REPUBLIC OF YEMEN A REPORT ON: INSTITUTIONAL CASE STUDIES Natural Resources Management Domain Tribal Structures/Systems and Water Users Associations

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1 REPUBLIC OF YEMEN A REPORT ON: INSTITUTIONAL CASE STUDIES Natural Resources Management Domain Tribal Structures/Systems and Water Users Associations Draft # (1) Goals and objectives of the institutional case study The overall objective of the institutional case study is to assess and build on the potential of rural institutions to augment access to public and private services to the rural poor. The study proposes a new way of looking at preexisting rural institutions as a resource-a form of organizational capital-that has the potential to adopt new functions in order to facilitate access and mediate between the rural poor and public or private goods and services. The institutional mapping exercise that has been conducted for each focal institution aims at analyzing and depict graphically the relationships among different institutions in a given study location. An institutional map can clearly and concisely present a large amount of information about a number of characteristics of relevant institutions and about their links with other institutions. Knowledge about these links can provide information about leverage points for new policies. In particular the Yemen case study is carried out to assess the performance of existing rural /local institutions regarding the provision of services to their constituency and the factors that affect their performance. The results of the study will serve to identify entry points and capacity building requirements for the institutions involved in bank-financed rural operations in Yemen, in particular "The Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock Project ", "The Third Public Works Project", The Rural Energy Access Project as well as the entire activities of "The Social Fund for Development" in terms of improving organizational functioning, institutional linkages, governance outcomes related to inclusiveness, participation, and accountability, and livelihoods impacts of The World Bank funded projects and other donor. Furthermore, results of the study can be used by other development agencies involved in community-based development and capacity building interventions in Yemen and other countries that have similar context. Importance of the study This study has two dimensions the first is concerned with natural resources management and the second in focusing on institutions concerned with natural resources management in rural Yemen. Importance of this study in regard with natural resources management comes from the status of natural resources in Yemen that characterized with the following: Severe deterioration in vegetative cover due to draught, overgrazing, tree cutting and lack of preventive measures. Increment of gas prices forced people in rural areas to depend of fuel wood which resulted in more tree cutting Soil fertility is declining due to inappropriate farming practices and abandoning due to low productivity and insufficient revenues. Traces have been abandoned and collapsed due to low productivity and lack of agricultural labor. In addition, construction of new roads in mountainous areas resulted in damaging traces and soil erosion Inappropriate location and designing of dams and dikes in some valleys affected flood irrigation downstream Sand dunes have covered significant agricultural lands in the costal zone of Yemen Significant increment in number of animal raised in entire Yemen with graze lands of very limited capacity resulted in damage of natural grazing lands and overgrazing in remaining areas Lack of awareness among majority of rural communities on appropriate and sustainable natural resources practices. Although Yemen was famous for its unique and accumulated indigenous knowledge and practices in natural base for agricultural production (soil, water, rangelands, and vegetative cover), these practices have been abandoned by framers due to high labor cost and low revenues of agricultural products To address these problems, the study aims at diagnosing the situation and providing guidelines for institutional context that enables better management of natural resources in rural Yemen. Institutions concerned with natural resources management at both grassroots and central level will be exposed to an in depth analysis to assess their roles, functions, capacity, inter-relations, and their capacity needs for better addressing natural resources issues. 1

2 Problem structure of natural resources management: Yemen is witnessing set of problems and issues related to natural resources manifested in the following: Water Resources 1 Yemen is considered one of the poorest countries in water resources. Water share per person does not exceed 137 cubic meters per year and annual water consumption is 3.4 billion cubic meters. The annual renewable water resources in 2000 were 2.5 billion cubic meters. Agriculture sector is the main water user where consumption is around 90-93% of total consumption and Qat cultivation takes 20% of this rate.household use is around 6-8% followed by industrial use for the remaining percentages. Getting fresh water is a critical problem in various urban and rural areas to the extent that negatively affects the health and prosperity of the population Most groundwater resources are threatened by over exploitation at various levels and reaching to rates exceed feed in rates.overall exploitation rates reaches to 136% and some main groundwater resources are drying out due to expansion in irrigated cultivation at low irrigation efficiency levels, which do not exceed 35-40%. Considering this critical situation that threatens human life, the Government has taken several actions such as the establishment of an authority responsible for water resources (National Water Resources Authority), preparation of a water strategy, introduction of measures to improve irrigation efficiency and groundwater feeding. However, there is still a lot to be done which requires the provision of technical and financial support. Biodiversity Flora: Yemen is rich and has a unique biodiversity due to the variety in its topography. There are around 3000 species of plants that have adapted to the different habitats ranging from the coastline to mountainous areas and islands. Around 10% of these species are endemic and do not exist anywhere else in the world. Socotra Island alone has around 850 plant species of which 254 are endemic. Wild green cover and habitats witnessed severe degradation which in turn affected wild life and biodiversity in general. Main causes for green cover degradation are agricultural expansion, over cutting of wood, over grazing, urban expansion, use of chemical fertilizer, spreading of pollutants, non implementation of legislations and regulations, and low levels of environmental awareness on biodiversity protection Fauna: Originally Yemen was characterized by significant number of wildlife. There are around 70 species of mammals this includes the Arabian Leopard, Tiger, Ibex and other gazelles, most big mammals are endangered by extinction. There are also more than 365 species of birds of which 13 are endemic. 