EVALUATION STUDY REPORT

Transcription

1 INT/00/922 Africa-Asia Joint Research: INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDIZATION BETWEEN AFRICAN AND ASIAN RICE SPECIES EVALUATION STUDY REPORT Professor A. Babatunde Obilana - Evaluation Study Team Leader Dr Bernard N. Okumu - Evaluation Study Team Member Report prepared for: UNDP SU/SSC and WARDA October 2005

2 About Africa Rice Center (WARDA) Africa Rice Center (WARDA) is an autonomous intergovernmental research association of African member states. WARDA is also one of the 15 international agricultural research Centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). WARDA s mission is to contribute to poverty alleviation and food security in Africa through research, development and partnership activities aimed at increasing the productivity and profitability of the rice sector in ways that ensure the sustainability of the farming environment. The modus operandi of WARDA is partnership at all levels. WARDA s research and development activities are conducted in collaboration with various stakeholders primarily the national agricultural research systems (NARS), academic institutions, advanced research institutions, farmers organizations, non-governmental organizations and donors for the benefit of African farmers, mostly small-scale producers, as well as the millions of African families for whom rice means food. The New Rice for Africa (NERICA), which is bringing hope to millions of poor people in Africa, was developed by WARDA and its partners. The success of the NERICAs has helped shape the Center s future direction, extending its horizon beyond West Africa into Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. WARDA hosts the African Rice Initiative (ARI), the West and Central Africa Rice Research and Development Network (ROCARIZ) and the Inland Valley Consortium (IVC). It also supports the Coordination Unit of the Eastern and Central African Rice Research Network (ECARRN) based in Tanzania. Since January 2005, WARDA has been working out of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Benin station in Cotonou, having relocated from its headquarters in Bouaké, Côte d Ivoire, because of the Ivorian crisis. WARDA has regional research stations near St Louis, Senegal and at IITA in Ibadan, Nigeria. For more information, please visit Temporary Headquarters and Research Center Africa Rice Center (WARDA) 01 B.P. 2031, Cotonou, Benin Tel.:(229) ; Fax: (229) warda@cgiar.org Temporary Headquarters and Research Center Africa Rice Center 01 BP 2031 Cotonou Benin Tel.: (229) Fax: (229) WARDA Sahel Station ADRAO B.P. 96 St Louis Senegal Tel.: (221) (221) Fax: (221) warda-sahel@cgiar.org WARDA Nigeria Station WARDA c/o International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Oyo Road, PMB 5320 Ibadan Nigeria Tel.: (234-2) Fax: (234-2) iita@cgiar.org

3 CONTENTS i. Acronyms and Abbreviations... 3 ii. Executive Summary... 4 Summary Recommendations INTRODUCTION Macro aspects of rice production, consumption and marketing in Africa Study Background and Rationale Purpose of Study Organization of study Terms of Reference (TOR) METHODOLOGY Data and information collection methods Design and collection of socio-economic data STUDY FINDINGS Impact of political unrest in Ivory Coast Effects and possible impacts on biotechnology contribution to IHP-NERICA improvement Country visits NERICA rice dissemination approaches GUINEA Overview of the Guinean economy and performance Quantity and quality of IHP Research in Guinea PVS dissemination model and its effectiveness in Guinea Impact of NERICA on livelihoods in Guinea MALI Overview of the Malian economy and performance Quantity and quality of IHP research in Mali The Task Force (TF) dissemination model and its effectiveness in Mali Impact of NERICA on livelihoods in Mali BENIN Overview of the Benin economy and performance Quality and quantity of IHP research in Benin The combined Task Force and PVS dissemination approaches and their effectiveness in Benin The impact of NERICA on livelihoods in Benin COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE IHP NERICA PROJECT IN THE THREE COUNTRIES Dissemination Overall assessment of NERICA s role in improving livelihoods of the rural poor PROJECT ASSESSMENTS, DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Review and Assessment of the IHP-NERICA project and ARI in Phase II The Interspecific Hybridization Project (IHP) Achievements in IH Project ( Upland Rice-based Systems in Project 1 of WARDA s rolling MTP , which captures Phase II of IHP) Pre-breeding, breeding and genetics Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS)

