubaneshwar. The Trust aso supported organization of the Second and Third Nationa Symposiums on SRI in India in 2007 and During , it has aocated an additiona amount of Rs crores to assist SRI activities across India, particuary in poverty-stricken areas Nationa Bank For Agricuture and Rura Deveopment (NABARD) NABARD has taken a mutipronged approach in popuarizing SRI technoogy. A combination of awareness creation, capacitybuiding methods, and resuts demonstrations to farmers has been adopted. Communitybased organizations such as Farmers' Cubs, NGOs, Primary Agricuture Cooperative Societies (PACS)/ Samabai Krishi Unnayan Samity (SKUS), and banks have been invoved in the process. The approach starts with identification of an area where paddy cutivation is more concentrated and where farmers are eager to adopt new technoogies. NABARD has sanctioned grants for the promotion of SRI in many states (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand) through CSOs and is aso faciitating seminars and training programmes at state and nationa eve Ministry of Agricuture, Govt. of India Funds aocated by the Ministry under NFSM, ICDP, RKVY and ATMA are being utiized for promoting SRI in some of the states. The Directorate of Rice Deveopment (DRD) in Patna has aso been supportive of SRI evauation and dissemination Roe of Civi Society Organizations The roe payed by CSOs in promoting SRI across the country is an unprecedented one, especiay in enhancing the iveihood of poor rice farmers in remote and triba areas. These organizations not ony provide capacity-buiding services, but aso give technica support and back-up by stationing viageeve extension functionaries. A arge number of CSOs are activey invoved in promoting SRI in different states (Tabe 12.4). One of the major extension support activities by the CSOs is creating oca cadres to guide farmers in adopting SRI. We cannot ist a of the NGOs that have taken up SRI in their programs, so this discussion is intended to be iustrative of the reach and activities of CSOs promoting SRI in India. Dozens of other NGOs coud be mentioned Professiona Assistance for Deveopment Action (PRADAN) PRADAN started promoting SRI in 2003 in Puruia district of West Benga with 4 famiies. This number grew to 39,614 farmers in eight states by In 2008, 44% of the farmers being assisted by PRADAN staff in Puruia harvested 6-8 t ha yied and 24% harvested 80 t ha yied. PRADAN is now supporting SRI activities going on in Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and West Benga. PRADAN's contribution in promoting SRI in rainfed areas of eastern India is significant. A documentary fim on SRI, Ek Ropa Dhan, produced by PRADAN in Hindi anguage, won the Rajat Kama Award at the 58th Nationa Fim Awards (2010) under the 'best promotiona fim' category given by Union Information and Broadcasting Ministry with the citation: A succinct and weresearched fim that ooks cosey at an innovation in the farming of rice. The fim engages successfuy with the issue and makes a strong case for the promotion of the practice caed Ek Ropa Dhan'. PRADAN has aso supported the work of the Nationa SRI Consortium in New Dehi. 158 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

161 Watershed Support Services and Activities Network (WASSAN) Watershed Support Services and Activities Network (WASSAN) has undertaken responsibiity particuary for experimenting with SRI in rainfed conditions in Andhra Pradesh. WASSAN, in cose coaboration with WWF, has been in the forefront in advocating and propagating of SRI and has been conducting training programmes for trainers and farmers in Andhra Pradesh, Himacha Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and in other countries. More important, it has become a resource centre on SRI by providing information in the pubic domain aso to states outside Andhra Pradesh. WASSAN is aso paying a key roe in the AP-SRI Consortium activities Peopes' Science Institute (PSI) The mountain states of Uttarakhand (UK) and Himacha Pradesh (HP) are characterized by inaccessibiity, fragiity, marginaity, and diversity. In 2006, SRI was introduced by PSI in 40 paddy farms in 25 viages of UK (Dehradun, Rudraprayag and Tehri-Garhwa districts) and HP (Kangra district), seeking to study its potentia. The resuts showed an average increase of about 66 per cent in paddy yieds from the SRI pots compared to the conventiona pots. PSI began organizing capacity-buiding workshops and district-eve experience-sharing workshops. Tabe 12.4 List of CSOs invoved in promoting SRI in different states No State Key civi society organizations in SRI 1 Andhra Pradesh WASSAN, CROPS, Nava Jyothi, CWS, Timbaktu Coective, Jaaspandana, AME Foundation 2 Assam Rashtriya Gramin Vikas Nidhi, NEST, Gramin Sahara, Gramya Vikas Mancho, PRADAN, North East Centre for Rura Liveihood Research 3 Bihar PRADAN, Indian Gramin Services, ASA. 4 Chhattisgarh Richaria Campaign, Choupa, PRADAN, CARMDAKSH, 5 Gujarat BAIF Deveopment Research Foundation, Aga Khan Rura Support Programme (AKRSP) 6 Himacha Peopes Science Institute (PSI) through its partners 7 Jharkhand PRADAN, Society for Promotion of Wasteands Deveopment (SPWD), Coectives for Integrated Liveihood Initiatives(CInI), NEEDS, Jan Seva Parishad,, 8 Karnataka AMEF, Green Foundation, Srijan, Deshpande Foundation 9 Keraa Rura Agency for Socia and Technoogica Advancement (RASTA) 159 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

162 Tabe 12.4 List of CSOs invoved in promoting SRI in different states No State Key civi society organizations in SRI 10 Madhya Pradesh ASA, Bypass, PRADAN 11 Maharashtra BAIF Deveopment Research Foundation, Rura Communes, Amhi Amcha Arogyasathi. 12 Manipur Rongmei Naga Baptist Association (RNBA), Rura Aids Support, PRDA 13 Odisha Centre for Word Soidarity (CWS), Sahabhagi Vikas Abhiyan, PRADAN,, Sambhav, Rishikuya Raitha Sabha, Karrtabya, PRAGATI 14 Tami Nadu MSSRF, AME Foundation, Centre For Ecoogy and Research,Vaanghai, Ekoventure, Kudumbam, CCD, Sri Sadada Ashram, CIKS, Farmers' networks of Murugamangaam, Tamiaga Veaan Neervaa Niruvanam 15 Uttar Pradesh Deveopment Centre for Aternative Poicies (DCAP) 16 Uttarakhand PSI and its partners, Garhwa Vikas Kendra, Mount Vaey Deveopment Association (MVDA) 17 West Benga PRADAN, Ambuja Cement Foundation, PRASARI, Baradrone Socia Wefare Institution, Internationa Deveopment Enterprises India (IDEI) The resuts in 2006 showed that in HP, the average productivity of paddy went up from 3. 2 t ha to 5.0 t ha (56% increase). In UK, the average yied jumped about 77% from 3.1 t ha to 5.5 t ha. The resuts from 2007 showed that whie the non-sri yieds stood cose to t ha, the SRI yieds were around t ha, an average increase of 89%. Over 15,000 farmers were practicing SRI in 2008 from the modest beginning of 40 made in 2006 an achievement that indicates as much about the strength of PSI as about its network partners Agricuture-Man- Ecoogy Foundation (AMEF) AME Foundation has been promoting System of Rice Intensification (SRI) in its operationa areas in Andhra Pradesh, Tami Nadu and Karnataka. In , AMEF started promoting SRI ony with those farmers who expressed interest and were wiing to try out new practices, particuary in Andhra Pradesh. AMEF seriousy started promoting SRI in paddy during the year , with the support of Deshpande Foundation and WWF-ICRISAT project. Whie in its Andhra Pradesh and Tami Nadu working areas, paddy is sown under irrigated conditions, AMEF had a unique chaenge of promoting SRI under rainfed conditions in Dharwad area where paddy is cutivated in medium back sois. AMEF has aready promoted SRI practices among more than 7,000 farmers across three states. AMEF is aso heping farmers to appy SRI principes in ragi and redgram crops. 160 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