118 species of reptiles and amphibians have been recorded in the Republic of Yemen. Soil Degradation 2 Due to climatic changes, degradation of green cover, woodcutting and overgrazing and drought, soil resources, agricultural terraces, and cultivated lands are facing degradation problems. Main causes relate to wind and water erosion. The Government has taken certain measures to protect soil resources through pilot projects however there till exists problems in this field Desertification The country is facing desertification problems especially in southern and eastern areas and the western plane, where sand dunes cover agricultural lands, villages, roads, and other establishments and represent a serious threat. Statistics indicate that 97% of total land area is threatened by desertification at various levels. Main causes of desertification are extensive woodcutting, degradation of grazing lands and agricultural areas, and over exploitation of water resources. The Government has taken a number of measures, the most important being the development of a national desertification control plan. To achieve the objectives set, huge financial and human resource capacities are required, considering that the problem is beyond available capacity. Climate Change Yemen is affected by global climate change. This is felt through the continuing waves of drought, heat, 1 Yemen Sector Strategy Paper (PDF document)- World Bank WRSSDraftSection11.pdf 2 Yemen Land use/land Cover - 1M - E00 Format - GISDataDepot.com annotation: "..." [editor's note, 02feb2002] 2

3 desertification, floods, sea level rise and the like of natural problems that affected the country. The problems got worse with spreading of poverty, water scarcity, degradation of land resources and agricultural land The other dimension of natural resources management in Yemen is concerned with the institutional framework that undertakes main functions and plays role in the management processes. Two main types of institutions concerned with natural resources management exist in Yemen a) central level institutions which are found mainly in Sana'a with limited presences in the filed and b) community level institutions which operate at district and local community level and include tribal structures and water users associations. Institutional Issues Related to Natural Resources Management Low level of awareness among citizens on the importance of protecting the environment and natural resources. Lack of necessary formal legislations that protect the environment and prevent deterioration of the green cover through continuous woodcutting where other options exist for cooking purposes Lack of effective application of formal legislation that protect the scarce water resources and rationalize its use Low capacity of national cadres in administering and managing sustainable and rational use of natural resources No significant attempts are made to preserve cultural and historical heritage and practices related to management of natural resources. No integration for environment and natural resource issues into other relevant development policies. Lack of national databases on environmental indicators, natural resources, and biodiversity. There is a need for enhancing the role of environmental data in decision-making to achieve rational and sustainable use of natural resources Why tribal structures and water users association have been selected as focal point institution in the study: Yemen society is known for its strong affiliation to the tribal system, which is deeply rooted in people's economic, social and political life. Tribal leaders continue to play an important role in the redistribution of goods and services and the settlement of conflict. In the northern Highlands where the tribal system continues to operate as the prevalent mode of social organization, sheikhs are generally chosen by their constituents, and could equally be voted out of office. They were thus accountable to their constituents, considered a first among equals rather than absolute rulers. Number of registered sheikhs in the entire Yemen exceeds 6000 and varies widely from governorate to governorate. Sana a Governorate has the highest number of registered sheikhs per capita (nearly one sheikh for 2,757 people compared to one for 45,078 inhabitants in Al-Mahweet). Moreover, the southern governorates also have a large number of registered sheikhs, although the tribal system itself was weakened under socialist rule. Tribal structures exist at all levels of administrative units of the government structure from intra-district level to local community at village level. Being the sole system has presence and authority at the grassroots level, subdistrict and downward, the tribal system undertakes many functions related to natural resources management as follows: Applying traditional laws and resolving conflicts over agricultural lands (holdings), grazing areas, and priority in irrigation from floods Allocation of communal land for public utilities such as schools, clinics, water projects, and dikes and check dams Protecting and organizing usage of vegetative cover which manifested in tree cutting, overgrazing and over-pruning, Mobilizing communities for riverbank protection, flood control establishments, and traces construction or rehabilitation Description of the context Social, economic, political, and cultural context In terms of natural resources the Republic of Yemen can be divided into four main geographical regions: the coastal plains in the west, the western highlands, the eastern highlands, and the Rub al Khali in the east. The Tihamah ("hot lands") form a very arid and flat coastal plain. Despite the aridity, the presence of many lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for malarial mosquitoes. There are also extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes. The evaporation in the Tihama is so great that streams from the 3