4 5.3.3 Documentation and training Identified constraints, gaps and comments RECOMMENDATIONS AND COMMENTS Research: Interspecific Hybridization Project, IHP-NERICA Project, PVS and CBSS Cross-cutting issues ARI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ANNEXES I and II ANNEX I Terms of Reference (TOR) ANNEX II List of Persons interviewed, Institutions and places visited REFERENCES...44 Part 2 ANNEXES III XIII

5 i. Acronyms and Abbreviations AfDB/ADB African Development Bank AfRGM African rice gall midge ARI advanced research institution CBSS community-based seed (production) system(s) CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIAT Centro Internaçional de Agricultura Tropical ECA Economic Commission for Africa (UN) ESA Eastern and Southern Africa EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FARA Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa HIV/AIDS human immunodeficiency virus//acquired immune deficiency syndrome IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada) IH interspecific hybrid varieties IHP Interspecific Hybridization Project INRM integrated natural resource management IRD Institut de recherche pour le développement, Montpellier IRRI International Rice Research Institute JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JIRCAS Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences MDGs Millennium Development Goals IARC international agricultural research center NARES national agricultural research and extension system(s) NARS national agricultural research system(s) NEPAD New Partnership for Africa s Development NERICA New Rice for Africa OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PRA participatory rural appraisal PVS participatory varietal selection ROCARIZ Reseau Ouest et Centre Africain du Riz (WARDA/CORAF Rice Research and Development Network for West and Central Africa) RYMV yellow mottle virus SAQ standard acceptable quality seed SG 2000 Sasakawa Global 2000 SSA sub-saharan Africa UNDP United Nations Development Programme SU/SSC Special Unit/South South Cooperation STAT Statistics TICAD Tokyo International Conference on African Development WARDA Africa Rice Center WCA West and Central Africa YAAS Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences 3

6 ii. Executive Summary NERICA is not just a product nor a rice production methodology but also a culture derived from the Interspecific Hybridization Project (IHP) that must be and is being vigorously disseminated through the ARI food security program consortium. By implementing two action plans for on-farm research and aggressive promotion, ARI is already following the high tempo of IHP phase II, and this must continue for both the project and initiative, respectively, in the coming phase III. This report uses a holistic and integrated sustainable livelihood assessment framework to highlight the phases of the NERICA Project and the recent ARI dissemination program. It draws on many sources, varying from an extensive literature review, through country field visits, a participatory rural appraisal of farmers in key rice growing areas in Benin, Guinea and Mali, to key-person interviews and a review of key policy announcements in the three countries. Tremendous success has been achieved in the NERICA Project. Eighteen NERICA upland varieties and 26 other interspecifics were developed and named in phases I and II. Of these, 7 NERICAs and 18 others were released during phase II in West Africa and in Uganda between The NERICA area of about 100,000 ha in SSA is increasing. Sixty NERICA lowland varieties developed in collaboration with NARS are in initial PVS testing stages in 14 countries. Five NERICA-L varieties are already released in Burkina Faso and Mali. Research findings show NERICA to have remarkable impact on farmers livelihoods and on poverty reduction, improved nutrition, increased cash income generation and on extensive collaboration and partnership both at the farmer level and at the institutional, intergovernmental and scientific levels. By reducing the growing season, NERICAs have helped bridge the hunger season gap. Furthermore, a saleable product implies ready cash for farm household use in other areas, especially payment of school fees. NERICA early maturity and high yield releases land and labor, enabling two or more crops to be grown each year. Finally, NERICA has produced significant savings in foreign exchange by reducing rice imports. It has similarly enhanced regional collaboration through closer ties among member countries for exchange of skills, knowledge and dissemination material. The major problem now facing the project is getting adequate quantities of good quality seeds to farmers. WARDA is addressing this through CBSS and through ARI, which had aggressive production activities in 2004 and 2005 for both breeder and foundation seed. Our economic appraisal of IHP phase II (which built on outputs of phase I) shows that WARDA focused mainly on breeding NERICA, post-nerica and NERICA-L rice varieties. With the launch of ARI, WARDA widened its research scope and development activities to embrace a twin- track strategy that pushed research on generation of varieties with resistances and other traits, while simultaneously strengthening dissemination of the new improved varieties. The impact of these efforts has been phenomenal. A recently concluded study by Dalton and Guei (2003) estimates the producer surplus gains arising from genetic improvement of both past and current rice varieties to be about US$ 360 million in the seven most important rice producing countries in West Africa 1. This has been achieved through close collaboration with NARES and many other research and development-oriented institutions and organizations (including the JIRCAS, UNDP-SU/SSC, ADB, JICA, IRRI and SG The seven countries are Nigeria, Guinea, Côte d Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Mali, Ghana and Senegal. In addition, WARDA has established a robust system of collecting research data to monitor NERICA impact on farmers livelihoods through poverty and hunger reduction as well as impact in SSA on achieving the remaining seven livelihood-improvement Millennium Development Goals. Two major surveys, each involving about 1500 rice farmers, revealed a very low NERICA adoption by the year 2001 because of lack of exposure of farmers to NERICA. The surveys also revealed that had the whole rice farming population in the region been exposed to NERICA in or before 2000, NERICA adoption would have been as high as 27% and could rise as high as 68% in 2006 and 76% by the year