163 12.7 Research Institution Support The invovement of estabished agricutura research institutes of the country on SRI has been very imited even now. Active roes have been payed by TNAU, ANGRAU, and DRR Tami Nadu Agricutura University (TNAU) TNAU was the first institution in India to take up research on SRI and has been activey invoved in up-scaing it in the State through the Word Bank-funded TN- IAMWARM project. The activities are presented separatey as a success story beow Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricutura University (ANGRAU) SRI evauation was introduced in Andhra Pradesh in kharif 2003 in a 22 districts of the state by the ANGRAU Director of Extension, Dr. A. Satyanarayana. Since 2003, ANGRAU has taken severa initiatives to promote SRI in Andhra Pradesh: Nationa-eve training programme on SRI for Noda Officers of Department of Agricuture from various states of the country in front-ine demonstrations of SRI. Farmer workshops on SRI. Coaborative programmes with WWF-ICRISAT, in promoting SRI and organizing farmers meet. A diaogue on SRI with the Hon'be Chief Minister, poiticians, scientists, farmers and media jointy organized with WWF-ICRISAT in November, 2005, and expanation of SRI to visiting US President George W. Bush in March With the support of WWF- ICRISAT, ANGRAU has produced 5,000 SRI manuas, 10,000 bookets (5000 each in Engish and Teugu), 2,000 copies of farmers' experiences, and 100 CDs on SRI cutivation. ANGRAU has aso coaborated with print media and teevision channes in popuarizing SRI. ANGRAU organized the first Nationa Symposium on SRI jointy with Directorate of Rice Research (DRR-ICAR) and WWF. Conducted state-eve threeday workshop on 'SRI Impements' invoving 50 farmers and entrepreneurs Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar (XIMB) XIMB has been paying a key roe in the SRI up-scaing process through Professor C. Shambu Prasad by activey participating in onine discussions, estabishment of SRI Learning Aiance in Odisha, pubications, and supporting the Nationa Consortium on SRI. The partners of the Learning Aiance are the Directorate of Agricuture and Food Production, Government of Odisha, Oxfam Eastern Region, Word Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Diaogue Project on Water, Food and Environment, the Odisha Resource Centre of the Centre for Word Soidarity (CWS), Sambhav, and the Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar (XIMB). The 'earning aiance' approach emphasises the processes of innovation, and invoves coective earning by research organisations, donor agencies, poicy makers, civi society organisations, and even private businesses. The aiances enabe participants to earn across organisationa and geographica boundaries and provide vehices for coaboration and sharing of knowedge about approaches, methods and poicies that work, and those that do not. By improving the fows of information and knowedge, these mutistakehoder patforms hep to speed up the process of identifying and deveoping innovations, and ensuring their adoption by farmers Directorate of Rice Research (DRR) This ICAR institute has taken up research at station eve and muti-ocation eve to evauate SRI and provided support for organizing seminars on SRI with support from the WWF-ICRISAT program. DRR's initiative to organize trainings on SRI heped promotion of SRI in other states. 161 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

164 12.8 Scaing up of SRI in Tami Nadu Through TN-Iamwarm Project - A Success Story The Tami Nadu Irrigated Agricuture Modernization and Water Bodies Restoration and Management, known briefy as TN-IAMWARM, a unique Word Bank-funded project, was introduced during It has provided an ambient patform for the arge-scae demonstration of SRI with technica and financia assistance and awareness creation in Tami Nadu. SRI has been impemented in 50 river sub-basins through this project, and an area of 7,892 ha under SRI was covered from 2007 to 2010 (Pandian, 2010). The impementation of SRI in the project invoved severa strategies and steps that ensured spread of SRI in the state Capacity Buiding Training of farmers on the know-how for appying SRI principes. Training of farm abourers in SRI operations to create skis. Training of rura artisans on the production and servicing of weeders and markers to ensure their timey suppy and avaiabiity. Farmers were taken to successfu SRI farmers' fied as exposure visits as the fundamenta too to get firsthand information on SRI, even before the commencement of the season where they were given with training aso. Interaction with ead farmers heped the others to know the practica probems and ways to sove them Augmenting Poitica and Administrative Support Knowedge Disposa and Sharing Fied visits were organized for the Hon'be Agricutura Minister, Members of Legisative Assemby, Secretaries to the Govt., other Govt. officias to see the success of SRI in the fied. Workshops were hed at Coimbatore and Madurai to sensitize District Coectors and officias for effective impementation of SRI. Fied days were organized with VIPs' participation at the demonstration sites to get the excusive attention of administrators and poicy makers as such events attracted press coverage. Trained Research Feows were stationed in viages to interact with farmers and provide backstopping. On A-India Radio (AIR), Trichy, a programme for farmers was broadcast in Tami anguage for 13 weeks in 2009 caed 'Oruneu Orunathu' (Singe seed, Singe seeding). Wa paintings and hoardings were instaed in strategic ocations. Mobie campaigning (TN- IAMWARM on Whees) had greater impact, and a propaganda van with personne from a the ine departments was designed, so farmer's queries coud be answered on the spot. Gramasabha meetings were conducted at viage panchayats as a patform to propagate SRI technoogies and as a medium to consut with the farmers to upgrade the technoogy. At various important stages of crop growth and cutura operations, i.e., square transpanting using markers, mechanica weeding, and harvesting, fied days were organized by gathering neighbouring farmers. A comprehensive book on SRI in sef-earning mode and a handbook manua were pubished to hep the farmers. A video fim on SRI was prepared and distributed. Short versions were shown in cinema theatres. The fims were dispayed during night meetings in the viages Pubicity In order to attract passing-by farmers, unique fags were instaed in SRI fieds. To boost the sef-confidence of farmers, greetings were sent to farmers with the message of SRI on the occasion of Ponga (Tamiar Thiruna). In eading daiies, FM stations, and over A- India Radio (AIR), advertisements were given regarding SRI. 162 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

165 Community Invovement Loca peope's representatives ike WUA presidents and panchayat presidents were roped in for the demonstration and pubicity processes. The 'community nursery' concept was introduced to share and and water resources. Faciitation of the formation of the 'Thumba Semmai Ne Sagupadi Farmers Association' which was registered as a recognized society. A arge number of rice-growing farmers from various districts of Tami Nadu visited Thumba to understand and experience SRI at fied eve. Faciitated the Ponnaiyar sub-basin farmers of Piekothur viage, Krishnagiri, to register another association as 'Water-Saving Farmers' Association' and inking them with NABARD Monitoring Monitoring Committees were estabished to oversee the impementation of SRI, and their reports were discussed during workshops with personne who were invoved in promoting SRI SRI Adoption in India Adoption of SRI by a farmer for the first time requires a ot of motivation, and continued adoption depends upon severa factors (Tabe 12.5). Tabe 12.5 Factors affecting adoption of SRI by farmers Main factors Subsidiary factors Impact Farm-eve conditions Technica interventions Poicy support Motivation Sef-interest Attitude Land ownership Land size Soi fertiity Labour avaiabiity Labourers' mindset Capita Water avaiabiity Organic manure avaiabiity Toos avaiabiity Tangibe benefits Research support Training Exposure Technica backstopping Reguar foow-up Determination Specific programmes Subsidies / incentives Irrigation water suppy reguation Monitoring mechanisms Adoption Variations Disadoption Sustained adoption Cases of disadoption have been reported. How to hep farmers to overcome the difficuties faced by them in this regard is a rea chaenge in SRI extension. 163 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

166 Variations in Adopting SRI Principes It has been we recognized that the fu potentia of SRI is reaized ony when a the six principes are foowed propery. However, due to various reasons, there are considerabe variations in the practices when adopting the principes (Tabe 12.6). These variations are to be accepted because they sti have SRI effects even if not to the fu extent possibe. SRI practices are best foowed more faithfuy with imited fexibiities and in a timey way to get the fu benefits compared with conventiona practices which have a ot of fexibiities (Tabe 12.7). Thus, SRI farmers, for greatest success, need to be more discipined than farmers cutivating in conventiona manner and to be abe to visit their fieds more often than they are used to doing. Athough adopting a of the six principes of SRI brings maximum benefits, contingent situations at the farmer and fied eve due to imited avaiabiity of water, abour constraints, no access to impements, etc. or itte water contro can come in the way of fuy adopting the principes. Farmers shoud be encouraged to adopt SRI to the extent that they can, even if they are not abe to adopt a of the principes as recommended. Even a singe principe of SRI introduced in the farmers' practice can have positive infuence on the crop performance and benefit the farmer. Thus, some amount of fexibiity in the SRI practices shoud be accepted (Tabe 12.7). However, farmers shoud reaize that they shoud try to adopt a the SRI principes if they want to derive the fu benefit of SRI. Tabe 12.6 Variations in adopting the principes of SRI Principe Recommended practice Variations Young seedings Lower pant density and wider spacing Keep the soi moist and not continuousy fooded 84 day-od seedings, not beyond the 3-eaf stage Singe seedings per hi in a square pattern at 25 x 25 cm spacing Irrigate a thin ayer of water (2 cm) after hairine cracks form on the soi, and no water stress after fowering Direct seeding Conventionay-raised oder seedings More than 1 seeding Ony wider row spacing but narrow within-row spacing Food irrigation No possibiity to drain Intercutivation Use weeder preferaby at day intervas after panting; 3-4 times in both directions One-direction use ony 1 time ony Late timing More organic manures Use of avaiabe catte manures, green manures, and biofertiizers Ony chemica fertiizers Minimum use of organic sources 164 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

167 Tabe 12.7 Fexibiity in adopting SRI practices Fexibiity in farmers practice Fexibiity in SRI Seeding age days days Sometimes seedings of Up to3-eaf stage 60 days od are panted If temperatures are cod, due to contingent somewhat oder seedings situations can sti be 'young' in bioogica terms Spacing (cm) Usuay random cm If soi is fertie, even wider spacing may give higher yied; spacing is to be optimized for oca conditions and variety, so this requires farmer experimentation Number of his per sq.m Number of seedings per hi is best if soi is reasonaby fertie 2 seedings when crop estabishment is not certain, or when soi is ess fertie Irrigation Keep the fied fooded Keeping the soi just when water is avaiabe moist Where water contro is difficut, draining is not feasibe; so soi shoud be kept as aerobic as possibe Intercutivation Not practiced 2 4 times depending upon avaiabiity of abour and mechanica weeders Organic manures Not appied at a No specified quantity Avaiabe sources is recommended, but utiized emphasis is on Unspecified quantity appying more appied organic manure Gradua repacement of chemica fertiizers is expected, to improve soi structure and functioning 165 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