4 highlands never reach the sea, but they do contribute to extensive groundwater reserves; today these are heavily exploited for agricultural use. The Tihamah ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands. This area, now heavily terraced to meet the demand for food, receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 mm per year to about 760 mm in Ta'izz and over 1,000 mm in Ibb. Agriculture here is very diverse, with such crops as sorghum dominating, but cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, with mangoes being the most valuable. Temperatures are hot in the day but fall dramatically at night. There are perennial streams in the highlands but these never reach the sea because of high evaporation in the Tihama. The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 meters in elevation. This area is drier than the western highlands because of rain-shadow influences, but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for extensive cropping. Diurnal temperature ranges are among the highest in the world: ranges from 30 C in the day to 0 C at night are normal. Water storage allows for irrigation and the growing of wheat and barley. Sana'a is located in this region. The highest point in Yemen is Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb, at 3,760 meters. The Rub al Khali in the East is much lower, generally below 1,000 metres, and receives almost no rain. It is populated only by Bedouin herders of camels. Status of natural resources in study sites: Soil: There are common characteristics in the status of soil in the four study sites as follows: Soil erosion on hill slopes and Wadi beds Terraces deterioration and collapse due to abandon, roads construction and inappropriate water diversion in mountainous areas Lack of terraces maintenance by communities due to low revenues from agricultural production Deterioration of soil fertility and productivity due to poor farm management practices Declining of indigenous knowledge, norms and practices in terraces maintenance and management Sand dunes covering agricultural lands (Abs and Tuban Districts) Water Resources: The status of water resources in study sites are: a) Direct rainfall: Water shortage is a serious problem facing agricultural in study sites. Not only is the rainfall amount is not sufficient but also it marked by irregularity and periods of droughts. In most cases, therefore, present agriculture practices can not be undertaken without some form of supplement irrigation. b) Runoff from watershed areas used in spate irrigation: Use of occasional heavy floods of very short duration is rather very common practice in study sites. Floods or spates are diverted into fields by elementary but effective traditional methods ditches (Masqua) onto adjacent terraces. Surface water is available in the form of sayl (water flood), i. e. seasonal flood are diverted by small earth or stone bunds called (Ogma), across the wadi bed to divert part or entire flow to their field. However, many Small diversion canals have been traditionally constructed to convey water by gravity to areas selected for irrigation. c) Runoff harvested from small surface areas and conveyed directly to agricultural fields through the Masqua: When agricultural fields are not located below a watershed outlet and/or con not receive spate water, runoff is then harvested from the above surface area and is directly conveyed through ditches (masqua) to the agricultural plot or terrace. d) Springs: Water resources in form of springs or shallow groundwater are very scarce in study sites. The most widespread irrigation method in study sites is diversion of surface water during the rainy seasons and water from the wadis constitute the most important source of groundwater recharge. Water Rights: Water rights in study sites are based on well known locally called Sharea principles applied in the entire country. According to these principles, landowners located upstream in the wadi have the right to irrigate their lands before lands located downstream (Upper then lower). Traditional water diversions are constructed by oxen or tractors along the wadi to divert floodwaters to each piece of land located along the wadi beds. There seems to be no constraints on production caused by Water Rights. However, it must be noted that construction of concrete diversions at the higher parts of wadis caused serious problems to landowners in the lower parts of the wadis elsewhere. Floods are always retained in the upper parts of the wadis through out the seasons, thereby depriving lands from floods downstream. 4

5 Networks of sawaqi (rainwater earth canals) divert runoff to every terrace. Runoff is also diverted to lower terraces through a special outlet in the upper terrace. Damages caused to the water canals are the responsibility of the beneficiary from the canal. Damages caused to terrace walls are the responsibility of the owner of the terrace. The owner is obliged to repair it before further damage can be caused as a result of soil erosion. In the view of increasing number of water harvesting establishments in study sites, appropriate water right systems need to be established and applied. These systems are to be developed in full participation of concerned communities and should clearly identify water usage purposes for each establishment. Moreover, the role of community members in the sustainable management of these water structures should be stressed in the local regulations. Major problems concerned with water resources in study sites can be summarized in the following: Shortage in small water harvesting facilities and insufficiency of water to human and animals needs Limited usage of spate irrigation due to deterioration of water harvesting systems in mountains, hill slopes and wadis (Bani Matar and Al-Mahweet Districts) Inappropriate locations selection of some dikes Non-utilization of water harvested by majority of dikes and dams due to lack of water distribution facilities and absence of clear vision on utilization systems Low efficiency of traditional complimentary irrigation methods in utilizing surface water Vegetative cover and rangelands: The trees cover in study sites is relatively poor. In wadis and to some extent in the low lands in intermountain plains there are indicators of locally maintained traditions of tree management. This was confirmed by views of local leaders where it was understood that tree cutting is prohibited. Tree pruning is allowed for sale of firewood or for charcoal preparation. Rangelands are open to all community members throughout the year for grazing and for tree pruning. Rangelands in hill slopes are limited in area and in flora. The rocky nature of hill slopes renders grazing and tree growth is difficult. This is also complicated by the drought conditions prevailing in most of the study sites. Main characteristics of vegetative cover and rangelands in study sites are as follows: Deterioration of vegetative cover and low grazing capacity of rangelands due to over grazing and tree cutting Widespread of Procipos trees (Misskeet/Saysaban) and wild cactus (Balas Ahmar) in rangelands (Al- Mahweet and Abs) to the extent forced people to abandoned their farms, grazing lands and villages Status of institutions concerned with natural resources management is study sites: There are three levels of institutions concerned with natural resources management in study sites a) central level institutions b) district level institutions and c) local community level institutions. Key characteristics of natural resources management practices performed by these institutions are as follows: Local norms that govern utilization of natural resources exist in study sites but degree of application and commitment vary significantly; the highest in the Al-Maheet and Bani Matar districts due to limitedness of resources and influence of tribal system and the lowest in Tuban where there is no strong and influential tribal system. Government entities concerned with natural resources management are almost absent at district and local community levels in study sites. They only exist at central level but with very low capacity and lack basic requirements to act on issues related to natural resources management No clear linkages exist between tribal structures and government entities in regard with natural resources management. In addition, the legislative framework for natural resources management are either lacking or not applied and all previous related regulations and currently under review to cope with decentralization process adopted by the government. Efforts made by government and development agencies in addressing natural resources management issues included the following: 1) Implementation of sets of interventions through Offices of Agricultural in study sites which include: establishment of water harvesting and irrigation facilities, river bank training, traces rehabilitation and afforestation. These interventions include that funded by Agriculture and Fisheries Production Promotion Fund (AFPPF) in irrigation and water harvesting 2) Set of projects for natural resources management funded or implemented by international donors and funding agencies including the World Bank. Current World Bank funded efforts in natural resources sector in study sites manifested in the following projects: Sana a Water Basin Management Project 5

6 Groundwater and Soil Conservation Project Spate Irrigation Improvement Project Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock Project Related intervention undertaken by specialized units within The Social Fund for Development (SFD) 3) Interventions undertaken by international NGOs such as CARE international and EIDAS includes terraces rehabilitation, water harvesting, and vegetative cover protection through biogas units. 4) Very small scale initiatives undertaken by local communities including: water harvesting establishments, diversion canals, terraces rehabilitation, community forestry, and protection of grazing lands and tree cover. In spite of these efforts, the deterioration in natural resources in study sites in still rapidly increasing because of: Efforts made are of small scale, with very limited coverage, and last for very short time No integrated comprehensive approaches applied in these interventions In government interventions there is low level of community participation and lack of community ownership Allocation of interventions and resources is made on political, social, and influence basis Concerned government entities lack the technical know-how, administrative capacity and resources to actively contribute to these projects in a sustainable manner Local community interventions in natural resources management, which based on norms and traditions, lack formal legislative framework for reinforcement. Hazards on natural resources in study sites: Major natural and manmade hazards that affect the natural resources in study sites are: Frequent floods that hit parts of Abs, Al-Mahweet, and Bani Matar districts and resulted in death of people, perish of animal, damage of crops, and destruction of irrigation establishments. Draught and low rainfall rates that took place during late nineties and early 2000s which very much affected the rainfed sector and animal production activities in study sites to the extent that some farmers abandon their lands and moved to big cities and town, with or without their families, looking for other work opportunities. Increment in gas prices which raised rural people dependency on firewood for cooking purposes that resulted in more tree cutting Construction of new roads in mountainous areas, without undertaking appropriate environmental safeguards, resulted in collapse of terraces and soil erosion Construction of irrigation establishments (dam and dikes) at up-streams resulted in depraving farmers at down-streams from irrigation and caused soil salinity Significant increment in pumping of groundwater for cultivation purposes (Qat in the first place) resulted in very rapid depletion of surface water in major water basins in Sana a and the middle plateau Widespread of Procipos trees (Misskeet/Saysaban) and wild cactus (Balas Ahmar) in rangelands (Al- Mahweet and Abs) to the extent that forced people in some remote areas to abandon their farms, grazing lands and villages Limited efforts have been made by tribal structures to help households in study sites to cope with these hazards as follows: Mobilizing local communities for provision of emergency humanitarian aid for those affected by floods (tents for housing and food items) Registration of households affected by these crisis and size of looses, and forwarding these information to the governorates and the central government for support and compensations Mobilizing concerned governmental offices and district local councils to provide support for affected households Mobilizing local non-governmental associations and civil society organizations to provide support for those affected. Limited capacity of tribal structures in addressing natural hazards in study sites is because of: Large scale damages caused by these incidents are above the capacity and resources of tribal structures High poverty level in study sites whereas people lack resources neither to rehabilitate their own production resources base nor to contribute in support to the others No beforehand preventive measures are taken by these structures for such types of hazards Rural Institutional Landscape 6