168 The foowing map (Figure 12.1) shows the districts in the country where SRI has been introduced and adopted by about 250,000 farmers to date. Some estimated put the number at 600, ,000. Figure 12.1 Map of India showing the districts where SRI is known and being practiced (the map is not to scae and is not indicative of the area under SRI) 166 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

169 12.10 Constraints in Adopting SRI Throughout history, humankind has been resistant to change and to the acceptance of new ideas. SRI is no exception. Farmers' acceptance is subject to the profitabiity of SRI cutivation which coud be understood very we. SRI has taken roots most successfuy in severa parts of the country. Adoption has been sow in many areas, and the reasons for this coud be traced out. These are isted beow Farmer Leve To the farmer who has been cutivating rice for decades, if it is advocated that ony kg seed be used per hectare; that seedings be ony 104 days od; that seedings be panted ony one per hi; that his be spaced in a square pattern 25 cm apart instead of in rows; that a mechanica weeder be used in preference to hand weeding or herbicides; and that the fied not be kept continuousy fooded, the immediate reaction wi be disbeief! Thus, it is imperative to convince the farmer of the merits of these different changes in age-od practices first by showing and expaining. So, demonstrations and trainings are a must. The farmer shoud be gotten to try SRI in a sma part of his rice area, adopting SRI principes propery. Athough the impression that the fied makes on everyone immediatey after panting, ooking muddy and bare, wi be shocking, the subsequent booming growth of tiers after 3-4 weeks wi raise the confidence imits, especiay after considering how much this can raise farmers' net income, getting more yied with ess expenditure. From the next SRI crop on, he wi start adjusting the practices to suit his (or her) convenience and become a successfu SRI farmer. Yet, not a farmers get easiy convinced to try SRI, and those who practice it can aso face probems. So, there wi be fu adoption, partia adoption, noadoption, and even disadoption. SRI demands more persona attention and constant invovement. Farmers who coud not afford to take ricegrowing seriousy and invest themseves in their crop shun SRI. Apprehensions about the new way of raising seedings, handing young seedings, and square panting need to be overcome by seeing the resuts. Resistance of contract abourers for panting in the SRI mode can be a probem, as they either perceive this as more aborious or do not ike the idea of their making more income for their empoyers without themseves getting a arger share of the benefit. Labour scarcity for transpanting at critica time. Perceived drudgery of using the mechanica weeder, athough some consider it a boon Extension Agency Leve Government Leve Potentia pest attacks due to ush growth of the crop. Litte aocation of time for direct contact with farmers which is important to get an innovation understood and started. Need for frequent visits to monitor the impementation. Lack of technica knowedge to give effective technica support. Inadequate understanding of this opportunity to ensure nationa and househod food security through SRI. Lack of sense of urgency in adopting water-saving methods for the agricutura sector. Poor operation and maintenance of irrigation faciities that woud enabe farmers to get higher yieds with ess appication of water. Farmers can make SRI succeed with ess water, but this suppy needs to be reiabe and controabe. Prevaiing mentaity that agricutura improvement is a matter of providing more, new and better inputs, rather than patienty and knowedgeaby improving farmers' understanding of better agronomic practice. 167 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

170 12.11 Constraints in Adopting the Principes The principes of SRI, viz., younger seedings, wider spacing, square panting, weeder use, minimized water use, and more appication of organic manures, are a important, but farmers can face some probems in adopting the respective principes. Using Younger Seedings Farmers who depend on tanks for main fied irrigation being monsoon-dependent coud not start their SRI nursery if water is not avaiabe for panting young seedings. Lack of faith and poor understanding of how to prepare raised beds for a nursery. Sometimes the seeding growth in the raised-bed nursery is poor due to ess fertie soi being used in the bed. Seedings can get scorched after a week if undecomposed manure is used in the nursery bed. Improper use of fertiizer to boost the growth of the seedings can aso ead to mortaity. Transpanting for SRI The immediate concern of a farmer when tod to have ony 16 pants per sq.m wi be whether there wi be sufficient tiers. This apprehension wi be warded off when he sees the fied after 3-4 weeks. Where there is abour scarcity, the mindset of the abourers seems to be the main probem in carrying out square panting. When using a rope for spacing, frequent bending over for every shift of the rope is said to be a negative issue with abourers in some areas. When a roer-marker or rake is used, this probem wi go away because with one bend they can pant severa his at a time. Markers are not known to some farmers, and they are often not easiy avaiabe. Fied conditions shoud be such that grid ines made by the marker do not fade away due to standing water. If the muddy fied cannot hod the ines marked, it is too wet. So the marker is a good indicator of optimum timing for transpanting operations. When panting is done on a contract basis (per acre), abourers prefer to finish the panting quicky, and they can fee that separating out singe seedings to transpant takes time. Handing the young seedings is awkward for some as they are reuctant to push the deicate itte pants into the soi. They need to earn how hardy rice pants (grasses) can be if they have a suitabe soi environment to grow in. Mortaity of singe seedings occurs in ow-ying patches of impropery-eveed fieds. Farmers fee that if heavy rains submerge the young seedings for more than a week, they wi die. Indeed, this is true. Where there is seeding mortaity, a new batch of seeding can be raised within 10 days, giving more fexibiity than when day seedings are used. Panting seedings with their roots not thrust straight down into the soi (making the root profie ike a J with the root tip pointed upwards) is not carried out in genera. Learning to sip a seeding in horizontay, with a root profie ike an L and with a root tip ready to resume downward growth, with itte transpanting shock, takes a itte time to earn. Panting the seeding aong the soi attached to the roots is fet difficut at first. Getting easyto-manage nursery soi that permits separation of pants whie retaining soi around the roots can take some experimentation. Water Contro For SRI Inadequate structures to contro water suppy, especiay for draining excess water. Discontinuous or unreiabe avaiabiity of irrigation water aso encourages farmers to food their fieds when it is avaiabe. In areas of cascade (fied-tofied) irrigation, water contro is difficut as individua paddies do not have their own suppy from a cana system. 168 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

171 Intercutivation with Weeder Young seedings face estabishment probems due to fooding if caught in monsoon rains. Seepage water near an irrigation source can prevent farmers from having unfooded water situation in their paddies. If one abourer has to do the entire operation (with 25 x 25 cm spacing creating four rows per meter width) to weed/aerate 1 hectare, he has to wak 40 km to cover one direction, and 80 km to do weeding in both directions. Heavy weeders (ike conoweeder) can cause shouder pain, especiay when just beginning with a new, unfamiiar impement. Weeders are often not easiy avaiabe to the farmers. Some of the existing weeders do not work we in certain soi conditions and get stuck or cogged with weeds. Weeder design shoud be appropriate to fied conditions. Difficuties in drafting abour for weeder operations. In some detaic areas, the common weed Cyperus rotundus poses a particuar probem as it is not readiy controed by weeders, and manua weeding has to be resorted to. In a study conducted by Rao et a. (2007), the items perceived as driving forces for adopting SRI were: higher grain yied (83%), ow seed rate (81%) water saving (81%), more number of productive tiers (80%), reduced pest and diseases (79%), suitabiity for seed mutipication (78%), higher grain weight (47%), and good quaity grain (29%). The items that were perceived as restraining forces in adopting SRI were: drudgery in weeding (90%), difficuty in transpanting young seedings (81%), difficuty in aternate wetting and drying of the fied (58%), nonavaiabiity of organic manures (51%), requirement of skied abour (46%), and no suitabe agricutura impements (45%) Constraints in Scaing up The scaing up of SRI in the country has been argey the resut of efforts of certain individuas and agencies who coud visuaize the potentia of SRI for addressing the contemporary issues in rice cutivation. In spite of the efforts of some state Agricutura Departments and severa CSOs, and the assured advantages of SRI cutivation, rapid spread has yet to take pace due to the foowing constraints: Inadequate Knowedge Exposure Athough it woud appear simpe to expain SRI principes, getting farmers to adopt them requires a we-conceived and reiaby- Scaing up SRI in the Timbuktu region of Mai showed that the impementation processes and approaches depended on: (i) technica adaptation of SRI practices to the Timbuktu environment, (ii) farmers' and technicians' know-how of the SRI technica requirements, (iii) coaboration with the government extension and research agencies, and (iv) the funding eve. SRI practices induced a dramatic shift in the perception and understanding of how to achieve sustainabe and productive rice cropping systems, stimuating farmers and technicians to initiate a series of innovations inspired by the SRI system (Styger et a. 2011). operating deivery mechanism comprising of severa approaches as expained in the TN-IAMWARM project success story. Most peope, incuding scientists, understand the effects of SRI ony when they see the crop growth in the fied. Ony those farmers who are convinced of the advantages wi practice it. Thus, exposing farmers to SRI crops in the fied is essentia. A mechanism for raising a battery of master trainers and providing technica support at the viage eve are crucia. These resource persons shoud have a thorough understanding of SRI principes and practices and aso be abe to faciitate required support. Lack of such a system is one of the major 169 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