7 The following key institutions exist in study sites and work under natural resources domain. These institutions have ties with the focal institutions in terms of work relations and flow of information, command and resources. These institutions are classified into the following types: Formal The District Local Council (DLC) The Office of Agriculture The Social Fund for Development The Groundwater and Soil Conservation Project The Spate Irrigation Improvement Project National Water Resources Authority (NWRA) Rural Water Projects Authority (RWPA) The General Directorate for Forestry and Desertification Combat (GDFDC) The General Directorate for Irrigation (GDI) Public Market Collective Local Community Associations (LCAs) Water Users Associations (WUAs) Informal Tribal Structures/Systems (TSSs) Water Users Groups (WUGs) The role of other institutions concerned with natural resources management in rural societies: Local Community Associations (LCAs) In the four selected governorates there are 608 Local Community Associations (LCAs) registered with the Social Welfare Offices. LCAs include wide range of voluntary institutions e.g. charitable organizations, cultural associations, social associations, professional associations, scientific societies, syndicates, clubs and forums. In terms of number of LCAs; there are 139 in Hajja, 137 in Sana'a, 235 in Lahj, and 97 in Al-Mahweet. This category of institutions appeared in study sites in 1980s and witnessed big increase in late 1990s as results of the consequences of economic reform and first Gulf War on local and poor community in Yemen. Although all these institutions are registered under the Non-Governmental Associations and Organizations Law No (1) for the Year 2000, they have significant differences in their operations and areas of focus; charitable associations, community based associations, community funds (Sanduq), and community development associations.. There are no significant differences among these types of associations in terms of institutional and operational.capacity In all Yemen and from among the 5300 registered local NGOs there are only 109 concerned with natural resources management issues, none of them exists or operates in study sites 3. CLAs in study sites lack basic requirements to address natural resources management issues in terms of vision, technical know-how, resources, and institutional capacity. Major problematic areas for local NGOs working in fields of environment and natural resources in Yemen are: Top-down and conventional approaches applied by these institutions that neglect importance of community participation in interventions undertaken by these institutions Lack of training and technical capacity Limitedness of resources and inability to raise funds from local and international sources Lack of accurate data on natural resources in the country Lack of networking among these NGOs and inappropriate relations with other development actors District Local Councils (DLCs) The District Local Councils (DLCs) were established in year 2000 as a result of issuance of the Local Authority Law number 4 for Year The Law was issued to lay legislative and legal foundation for decentralization and people s participation. The current election round of Local Council (the second) started in 2006 will last for 7 years. The core functions of the District Local Council is to propose and prepare the district economic and social development plans and projects and supervise their implementation in a way that ensure provision and improvement of basic services for the local community. In addition, it directs controls and supervises the work of executive organs in the district. 3 Ministry of Planning and International Corporation: Directory of NGOs working in Environment and Natural Resources June

8 According to the Local authority Law, DLCs are supposed to play key role in the management of resources in the districts including natural resources. Practices in study sites showed that DLCs are almost making no efforts in natural resources management as follows: No interventions on natural resources management are included in DLCs annual investment programs No sufficient resources allocated by DLCs to Agriculture Offices in the districts for such purposes Tribal structures receive no support from DLCs in performing their role in natural resources management DLCs in Abs, Al-Mahweet, and Tuban are partially involved in natural resources management through endorsing interventions that are proposed by the Spate Irrigation Improvement Project and the Groundwater and soil Conservation Project National Water Resources Authority (NWRA): The National Water Resources Authority (NWRA) is responsible for policies and the overall management of water resources in the country. According to the law, NWRA is in charge of issuing licenses for exploitation of water resources for various purposes. In order to issue a permit for water resources utilization NWRA carry out surveys, conduct studies, identify locations and supervise implementation of any water establishments. In addition NWRA monitor the water resources status and develop appropriate policies that help conserving and appropriate utilization of water resources in the country. In spite of the vital functions supposed to be undertaken by NWRA it has no presence neither at governorate level nor at district level. It lacks the structure, resources and staff who can perform these functions at the field level which resulted in random digging of wells, over exploitation of water basins, neglecting environmental safeguards in some water establishments and in appropriate technical specifications of some irrigation facilities. Rural Water Projects Authority (RWPA) The Rural Water Projects Authority (RWPA) is responsible for drinking water projects in rural Yemen in terms of planning, technical studies, funding, establishment of community associations and problem solving that is in addition to establishment of supervision and monitoring systems for drinking water projects. Water projects ideas are first initiated by tribal leaders and influential society members then approved by the local council to be endorsed by RWPA and included in its implementation plans. Each rural water project is managed by a local community association which is responsible for participation in project designing, planning, collection of community contributions, operation and maintenance of the facility in a sustainable manner. According to the law, RWPA delegates local community associations to price water supply services in a way the guarantees sustainability of the project. RWPA has presences at central level and governorate level and it has no presences at district level The General Directorate for Forestry and Desertification Combat (GDFDC) The General Directorate for Forestry and Desertification Combat (GDFDC) was established in 1990 and aims to conserve, maintain and develop the natural resources base in the country that manifested in vegetative cover, soil fertility, and waterfalls. GDFDC consists of 6 departments as follows: Plantations and Desertification Compact Department Natural Rangelands Department Waterfalls Department Services and Coordination Department Nurseries Department Natural Forestry Department In the past GDFDC used to be a section in the General Directorate of Plant Production and used to have representation in the Offices of Agriculture at district level. After restructuring and becoming a General Directorate on its own, GDFDC has field presence only in four Governorates and without any presence at district level. At local community level all functions that are suppose to be undertaken by GDFDC are mainly tackled by tribal structures according to local norms and tradition that slightly vary from region to other. Till very recently GDFDC used to implement significant number of projects that are funded by international donors (mainly FAO) but currently there is no single project implemented by the directorate. In order to activate GDFDC and have it performing its role effectively in natural resources management, a new law has been developed and technically reviewed and it is under legislative review now. This law aims at achieving sustainable utilization of natural resources in Yemen The General Directorate of Irrigation (GDI) Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation: 8