172 constraints in scaing up. Educating farmers to know that rice crops do not require food water is important to minimize water use for rice cutivation. SRI requires different skis in nursery raising, transpanting, weeding, and water management. Thus, training and exposing farmers and abourers to SRI ideas and demonstrations is essentia. Inadequate Avaiabiity of SRI Toos The weeder has become an essentia too in SRI cutivation as it reduces abour requirements for weeding besides having measurabe and observabe positive effects on the crop due to the intercutivation. To enabe square panting, markers are aso very handy. Thus, the avaiabiity of these two toos has become pivota for SRI spread. A number of types of weeders are forthcoming through innovative ideas. Avaiabiity of weeders is a particuar probem faced by many farmers, and ack of access prevents them from executing the operations at the appropriate time. Sometimes, the avaiabe weeders are not suitabe for the farmers' fied conditions, so getting better designs and the avaiabe suppy of suitaby designed and webuit weeders is a priority. Poicy Support Lack of adequate poicy and financia support from Governments is one of the major constraints for scaing up SRI adoption as the efforts of CSOs aone cannot achieve arge-scae adoption. Proactive state Governments ike Tami Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Tripura, Bihar, and Jharkhand have aocated funds for proper scaing up of SRI. However, a serious nationa initiative is sti pending Summary The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is now known in many rice-growing countries and in most of the rice-growing states in India. This new method of cutivation is not easy to foow by a farmer just from hearing about it. Systematic exposure is essentia to fuy understand the principes invoved and the procedures to be foowed. The six principes of SRI are to be foowed fuy to derive a the potentia benefits of SRI cutivation. Conventiona rice cutivation under irrigated conditions incudes growing a nursery, transpanting the seedings, weeding, irrigation, and using organic and inorganic sources of nutrients to amend the soi. SRI aso has these practices, but how these are done with respect to the basic principes is where the big difference ies. Thus, uness farmers are educated thoroughy about SRI, they are bound to face probems in adopting it, in spite of the proven fact that SRI brings in numerous advantages to ensure the profitabiity of rice cutivation. In a the SRI extension programmes, whether of government or NGOs, it is necessary that the extension personne have a good knowedge of the principes and practices of SRI. The farmers have to understand the theoretica basis of the principes and aso have hands-on training and exposure to carry out the different practices, viz., raising a specia nursery, using a marker, panting singe seedings, using the weeder for intercutivation, and controed irrigation. Faiure to understand these wi ead to ack of interest and fear of unsuccessfu adoption. 170 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

173 13 RICE MARKETING Being the main stape for peope in the rice-growing regions, rice is primariy produced for domestic consumption. Internationa rice trade is estimated between 25 and 27 miion tonnes per year, which corresponds to ony 5-6 percent of word production. This makes the internationa rice market one of the smaest in the word, compared to other grain markets such as wheat (113 miion tonnes) and corn (80 miion tonnes). Besides the traditiona main exporters, a reativey important but sti imited part of the rice that is traded wordwide comes from certain deveoped countries in Mediterranean Europe and from the United States. There are two major reasons behind this: new food habits in the more deveoped countries themseves are affecting demand for rice, and new market niches are opening up in deveoping countries ( m/angais/rice/ecopoicies.htm). Thaiand, Vietnam, India and Pakistan are the main exporters internationay (Tabe 13.1). The major rice markets are shifting now from Mediterranean Europe and the US, to West Asia. In Africa and Latin America, consumption is expanding more rapidy than domestic production, so these countries are aso Tabe 13.1 Main Rice-Exporting and Rice-Importing Countries becoming more important export destinations. Goba rice exports increased consideraby after 1993, and reached a peak of 31.8 miion tonnes in Export of mied rice from India was a mere 0.5 miion tonnes in 1989, but it reached 6.7 miion tonnes during 2001 (Fig 13.1). During the ast decade, rice exports from Miion tonnes USA India China Thaiand Pakistan Vietnam Rice-Exporting Countries Word India India have been fuctuating between 1.4 miion tonnes and 6.65 miion tonnes. In 2008, ony 2.5 miion tonnes were exported ( USDA data). Government poicies ike banning the export of non-basmati rice, and oca production and demand dynamics affect the eve of rice exports Nigeria Bangadesh South Africa Japan Brazi Maaysia Figure 13.1 Goba and Indian mied rice exports from 1988 to Source: Rice-Importing Countries Transforming Rice Production with SRI

174 Gobay, the quantity of mied rice exported during 2008 was 24.1 miion tonnes, out of the 459 miion tonnes produced during that year, just 5.2%. The export of mied rice from India during 2008 was just 2.47 miion tonnes (Tabe 13.2), whie the production was 89 miion tonnes; so exports were 2.8% of production. During that year, tota agricutura exports from India were US$ 17,307 miion, and cerea exports of US$ 3,493 miion constituted about 20% of the tota. Various rice commodities ike rice bran oi, broken rice, fermented beverages, and rice four are aso traded internationay, but there has been no significant contribution from India. Tabe Rice commodity exports in the word and India during Word India Rice commodity Quantity (tonnes) Vaue (1000 $) Quantity (tonnes) Vaue (1000 $) Rice -mied 24,131,474 16,637,798 2,474,250 2,577,400 Broken rice 2,281,999 1,057,800 2, Rice - paddy 1,992, ,525 11,473 4,447 Rice - husked 1,425, , Rice four 44,308 36, Rice bran oi 25,868 34, Rice fermented beverages 12,583 75,511 NA NA Source : FAOSTAT, May 2011 The goba rice export market is highy concentrated with contributions from Thaiand (30%), Vietnam (18%), United States (12%), Pakistan (10%), China (8%), India (4%), and others (18%). The quaity of the rice aso pays a roe in the market shares. The share of goba rice trade by the type of rice is japonica (10%), gutinous (5%), indica (75%), and aromatic (10%). Government poicies aso add to word price variabiity. Governments in deveoping Asian countries seek to ensure adequate rice suppies at ow prices for consumers, and higher-income Asian countries (Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea) protect their producers from ower-priced imports. The sma amount of rice traded, reative to the amount produced, provides potentia for highy variabe word prices, resuting primariy from shifts in exportabe suppies in the major exporting countries and/or domestic production shortfas in the arge consuming countries (Paggi and Yamazaki 2001). Thaiand, India and U.S.A. are the ony countries making parboied rice and exporting it. Thaiand, Vietnam and India are aso exporting 100% broken rice. Basmati rice is fetching a good export price in the internationa markets for its three district quaity features, i.e.,peasant aroma, superfine grains, and extreme grain eongation. About two-thirds of the basmati rice produced in India is exported. 172 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

175 13.1 Traditiona Rice Varieties and Reported Heath Benefits The rich biodiversity in India is refected in its rice genetic resources. According to Dr. Richharia, 400,000 varieties of rice existed in India during the Vedic period, and he estimated that 200,000 varieties of rice sti existed in India. The beginning of a rice breeding programme in India in 1911 expoited pure ine seection initiay. It was foowed with an inter-breeding programme between japonicas and indicas. Introduction of dwarf high-yieding varieties ed to a hybridization programme between semi-dwarf Taiwanese types or derivatives and certain indica varieties. A research programme was initiated during 1970 to deveop hybrid rice varieties in the country, and some of these have been deveoped and are being promoted. The introduction and spread of high-yieding varieties saw the erosion of traditiona varieties from arge areas of India; but some are sti being cutivated because they enjoy consumer preference and often have speciaized uses such as at weddings or other occasions. With awareness on organic farming and heath consciousness, there is a growing interest in traditiona varieties, especiay of those varieties having specia quaities for consumption and specia ceremonia or medicina uses. Traditiona rice varieties combine severa good eating quaities, and there are some specia quaity rices that can fetch a premium price in the domestic as we as internationa markets. An array of such rice varieties are avaiabe in different parts of the country which can be grown in various seasons and in different agro-cimatic conditions. Traditiona varieties with specia aroma, medicina vaues, nutritiona vaues, and suitabiity for specia preparations, etc. are sti avaiabe and grown in imited areas. Some of these varieties aso have reigious and cutura significance. Some of the traditiona varieties have been preferred for vaueaddition processing, e.g., rice fakes, popped rice, rice noodes, rice-based snacks, etc. Gutinous rice is used in making puttu in South India. In Himacha Pradesh, Jatu red rice is prized for its aroma and taste. Matai and La dhan of Himacha Pradesh are used for curing high bood pressure and fever. Kafaya from the his of Himacha Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh is used for treating eucorrhea and abortion compications. Kari kagga and Atikaya of Karnataka are used for cooness and as tonic, whie Neeam samba is used for actating mothers in Tami Nadu (Angusamy et a. 2001). In China, red rice is used for preparing vinegar, tart, cosmetics, red kojic, and red rice yeast. The atter, used for medicina purposes, is prepared by fermenting the yeast Monascus purpurea over red rice. It is said to promote better bood circuation and is used in treating upset stomach, indigestion, bruised musces, and hangovers. It is aso a choestero-owering product that is commerciay marketed the word over. Red rice in Japan is used for preparation of red sake, coored noodes, and cakes for ceremonia occasions. In Sri Lanka, red rices are a favorite as food, and some are used as medicines. Back rice is fu of antioxidantrich bran, which is found in the outer ayer that gets removed during the miing process to make white rice. Back-rice bran contains the antioxidants known as anthocyanins, purpe and reddish pigments, aso found in bueberries, grapes, and acai. These have been inked to a decreased risk of heart disease and cancer, improvements in memory, and other heath benefits. One spoonfu of backrice bran - or 10 spoonfus of cooked back rice wi contain the same amount of anthocyanin as a spoonfu of fresh bueberries, according to a new study presented at the American Chemica Society in Boston ( LTH/08/26/back.rice.new.brown/) 173 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

176 .\In India, red rices have occupied a specia positionfor many ages. The founding fathers of ancient Ayurveda Susruta (c. 400 BC), Charaka (c. 700 BC), and Vagbhata (c. 700 AD) refer to the medicina vaue of shai, vrihi, and shastika rices, and they ist the rices according to their reative medicina vaue, with the most usefu type at the top of the ist. Ancient Ayurvedic treatises aud the Raktashai red rice as a nutritivefood and medicine. The medicina vaue of other rices such as Sashtika, Sai, and parched rice have been documented in the Charaka Samhita (c. 700 BC) and the Susruta Samhita (c. 400 BC). They were used for treatment of various aiments such as diarrhea, vomiting, fever, hemorrhage, chest pain, wounds, and burns. Even today, certain rice varieties with medicina vaue are used in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Keraa, Tami Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, the Western Ghats, and Himacha Pradesh to treat skin diseases, bood pressure, fever, paraysis, rheumatism, and eucorrhea, as we as a heath tonic and for actation. The famous Nivara rice of Keraa is widey empoyed in Ayurvedic practice as a body-enriching item, to excude toxins and deay premature ageing. Coored rices (back and red) are rich in mineras (iron and zinc) and poyphenos and have antioxidant properties. Traditiona varieties such as basmati have a ow gycemic index and are usefu in weight-reducing diets. Ricebased ora rehydration soutions (ORS) are reported to be better than gucose-based ORS, and have been incuded in Word Heath Organization recommendations (Uma et a. 2008). If such traditiona rice varieties with specia quaities are marketed internay and internationay, there wi be a huge demand. What is required is proper awareness, production strategies, and appropriate market mechanisms. Aready some market has been created for such varieties, especiay for those varieties having medicina vaues. Most organic rice farmers grow some of these traditiona varieties. Many NGOs are aso invoved in conserving and promoting traditiona varieties. The Centre for Indigenous Knowedge Systems (CIKS) in Tami Nadu, SAMBHAV in Odisha, and the Richharia Foundation in Chhattisgarh are a few exampes of such NGOs among others. A marketing company in the USA, Lotus Foods of San Francisco, Caifornia, is importing 'speciaty' (indigenous, organicay-grown, fair-traded) rices from severa countries, e.g., Kaajeera which is grown in eastern state of India, and is seing these in supermarkets a across the U.S. (3,500 outets, nationay). Consumers in the U.S. are wiing to pay about $4 for 15-ounce packets of these high quaity rices. Kaajeera rice offers renowned quaity (aroma, taste, eegance). There are surey a good number of indigenous Indian varieties that are quite superior (Uphoff, persona communication). There are probaby hundreds of rice varieties having specia quaities that are not known widey. Thanks to the efforts of many NGOs and individuas, these are coming into the open. From an effort to compie a ist of such varieties in India, detais of 25 varieties are given in Tabe Transforming Rice Production with SRI

177 Tabe 13.3 List of some traditiona speciaty varieties in India S.No. Name of the variety Speciaty Areas of cutivation 1 Aur Sanna Tasty, suitabe for porridge, good cooking quaity 2 Chenneu Non-scented. Red grain type used for treatment of diarrhea and vomiting. Red type given to patients recovering from jaundice 3 Chittaga Sweet rice, used for preparation of catte medicine Hosagadde, Nada Kaasi, Taaguppa Shimoga district, Karnataka Keraa Konjawai, Mandavai - Karnataka 4 Doobraj Scented and tasty Chuhi, Bara, Dakojageer Madya Pradesh 5 Hakkaa Kari Saaai Medicina vaue for fever Moogaihaa, Karnataka 6 Hansraj Exceent aroma, very good eating and cooking quaities 7 Hoabatta Tasty rice, suitabe for beaten rice and curd rice Pains districts of Utterakhand Saru, Chikkamagaur District, Karnataka 8 Indrashan Good eating and cooking quaities Pains of Utterakhand 9 Jeeraha Samba Scented, preferred for biriyani Tami Nadu 10 Jenugoodu Sweet rice, used for preparation of medicine for catte 11 Kaimadayan Specificay used for Manapparai murukku (snacks), suitabe for meas 12 Kappakkaar Suitabe for iddy, dosa, rice fakes. Used for meas in specia functions 13 Karunkuruvai Suitabe for iddy, dosa. Cooked rice used for medicine against the diseaseeephantiasis. Can be used as medicine for orthopaedic aiments and for fiariasis. 14 Kavunginpoothaa Non-scented. Given to diabetic patients. High amyase content Yaakundi, Suraguppe, Hireneur, Kagodu Karnataka Tami Nadu Tami Nadu Tami Nadu Paakkad district, Keraa 175 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

178 S.No. Name of the variety Speciaty Areas of cutivation 15 Kuakkaar Best for iddy, dosa. Suitabe for porridge. Increases nerves strength and contros diabetes and bood pressure 16 Kuzhiyadichan Suitabe for iddy, dosa. Administered for actating mothers Tami Nadu Tami Nadu 17 Lochai Lohandi Tastefu, digestive, ow water requirement 18 Navai Saai Nutritious and high minera content Bokra-Bokri, Tanghar, Madhya Pradesh Daddikamaapur, Karnataka 19 Neeansamba Rice suitabe for actating mothers Tami Nadu 20 Pichavaari Best for puttu; cooked rice administered for treating catte Tami Nadu 21 Ratna Chudi Sweet rice, good for popping Hosakoppa, Maandur - Karnataka 22 Sembaaai Suitabe for meas, best for popped rice Tami Nadu 23 Shrikama Scented and tasty Aahara, Umarghadadh, Pondikurd- Madhya Pradesh 24 Thinni Suitabe for biriyani, very good for meas 25 Thooyamai Suitabe for biriyani, meas. Heathy, tasty rice, increases nerves strength, and the cooked rice is very white Sources : Himacha Pradesh : SATHI, Thamba, Khundian, KangraDist, Karnataka: MadhyaPradesh : JSS Rura Deveopment Foundation, Mysore ShivarajHungund, Dharwad ManavVikasSansthan, Kao, Biaspur Dist. MPRLP, Shahdo, Ahera. PFT Member Custer, Tikhwa, BeohariDist Uttarakhand : Coege of Agricuture, GBPUAT, Pantnagar Tami Nadu: Centre for Indian Knowedge Systems, Chennai Keraa : Tami Nadu Tami Nadu Transforming Rice Production with SRI

179 13.2 SRI and Traditiona Varieties With increasing awareness on the vaue of quaity rices, markets in future might be ooking for more diverse food as consumers become more discerning and can afford to upgrade the quaity of their diet. Many organic rice farmers are adopting SRI in India. Since the seed requirement is very much ess with SRI, specia varieties coud be easiy conserved and popuarized. Specia rice varieties grown under SRI are aso being marketed ocay. An internationa market has aso been created for SRI rice. Madagascar Pink Rice imported from Madagascar, Organic Mekong Fower Rice imported from Cambodia, and Vocano Rice imported from West Java, Indonesia are being marketed onine at about US$ 3.64 per pound ( If the farmers cutivating the traditiona varieties adopt SRI for increased production of these varieties, it wi benefit them immensey. Besides, if nationa and internationa markets for the speciaty varieties are deveoped, they wi fetch farmers more profit. SRI can in this way hep in protecting the gene poo of rice, which is dangerousy narrow now Factors Infuencing Rice Markets Enterprise capacities : Management capacity, organization of export trade, inkages and market presence Transport and storage: Transport conditions and cost are particuary sensitive factors for deveoping-country exports, especiay for the numerous and-ocked and isand countries. Organizing ogistics is a core competency needed for most exporters in deveoping countries. Government poicies: Exchange rates, fisca poicies, export incentives, and export promotion. (Source : markets/commodity/rice.htm) 13.4 Summary The rich biodiversity avaiabe in India is itte known to consumers in other countries, and even unknown to many in contemporary India itsef. SRI provides great opportunity to mutipy these rices with a sma quantity of seeds. Aready we know that a number of the traditiona ('unimproved') varieties can give yieds over 10 t ha with SRI management, and they command a higher market price than do the 'improved' varieties because of consumer preferences. So growing them with SRI methods can satisfy both producers and consumers. This appication of SRI principes can give everage to the marketing of speciaty varieties of India not ony within the country, but aso gobay. 177 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