9 The General Directorate of Irrigation (GDI) is concerned with management of water sources for irrigation purposes. GDI work is mainly directed to technical aspects of irrigation schemes funded by the Agriculture and Fisheries Production Promotion Fund (AFPPF) which allocates 70 to 80% of its resources for this purpose. In the view of the fact that shortage of water is considered a major factor affecting the agricultural sector in Yemen in addition to the fact that irrigation establishment are very costly, the government of Yemen is annually allocating more than YR 3,000 million for water establishments through AFPPF. Different approaches have been applied by AFPPF in order to work in this field as follows: At the beginning, individuals who can afford the cost of field study and technical designing were allowed to apply for irrigation establishments. This approach allowed influential figures and well-off people to implement irrigation establishments that serve very limited number of people and not at all the needy. As a result majority of irrigation establishment are around Sana'a because of being close to the decision making bodies in the centre In order to foster further community participation the contribution has been raised to 40% of the total cost and the total cost should not exceed YR 15 million. Although GDI has carried out big number of studies and technical reviews of irrigation establishments, outcomes of these projects are insignificant if compared with resources allocated for these processes and that is due to the following: Some establishments are just blocking water and leave it to evaporate without benefiting from it in irrigation because AFPPF only funds dams and dikes but not water distribution systems/networks There are no precise and specific criteria for selection and construction of irrigation establishments (application requirements, specification of location, procedures, size of agricultural lands benefiting from the establishment, existence of water distribution facilities, how and who is responsible for management and maintenance of the facility, and what is the technical role of GDI after construction) Construction of irrigation establishments have became a business in itself for some contractors and multi-purpose agricultural cooperatives to the extent that they initiate and promote for such projects and shoulder all technical aspects and primary expenses in order to be contracted for implementation later on. More than 30% of existing irrigation establishments funded by AFPPF are not properly functioning or appropriately utilized because of improper site selection, lack of water distribution systems, or inappropriate design. GDI interaction with tribal structures is mainly concerned with a) consolations on selection of sites for water establishment b) organization of field visits for technical teams and c) collecting community contributions The Groundwater and Soil Conservation Project (GSCP) The Groundwater and Soil Conservation Project (GSCP) is designed to test innovative solutions to the critical groundwater problems in Yemen. The problem of unsustainable groundwater extraction has been caused by the rapid spread of groundwater irrigation, combined with dwindling rates of recharge. The root cause is a weak management framework ill-adapted to ensuring sustainable extraction levels, efficient water use, and watershed protection. The project has the following three components. Component 1) provides the supply and installation of buried PVC and over-ground galvanized iron (GI) pipes to improve water conveyance and distribution efficiency. It would also provide localized on-farm irrigation systems (drip, bubbler or sprinkler) for a part of the project area to further reduce on-farm water losses. Specifically, this component involves: (a) improving irrigation conveyance efficiency on about 27,000 ha through the supply and installation of groundwater conveyance pipes; and (b) modernization and improvement of localized on-farm irrigation efficiency. Component 2) provides gabion baskets and other materials for the selective improvement of traditional small and medium spate schemes within identified wadis to improve spate conveyance, diversion efficiency, and groundwater recharge, in addition to associated wadi bank protection for villages. I t also involves rehabilitation of terraces to conserve soils from water erosion and water harvesting structures, and divert run-off water for irrigation and recharge the groundwater. This specifically involves: (a) Small and medium-scale spate irrigation improvement and rehabilitation in the wadis, and (b) Improvement of water harvesting and soil conservation works in the uplands. Component 3) provides project implementation support, monitoring and evaluation activities, and institutional and capacity building support in the form of training and facilities to institutions involved in the project. The components consist of: (a) Capacity building (equipment, vehicles, materials, office buildings, technical assistance, training, project management and incremental operating costs). (b) Capacity building and technical assistance for local communities in project areas. GSCP implements its interventions through establishing of community associations and build their capacity to undertake all aspects of water establishments management functions. GSCP works in consultation and close collaboration with DLCs and concerned government executive offices in the districts. GSCP involvement with 9