180 14 CONCLUSIONS Meeting the growing demand for more food grains requires more innovative approaches. Producing more with reduced drawdown of natura resources- and, water, and fossi fues - requires radicay different approaches. SRI is one such approach, which is producing more whie reducing the inputs- seed, water, fertiizers, and pesticides. Since is it not a seed-based approach, farmers have options of growing whatever variety they and consumers ike most. It is aso reduces the financia burden of farmers as it reduces their costs of cutivation. So there is an opportunity here for farmers and Governments to capitaize on the potentias of SRI and simiar methods to meet the growing concerns of food security in many deveoping counties. SRI is in some ways a very conventiona approachoptimizing pants' productivity by providing them with optima fied conditions - but it came into existence in a somewhat unconventiona way, more through the efforts of farmers and civi society than from forma scientific investigation. That is becoming a chaenge for the estabished agencies to visuaize and endorse its potentia. Fiedbased methods such as SRI were the foundations for improving the yieds for centuries before the seed-based approaches came into existence. The seed-based approaches have ony been in existence for the ast six decades or so. So, SRI is about going back to basics providing optima conditions of soi, water and nutrients for the rice crop. SRI as a term and as a package of practices came to ight from Madagascar. However, some of these practices were known in India aready at east a century ago. The use of singe seedings, wide spacing, and ess water - the core principes and practices of SRI - were experimented with by Indian farmers in the eary years of the 20th century. However, the term SRI and its nicey articuated principes and practices have caught the imagination of the miions of farmers and the sociay conscious groups around the word. Athough SRI was initiay promoted by civi society groups, now it is an officia programme activey promoted by Governments in many countries. The Ministry of Agricuture and Rura Deveopment in Vietnam has issued a forma decision October 15, 2007, acknowedging SRI as "a technica advance," and directing government agencies to "guide and disseminate " this innovation. SRI came to internationa attention ony after two decades of its initia deveopment in Madagascar, but today farmers in more than 40 countries and in a of the rice-growing areas of India are known to be making use of these methods. Being an innovation that does not depend on new or externa inputs, but rather on changes in management of avaiabe resources, it is quite unprecedented. The pathway for SRI's spread has been ikewise truy unconventiona as there was no standard research accumuation in its deveopment and itte officia extension support and government or donor funding for its dissemination. It has proceeded as mosty a civi society innovation, for which a great variety of organization, professions and individuas have joined. Now there is a great opportunity for estabished research agencies to further refine and improvise SRI to suit oca conditions and to extend the earning from SRI experience and study to making agricuture ess dependent on externa inputs. Further debate about the merits of SRI may not be a productive way of improving the food security given that severa miion farmers have aready adapted this method and are expecting this to be further refined and improved to be even more effective. There are sti some poicy makers, scientists and institutions who are raising doubts about the merit, vaidity and sustainabiity of SRI. 178 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

181 Certainy the debate on SRI shoud continue, as one way of further refining the method. But often such debates are based on certain prejudice and not on scientific evidence. Most of these doubts and demand for proof that SRI is working have come from some of the institutions which are expected to conduct independent research. Some of the repeated criticisms about SRI are mentioned beow with suggestions for resoving them SRI Vs. Non-SRI Understanding the resuts of SRI might require new toos and new modes. Anayzing and evauating SRI in terms of previousy-known scientific findings and currenty-accepted knowedge is not necessariy hepfu. The facts and parameters accumuated by conducting experiments with rice grown withnon-sri practices may not appy to SRIgrown pants. The physioogica and morphoogica characteristics of rice pants raised under SRI management are significanty different in many respects from non-sri rice pants, as observed by farmers and by researchers (Thakur et a. 2010). Thus, our knowedge of pant x soi x practice interactions needs to be vaidated rather than simpy assumed, when comparing SRI performance with non-sri rice reationships and resuts. For exampe, it is sometimes objected that because SRI management makes rice pants grow vigorousy with higher yieds, there must be nutrient mining in the soi. This concern may be correct, but it is based on the non-sri perspective that when a certain amount of nutrients are taken up by the pant to produce a unit quantity of yied, this higher yied means greater nutrient remova from the soi. This view does not consider the return of nutrients to the soi from organic matter appications, nor does it take account of the nutrient mobiization and recycing that can be accompished by the soi biota under conducive conditions. Nor does it consider that SRI pant phenotypes are more efficient in utiizing sunight and converting nutrients into biomass production (Zhao et a. 2009; Barison and Uphoff, 2011). The sustainabiity of SRI yieds shoud be tracked and evauated over a decade or more before drawing firm concusions. Aso, because SRI is not necessariy an 'organic' methodoogy, any specific soi nutrient deficiencies coud be remedied with nutrient amendments. In fact, a key macronutrient, phosphorus, exists in most sois in much abundance, but in pantunavaiabe forms. Evauations done in India and Indonesia that compared the soi organisms in the rhizosphere of SRI rice pants with those in the root zones of pants grown by usua methods have found that phosphorus-soubiizing microbes are more abundant in the former, as are diazotrophs, i.e., nitrogenfixing organisms (Anas et a. 2011). A ot more studies need yet to be conducted on such matters, but pubished information currenty avaiabe indicates increased ight use efficiency and higher nutrient use efficiency as we as more water use efficiency by SRI ricepant phenotypes. Studies have shown greater nutrient productivity (biomass per unit of nutrient taken up) to be higher in SRI pants. So assumptions and concusions based on previous research with non-sri phenotypes do not necessariy appy. The deayed eaf senescence aong with a higher eaf area index (LAI), pus higher root activity during reproductive and grain-fiing periods, offer favourabe growth conditions not experienced by a non-sri crop. Post-fowering pant physioogy is ikey to ater the source-sink reationships aso. The knowedge on carbohydrate synthesis and partitioning during grain-fiing acquired from non-sri rice pants may not hep us to understand the efficiency of SRI pants. Simiary, there used to be arguments about the merit of pant density and its roe in yied. 179 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

182 One of the core principes and practices of SRI is wide spacing of his with singe seedings. Previousy this has been chaenged saying that such practice wi not yied more since with ower pant popuations per unit of area compared to non-sri the number of tiers on an area basis wi be significanty ower (Sincair, 2004; Sincair and Cassman, 2004). But this has been proved wrong. Wide spacing, starting with young seedings, transpanted carefuy, quicky and shaow, actuay resuts in more productive tiers per unit of area. Aso, the ength of panices and number of grains per panice, as we as grain weight, can be positivey infuenced by these practices. This was not known before. So, an assertion on which SRI was criticized is now known to be no onger vaid. Such new knowedge has not emerged through research, but through the fied practices demonstrated by farmers. Rather excessive water use in rice cutivation has become a standard practice. But, it is sti not widey recognized that the inundation of rice fieds does not contribute to yied increase or growth of the rice pant. Actuay, deep water is used mosty to contro the weeds. If there is an effective and more economic way to contro weeds, excess water used for rice cutivation can be saved. SRI for the first time has proved to farmers and scientists that rice does not require so much water, and indeed that ess water actuay heps in enhancing the yieds. Obviousy more research is required to optimize the water requirement for rice cutivation. Since more and more new rice cutivation is expanding in upands, often pumping water from great depths, a better understanding of how to use water more efficienty not ony saves water but aso saves energy. SRI is certainy a great opportunity to farmers who are pumping water and cutivating rice in upands Adoption / Partia Adoption / Non-Adoption / Disadoption SRI is knowedge-intensive. Most of the institutions are we-equipped to dea with input-intensive methods such as seed and fertiizers for improving the yieds. SRI may appear simpe, and its eements are each quite straightforward. But it is knowedge-intensive and requires more support and training for farmers initiay. Like any other new methods, particuary fied-based, farmers who try the methods for one year and may not continue for the next due to various reasons. Yes, there is disadoption of SRI by some farmers. It is important to assess disadoption separatey from the merits of SRI. There are various pragmatic issues to be resoved, or soved, with SRI ike with any innovation. Once farmers understand the innovation, and the reasons behind it, there can be various ways to take advantage of its opportunities to raise productivity if indeed there is such a payoff to be achieved. Since the agronomic practices of SRI are different from conventionay foowed ones, convincing farmers to take up the new practices is the difficut part of SRI extension. Just bringing farmers to see the differences in the growth of an SRI crop may convince them to try out the new methods, and thus, the extension strategy and support is very important for SRI adoption. Having data on the reductions in cash cost and/or abor inputs, and on impacts on farmers' net income, can aso reinforce the visua message of seeing an SRI crop. Various techniques adopted by extension agencies and civi society organizations have been hepfu. Inspite of earning about the promising benefits, and seeing successfu farmers, some 180 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

183 farmers sti do not decide to try out SRI. Aso, there is disadoption with some farmers. Whie detaied anaysis is to be taken up to understand the reasons and dynamics of non-adoption and disadoption, poor understanding of SRI principes, non-avaiabiity of SRI toos, abour-reated constraints, insufficient water contro in some paces, and the requirement of more attention and monitoring of SRI crops appear to be the most important constraints on adoption. Thus, continued technica support for severa crop seasons and ongoing encouragement are necessary for most farmers to transform their cropping operations. Some farmers adopt ony some of the SRI principes, and some skeptics object that if not a of the basic SRI principes are adopted by farmers, how can their crop be caed SRI? This refects the fact that a certain set of principes for cutivating rice has been given a name 'SRI', and we do not have such history for any other crop. The whoe purpose of recommending SRI methods to farmers is to hep them achieve more output with ess input costs, and aso to enhance the food security of a nation, not just to give pubicity to a name. If farmers are abe to boost their yied and income by adopting ony some of the SRI principes, this is worthwhie. What is required is to get farmers to reaize that adopting a of the principes wi give them more benefits. This wi be the chaenge in SRI extension. SRI is not competing with any purchased technoogy; it has no patents or royaties; there are no inteectua property rights. SRI knowedge is avaiabe to anyone, free. The ony persons who can get richer from SRI are the farmers. What is required is to hep farmers reaize the fact that by adopting a of the principes and using them appropriatey, they wi get more benefits. This wi be the chaenge in SRI extension, moving from an input-focused process to a knowedge-based one. It is important to mention here that a of the packages of practices recommended by any agency, be it IRRI, ICAR or other institutions mandated to do that, are never fuy adopted by the farmers. So, dis-adoption or partia adoption of package of practices is not unique to SRI. From sowing to harvest, what the farmer does is governed by innumerabe oca factors that force him or her to decide the practice in the fied nursery type, variety sown, seed treatment, seeding age, main fied preparation, manure appication, number of seedings per hi, panting density, panting method, water management, weed management, pant protection, and fertiizer appication, etc. If a the practices foowed by 100 farmers in a typica rice bet are isted out, probaby none of them wi match the recommendations of any BMP proposed by researchers. This is the reaity. So, there wi be no justice in the compaint that if SRI farmers are not foowing a of the recommended SRI practices, what they are doing is 'not SRI.' Adopting SRI on a community basis is one best way of scaing up SRI. Sef Hep Groups (SHG) can be effectivey deveoped and utiized in this direction. Community SRI has severa advantages: Community nurseries wi hep make maintenance and monitoring easier. It wi aso sove the probem water scarcity and unreiabiity before the monsoon by starting eary cutivation. Staggered sowing of severa nurseries can be done so as to have at east some nurseries with right-aged young seedings when the rains do start. Trained manpower for the foowing coud be estabished: for nursery raising, seeding puing, eveing the main fied, marker use, square panting, shaow irrigation, and weeder operation The impements / toos required for SRI (markers, weeders, aser eveer, and harvester) coud be commony maintained and shared. 181 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

184 14.3 SRI Research Research on SRI in India has been carried out on the basis individua interests, with no major funding support so far for advancing scientific knowedge for SRI systematicay. However, sowy many estabished institutions are beginning to conduct research on SRI. But ceary this is not enough. More systematic research on SRI, incuding critica evauation of its merits, shoud be conducted in bigger way. Changes in microbioogica activity and pest / disease interactions due to SRI management have been studied to a imited extent, but they aready show the potentia for beneficia effects. The atered eaf morphoogy, surface characteristics, and phytochemica changes in rice pants under SRI management might pay a roe in the interactions with pests and diseases. Modified rhizosphere chemistry and enhanced xyem fow probaby ater and infuence the soi microbioogica activity. Why there is itte or no rat damage in SRI crops as reported by many farmers has not been understood scientificay up to now. Drought-toerance, odgingresistance, and typhoonresistance of SRI crops have been frequenty experienced by farmers, and the mechanisms for this are yet to be studied. The extensive root system and stronger stems (with apparenty higher siica content) appear to support these characteristics, but more thorough research remains to be done. There are many opportunities to study the effect of SRI practices on soi system dynamics, pant behaviour, micro-cimates, cimate change adaptabiity, carbon sequestration in the soi, socio-economic impacts especiay concerning gender, ong-term effects of SRI management, etc Future of SRI in the Country SRI has been found to have a number of advantages beyond the most obvious one of increasing rice productivity. The main one is bringing down the irrigation water requirement by neary 30-40%. This aone shoud be attractive to water managers and to decisionmakers who are responsibe for ensuring adequate water suppies for agricutura, industria and domestic uses. The potentia of SRI to meet the present-day chaenges in rice production is remarkabe: 1. SRI addresses the issues and concerns for abour scarcity, water scarcity, sustainabe productivity, input-use efficiency, and encourages pubic-private partnerships. 2. SRI increases the productivity of and, water, nutrients, and abour; it aso enhances and and water quaity by buiding up soi fertiity and reducing agrochemica buid-up in soi, groundwater and surface bodies. 3. SRI expoits the genetic potentias of rice genotypes by creating better above-ground and beow-ground environments for pant growth. 4. SRI principes have been extended to rainfed rice production so that upand areas, where poverty is often greatest, can be benefited. 5. SRI ensures househod food security of resource-poor farmers because it can raise their food production without requiring the purchase of inputs that woud require borrowing and debt. 6. For cimate-change conditions, SRI is best suited because of its ower water requirements and the resiience that it confers on rice pants to dea with drought, cod spes, and storm effects, as we as with pest and disease damage. 7. SRI is attractive to triba, margina and organic farmers. Its extension and extrapoation to a variety of other crops beyond rice can ead to widespread improvement in the food security and incomes of rura househods. 182 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

185 The foowing are some of the chaenges that have to be suitaby deat with in scaing up SRI in the country. Training and extension: Providing suitabe extension services on SRI incuding demonstrations, trainings, exposure visits, etc. is crucia. Systematic and continued support to farmers in acquiring skis is crucia in SRI adoption, and it shoud continue for a few years unti it becomes a common practice. Irrigation: Improving irrigation service deivery in major irrigation schemes. Many farmers even if they want to reduce their water or appy in a more scientific way are not abe to do this since the arge irrigation systems are not designed for SRI management, appying smaer but reiabe amounts of water. So there is need to re-orient our irrigation management towards ess water-intensive and more scientific appication of water to rice cutivation. Aso incentives for saving water through SRI method wi encourage the farmers to adopt SRI. Present poicies and incentives do not encourage the carefu appication of ess water to achieve higher production and more income. Once the benefits from SRI management are known by farmers, they shoud be sefsustaining because of farmers' economic advantages. Toos: Providing the most suitabe weeders in adequate numbers to particuar ocations, and aso markers and other impements. Deveopment of motorized weeders to reduce the time and effort needed for weeding woud provide a arge impetus for SRI spread. Understanding and addressing the issues reated to disadoption: Eiminating the constraints reated to disadoption by anaysis of oca factors is important toward achieving the sustainabiity of SRI adoption Nationa targets for SRI: Poicies and institutiona mechanisms for designing and deivering a common strategy for reaching a nationa target of 20% of ricegrowing area under SRI, by end 2016 (XII Pan period). A cear poicy framework for achieving an increase in rice production by % through SRI spread has to be formuated and promugated at nationa eve. The state government in Bihar, having aimed for 3.5 akh ha of SRI production in the 2011 kharif season (10% of the state's rice-growing area), has decided to set a state target of 1.4 miion ha for 2012 kharif, 40% of its rice area. It is hoped that SRI wi find substantia and appropriate support in the 12th Five Year Pan for India which is now under formuation. 183 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

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209 Vijayakumar, M., S. Ramesh, N. K. Prabhakaran, P. Subbian and B. Chandrasekaran Infuence of system of rice intensification (SRI) practices on growth characters, days to fowering, growth anaysis and abour productivity of rice. Asian Journa of Pant Sciences. 5: Wijebandara, D. M. D. I., G. S. Dasog, P. L. Pati and M. Hebbar Effect of nutrient eves and biofertiizer on growth and yied of paddy under System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and conventiona methods of cutivation. Tropica Agricutura Research. 20: Wijebandara, D. M. D. I., G. S. Dasog, P. L. Pati and Manjunath Hebbar Response of rice to nutrients and bio fertiizers under conventiona and system of rice intensification methods of cutivation in Tungabhadra command of Karnataka. Karnataka Journa of Agricutura Sciences. 22: Weijabhandara, D.M.D.I,, G.S. Dasog, P.L. Pati, Manjunath Hebbar Effect of nutrient eves on rice (Oryza sativa L.) under System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and traditiona methods of cutivation. Journa of the Indian Society of Soi Science Year. 59(1). Wofe, D Approaches to monitoring soi systems. In : Norman Uphoff et a. (eds). Bioogica approaches to sustainabe soi systems. Tayor & Francis. pp Word Bank Institute SRI, achieving more with ess: a new way of rice cutivation. agepk: ~pipk: ~thesitepk:443986,00.htm WWF (Word Widife Fund) More rice with ess water: System of Rice Intensification Xin Lu, Jiang, Zheng Jia Guo, Chi Zhong Zhi, He Shu Lin and Wang Shao Hua Study on nitrogen reguation of the system of rice intensification (SRI) of hybrid rice. Southwest China Journa of Agricutura Sciences. 22(4): Xiu Ming, Lu, Huang Qing, Liu Jun and Liu Huai Zhen Research of the experiment on the system of rice intensification. Journa of South China Agricutura University. 25:5-8 Xu, Long, Wang Ren-quan, Sun Yong-jian and Ma Jun Characteristics of popuation deveopment and yied formation of rice under triange-panted System of Rice Intensification at different nitrogen appication amounts. Zhongguo Shuidao Kexue (Chinese Journa of Rice Science). 24: doi: /j.issn Xu Hui, Wang, Yang Xiang Tian, Luo San Zhuo, Mao Guo Juan and Tao Dong En Appication of system of rice intensification (SRI) to singe cropping rice in Taizhou, Zhejiang. Hybrid Rice. 21: Yadao, A. C. and O. B. Zamora Responses of rice under the system of rice intensification and conventiona production systems in Iocos Norte, Phiippines. Phiippine Journa of Crop Science. 32:9907. Yuying, Wang, Zhu Bo, Wang Yanqiang, Gao Meirong and Ma Xiumei N2O emission from paddy fied under different rice panting modes. Wuhan Univ.J.Nat.Sci. 11: Zeiger, R.S., Dobermann, A., and Macki, D. (2008), 'Rice science: Key to food security and environmenta heath in a changing word', Website : Transforming Rice Production with SRI