10 tribal structures includes a) selection of interventions sites and b) mobilizing local communities for contribution and projects implementation The Spate Irrigation Improvement Project (SIIP) The Spate Irrigation Improvement Project (SIIP) is the first phase of the Yemen Program, to ensure sustainable water resources management in seven main spate irrigation schemes in Yemen, and improve agriculture productivity, and small-holder income in these areas. The project components are: a) to support the rehabilitation, improvement, and protection of spate irrigation infrastructure, namely Tuban and Zabid schemes, topographical surveys, with detailed design, and hydraulic models testing will be implemented, with supervision on improvements of irrigation systems at the canal level, including wadi levels. This includes construction of flood protection, and road rehabilitation works. b) To enhance irrigation, and environment management, a participatory irrigation management approach will be established, that is, through water users associations (WUA), and a scheme water users federation, with joint management mechanisms, should provide institutional support. Operation and maintenance equipment will be provided, to be leased by the WUAs, and, supported by groundwater, and hydraulic monitoring. c) An intensive agriculture demonstration program will provide improved agricultural practices, through extension services in technology transfer. d) Institutional strengthening and capacity building will support the relevant institutions in the irrigation sector, including legal framework support. SIIP operates only in Tuban district in study sites and has established 16 Water Users Associations (WUAs) and details of project interventions in Tuban district are as follows Type of irrigation establishment Diversion canals, dikes, and water collection points Cultivated area (ha) Total number of farmers Number of female farmers Water Users Groups Water Users Associations Number of Number of Number of Number of groups members associations members 15,906 8,302 1, , ,063 Sources: Spate Irrigation and Improvement Project Records The structure of the spate irrigation system comprises water users groups, water users associations, and the irrigation council at the district level. Water users groups are not formally registered while water users associations are registered with the Office of Social Affairs. The Irrigations Council is responsible for the overall management of spate irrigation systems in the district. It comprises the Governorate Commissioner, representatives of the 16 Water Users Associations, the Director of the Office of Agriculture, the Irrigation Unit in the governorate, the district attorney, and three social characters from various places in the district who are knowledgeable and experienced in the area. SIIP involvement with tribal structures in study sites includes a) consultation on water establishment sites selection and b) mobilizing local communities for formation of Water Users Groups (WUGs) and Water Users Associations (WUAs) Offices of Agriculture in study sites: Upon application of The Local Authority Law in 2000, the government established Government Executive Offices in each district to undertake central government functions at district level. Offices of Agriculture in study sites are aiming at providing agricultural and veterinary extension and support services for farmers and animal raisers Activities undertaken by Offices of Agriculture in study sites include the following: Organizing field demonstrations on farming practices and testing new technologies Provision of agricultural inputs for farmers (no longer exist) Organizing extension campaigns on various agricultural and animal husbandry issues Provision of technical assistance and delivery of service on request basis for farmers and animal raisers. Technical services provided by OOA include: pest control, animal treatments, fertilizers application, and fruit trees caretaking Offices of Agriculture in selected districts have very low work profile because of the following: Lack of appropriate staffing: each office has one to two persons, 80% of them are secondary or basic school graduates, and lack appropriate level of technical skills to undertake their work Limited resources: no transportation, inappropriate work environment, and lack of basic work materials and inputs 10

11 Limited operational budget: YR 60,000 per month in average which is not enough to cover the cost of basic utilities: electricity, water supply, and telephone bills. No agriculture production projects included in districts investment programs Services provided by Offices of Agriculture in study sites at present are limited to that requested by big farmers, fruit producers, and animal raisers on business basis. Relationships of Offices of agriculture in study sites with tribal structures are relatively strong and manifested in the following: Tribal structures are entry points for agricultural extension services Tribal leaders are consulted in selection on contact farmers and demonstration plots Tribal leaders are key informants in selecting beneficiaries for agricultural interventions carried out by the Offices of Agriculture in study sites Water Users Associations (WUAs) and Water users Groups (WUGs) Water Users Associations (WUAs) and Water Users Groups (WUGs) are established in study sites by two World Bank funded project: the Spate Irrigation Improvement Project and Groundwater and soil Conservation Project in Lahj and Al-Hodiedah Governorates. WUGs are informal entities, established by farmers who use same source of irrigation (side canal or diversion canal) or benefiting from the same irrigation establishment or facility, in order to organize them for collective actions that enable them to obtain and appropriately use their water sources. WUGs that use canals taking water from same source come together and form Water Users Association (WUAs) which is formally registered by The Office of Social Affairs (OSA) in the district under the Law No. (1) for the Year 2001 regarding Non-Governmental Organizations and Associaions. WUGs and WUAs are formed as a condition to obtain irrigation material inputs and technical support provided by these projects. Their activities are limited to that concerned with installation of irrigation systems, establishment of irrigation facilities, organizing demonstration activities, operating irrigation systems and facilities and management and maintenance of theses systems and facilities.. WUGs and WUAs are concerned only with irrigation without any involvement in other issues related to their members needs such as supply of agricultural inputs and provision of marketing facilities which are very much affecting agricultural activities in study sites (Tuban in particular) Involvement of tribal structures with WUGs and WUAs is limited to moblizing local communities to form these groups at the early stages of these projects Organizational characteristics of relevant institutions concerned with natural resources management domain in study sites The following information resulted from analysis of context of relevant institutions concerned with natural resources domain in study sites (see annex No (1 ): Institutional Mapping for Relevant Institutions concerned with Natural Resources Management Domain in Study Sites) Although District Local Councils (DLCs) in study sites have medium level of relevance, they have low degree of influence in natural resources management which is due to a) no related projects are included in the annual investment programs b) limited support and operational budget is provided to Office of Agriculture and