210 Zhao, L., L. Wu, Y. Li, X. Lu, D. Zhu and N. Uphoff Infuence of the System of Rice Intensification on rice yied and nitrogen and water use efficiency with different N appication rates. Experimenta Agricuture 45: doi: /s Zhao, L., L. Wu, Y. Li, S. Animesh, D. Zhu, and N. Uphoff Comparisons of yied, water use efficiency, and soi microbia biomass as affected by the System of Rice Intensification. Communications in Soi Science and Pant Anaysis 41(1):12. doi: / Zhao, L., L. Wu, M. Wu and Y. Li Nutrient uptake and water use efficiency as affected by modified rice cutivation methods with reduced irrigation. Paddy and Water Environment 9: doi: /s Zonde, N.G., V.V. Goud, M.K. Rathod System of Rice Intensification Modified for Eastern Zone of Vidarbha. Annas of Pant Physioogy. 22: Transforming Rice Production with SRI

211 AgSri AgSri is a socia enterprise focused on providing soutions in the agricuture sector for improving the farm productivity and income, whie reducing the inputs costs. We are working towards promoting industry-friendy poicies favoring green technoogies. Our concept of More with Less in Agricuture offers newer options for farmers and companies to adapt to simpe, but integrated methods for improving the productivity whie reducing the usage of seed, water, fertiizers and pesticides. The focus of our work is to support governments, farmer groups, companies and aid agencies - working on the goba concern for food and water security and environment protection - on crop advisory, water management, irrigation, fertiizer and pest management, environment impact assessments and technoogy soutions in farm management. AgSri is significanty contributing to environment sustainabiity in the word through agri-business committed to sustainabe agricuture. AgSri Team Our strength is our highy experienced team who have previousy worked with various Internationa organizations and have significanty contributed in the areas of agricuture, water poicy, rura deveopment and socia sector for more than three decades. Some of the members of our team have been duy credited for promoting sustainabe methodoogies in rice, sugarcane, wheat and other crops and for their significant contribution in other areas in the deveopment sector. The team incudes experts from the fied of Agricuture, Agri-business, Forestry, Geoogy, GIS Hydroogy, Human Resources, Sois Sciences, Rura Deveopment and Socia Sector. What We Do AgSri offers services as consutants, as we as, on partnership basis for agricuture projects of various scope, size and resources. We offer consutancy for pioting innovative agricuture projects for governments, mutiatera aid agencies and corporate companies, cutting across diverse crops and cimate zones. Some of the areas AgSri can significanty contribute are: Optimize crop management systems in rice,sugarcane and others crops to produce more with custom inputs in diverse cimatic zones Design arge-scae interventions in coaboration with mutiatera agencies to maximize economic benefits for farmers and industry Specificay provide soutions for water intensive crops without compromising on the yieds Set-up process for traceabiity of the production process for the companies Provide guideines and impementation of certification process for major crops such as sugarcane, cotton, rice, wheat, etc. Reduce the footprint of agricuture sector, whie improving the income of the farmers and bringing profits to industry and providing quaity products to the consumers 209 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

212 Knowedge Resources India's growing food industry is facing crisis of human resources owing to modern technoogica deveopments. AgSri Schoo is working towards meeting the expertise required to meet the agricuture industry's human resources needs. In coaboration with NRMC (NABARD), AgSri is buiding a human resources poo who wi work with farmers' cooperatives and agricutura industries in impementing the sustainabe green technoogies, successfuy. Internationa Exposure AgSri's unique Internationa experience and partnership has opened up new vistas for food industry in India and gobay. AgSri with Neste Internationa wi be soon designing and impementing Responsibe Source Guideines (RSG). With Cambodian industry, AgSri is promoting SSI in South East Asia. And, SSI has aso found admirers among the Cuban Cane Cooperatives too. As part of South- South Cooperation's Initiative to address the goba food crisis, AgSri made exporatory visits to Tanzania, Ethiopia and Sierra Leone at the request of Indian and Goba companies for introducing sustainabe crop and water saving technoogies. AgSri Partners AgSri has a ong standing tradition of partnership with farmers for their prosperity. Gobay and in India, AgSri has joined Neste Internationa, Soidaridad, Triveni Sugars, Nationa Bank for Rura Deveopment (NABARD), Driptech USA and Nationa Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI, Coimbatore), for providing sustainabe soutions in the agricuture sector. We are currenty working with India's third argest sugar company, Triveni Engineering in Uttar Pradesh and have coaborated with Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK, Latur) in Maharashtra. Our bud chip technoogy is changing the way sugarcane crop is raised impacting on profits and ecoogy. Our Sustainabe Sugarcane Initiative (SSI), which reduces inputs costs and improves productivity of sugarcane by 30 percent is being impemented in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra and is benefiting more than 5,000 farmers. By adopting SSI, the sugar mis are benefitting due to increased sugar recovery as we as improved suppy of raw materias. AgSri has partnered with Driptech USA and has introduced ow cost drip systems that are easy to insta and comes at one-fourth cost of the conventiona drip system. AgSri aims to make drip irrigation easy and affordabe to farmers and to achieve this, as a piot project, AgSri Driptech has targeted to reach out to ateast 10,000 farmers in Andhra Pradesh in AgSri in coaboration with NABARD and SBI (Coimbatore) hosted the first Nationa Seminar on Sustainabe Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) in the Tami Nadu Agricutura University (Coimbatore) in Foowing AgSri's massive SSI promotion, the governments of Tami Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have incuded the SSI promotion in the 12th five year pan. NABARD is extensivey promoting SSI adoption and trainings in the various states of India. 210 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

213 NATIONAL CONSORTIUM OF SRI (NCS) The Nationa Consortium on SRI is a coaition of practitioners, poicy makers, resource institutions, researchers, scientists and other individuas, who are keen to spread SRI on a arge scae in the country. It is a think-tank and resource-poo in which the members have come together vountariy and committed to understand the advancement of the science, strengthen practice and take up poicy advocacy in favour of SRI. The NCS emphasizes on these three pivots: 1. Science of SRI: This incudes identification of the enabing factors for the fu expression of the genetic potentia of the rice pant without intensive inputs; conservation of natura resources; reduction in cost of cutivation; and improvement of soi heath, root system and sustainabe nutrient management. 2. Practices of SRI: The adoption of SRI has witnessed very rapid growth within a short span of time. This has happened mosty under Civi Society initiatives and itte State support. The foowing issues are of critica importance- cear insights and understanding the reaities of adoption and dis-adoption aong with an understanding of the tangibe benefits of SRI; measuring the efficiency and efficacy of the use of inputs and conservation of resources such as seeds, water, fertiizers and abour as we as organic suppements; design and spread of suitabe impements; and preparation of user friendy toos and knowedge resource materias. 3. Poicy on SRI: This incudes infuencing mainstream programmes and strategies for scaing up SRI; advocating innovative institutiona architecture of extension for wider adoption and impact; convergence of mutipe programmes; and evoving new forms of partnerships. Achievements: In a short time span, the NCS has created considerabe impact among stakehoders and has sensitized many poicy makers. The recent outputs are the foowing: series of interactive poicy diaogues conducted, pubished muti-ingua brochures, brought out a compiation of major research works on SRI, and pubished a Resource Book on SRI. The NCS was cosey associated with the 12th Five year Pan preparation process as we. The NCS continues to be reguar touch with the poicy makers in providing and inputs on mainstreaming the SRI discourse. 211 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

214 Road Map of the NCS 1. Evove more insights into the science of SRI and other simiar agro-ecoogica innovations to drive the new green revoution. 2. Take up action research at the on-farm eve in coaboration with scientists and practitioners incuding farmers, and to piot new ideas. 3. Deveop more carity on the socio-economic impacts of SRI techniques at the famiy farms. Evove strategies for capacity buiding of stakehoders on an ongoing basis. 4. Advocate for supportive poicy and innovative communication strategies NCS promote SRI research, bring out research documentation and engage in upscaing poicy For more Information about NCS contact: Dr. B C Barah, barah48@yahoo.com and Mr. D. Narendranath, naren@pradan.net 212 Transforming Rice Production with SRI

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216 NATIONAL CONSORTIUM OF SRI (NCS) # /1/1, Gaffar Khan Coony Road No.10, Banjara His Hyderabad , A.P, India Phone: , / 43