c) focus of DLCs is on provision of social services and infrastructure facilities. Some of these interventions (roads construction) have made serious negative impact on natural resources in these areas. The Offices of Agriculture (OoA) in study site are relatively small in size, with low capacity, low innovativeness, low flexibility, low representativeness, low degree of inclusion, and medium level of transparency. The Offices of Agriculture have medium level of relevance to natural resources management with low level of presence at community level which makes their degree of influence in natural resources management relatively low. The low performance of Offices of Agriculture in natural resources management is study sites is because of a) lack of sufficient resources b) lack of cadres specialized in natural resources management and d) absences of clear institutional mandate on the role of Offices of agriculture in natural resources management. The World Bank funded projects (SFD, GSCP, and SIIP) are relatively medium in size, with high capacity, medium degrees of inclusion, representativeness, innovativeness, transparency, and flexibility. They have relatively high level of relevance to natural resources management, low presence at local community level, and relatively medium level of influence. These levels of institutional indicators are due to participatory community-based approaches applied by the World Bank projects that promote working through local community structures 11

12 Local Community Associations (LCAs) in study sites are small in size, with low capacity, and with medium degrees of; inclusion, representativeness, innovativeness, transparency, and flexibility. In addition they have medium to high level of presence at local community level with low level of relevance and influence in natural resources management. Low profile of LCAs in natural resources management is due to a) focus on basic social services b) lack of resources to address large scale problems such as natural resources management and c) lack of organizational capacity (human and material resources) to address natural resources issues The concerned governmental authorities (National Water Resources Authority and Rural Water Projects Authority) have no existence and presence at district and local community levels. Awareness and application of laws and regulations made by these authorities in natural resources management is almost lacking at districts and local community level. Concerned government directorates (The General Directorate for Forestry and Desertification Combat and The General Directorate for Irrigation) are relatively small in size, with low capacity, relatively low degrees of inclusion, representativeness, innovativeness, transparency, and flexibility. Although these entities have high degree of relevance to natural resources management. they have low degree of influence because of low level of presence at district and local community levels Institutional characteristics and processes of tribal structures: History and regulatory framework of tribal structures in Yemen: Yemen society is known for its strong affiliation to the tribal system, which is deeply rooted in people's economic, social and political life. Tribal leaders continue to play an important role in the redistribution of goods and services and the settlement of conflict. In the northern Highlands where the tribal system continues to operate as the prevalent mode of social organization, sheikhs are generally chosen by their constituents, and could equally be voted out of office. They were thus accountable to their constituents, considered a first among equals rather than absolute rulers. The success and effectiveness of a sheikh is determined by his ability to negotiate and persuade rather than coerce. Their primary responsibility is to resolve disputes, manage communal assets, protect the weak, collect agricultural taxes and then redistribute it. They are to also deliberate with their equals on common concerns in ways that negotiate divergent interests. Customary laws (known as urf or shar ) established the rules by which conflict and cooperation is to be mediated within the tribe or across tribes and these laws could not be violated without loss of honor and threat of severe penalty. In many parts of the country, especially the northern Highlands, the tribal system still provides an important mechanism for community organization because the capacity of the government to deliver services is limited. With the exception of villages that are close to urban areas, the structure of the modern nation state has only marginally touched rural areas. While rural inhabitants are increasingly relying on government services and institutions, they often have to go outside their villages to access these. As a result, tribal sheikhs continue to play a convening role both in mobilizing the community for collective purposes and serving as the community s interlocutors, lobbying local and central government for development projects. Yemen has a strong tradition of promoting consultation and consensus in decision making, rooted both in tribal and Islamic tradition. The principle of mutual consultation (shurah), consensus (ijma) and independent interpretive judgment (ijtihad) are important bases for communal decision making and are recognized as essential processes both within tribes and among them. There is a strong tradition of building coalitions through consensus to counterbalance tendencies towards fragmentation. In consolidating its central rule, the state has itself begun to incorporate traditional leadership, and in the process at times become implicated in building local coalitions. The main way of incorporating traditional authorities into the state s formal institutions is through official recognition of some tribal leaders by the Department of Tribal Affairs in the Ministry of Interior, appointment to high government office and election to local government or parliament, making them key actors in the new patronage system. In the southern governorates, tribal institutions weakened by decades of socialist rule are now being revitalized. Generally speaking, sheikhs were nominated by their communities but have to be formally confirmed by the Government. The fact that sheikhs can now draw on formal state systems to support them has severely weakened the traditional sanctions open to local people for holding accountable or removing them. For instance, sheikhs play an important role in certifying the poor who might qualify for assistance from the social welfare fund. This can serve as an important means of developing patronage relations. In 1997, the Department of Tribal Affairs formalized the role of sheikhs by issuing them an official identity card. The sheikh demonstrates that he has a constituency by submitting a list of signatures to the Governor of his region. 12