7 Summary Recommendations The evaluation team s detailed recommendations (for the IHP mainly and ARI preliminary) are presented in chapter 5. In summary, the team recommends the following: that the IHP should adopt a holistic approach focusing more on improving farmers well-being rather than simple provision of NERICA technologies to boost output. In this regard, WARDA should critically evaluate its work and determine entry points for the dissemination of the same using a twin-track approach that promotes NERICA growth and the general rural sector development while continuing to generate multipurpose varieties benefiting human livelihoods. The Institute should research supportive technologies that are labor- saving, enhance the efficient utilization of existing resources and contribute to sustainability of the natural resource base. Strengthened nutrition literacy should be promoted through ARI, with dietary diversity and the beneficial effects of NERICA rice being used to bring a change in the mindset of rice farmers and consumers so nutrition and health are enhanced, especially in young children and pregnant mothers as a way of reducing infant mortality rates. A crop improvement coordinator is needed to coordinate the pre-breeding, breeding, testing and promotion activities in phase III. Improvements are necessary in cashflow management by all parties involved, in the progression of varieties in the PVS process, in an intensified seed multiplication program that strives to maintain genetic purity of NERICA foundation seed, and in the capacity of the monitoring and evaluation unit to undertake more robust assessments that show impact of NERICA on the achievement of all livelihood dimensions as enunciated in the UN Millennium Declaration and Development Goals for the region In IHP phase 3, WARDA should increase its efforts to promote and facilitate generation of consistent and well-articulated national and regional level policies for rice production, consumption and marketing of locally produced rice. Through ARI, and more specifically through the ROCARIZ research consortium, WARDA should strive to make locally produced rice (especially NERICAs from the IHP) competitive in price and quality through reduction in local rice production costs, increased quality and cleanliness and consequent higher market desirability. 5

8 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Macro aspects of rice production, consumption and marketing in Africa Rice consumption in Africa has increased by about 4.4 percent 1 per annum between 1961 and 2003 and rice is now among the major cereals cultivated on the continent today (Kormawa et al., 2004). Thus, whereas the increase in rice production was 4% per annum between 1985 and 2003, maize and sorghum production went up by about 2.4% and 2.5%, respectively. Concomitant with these values is the observation that rice production in Africa increased more than four times from 3 million tonnes (mt) in 1961 to 13.3 mt in Rice area harvested increased from million ha in 1961 to about 10 million ha in 2003 (FAO 20041). This rise in African rice production is attributable more to area expansion than to yield increase. In comparison, world average rice yield doubled during this period, but per ha rice yield in Africa remained low and even declined, particularly during the last four years ( ). This poses a significant challenge to both rice researchers and their development partners since per capita and aggregate rice consumption in Africa are rapidly increasing. In many African countries, increased rice production has not kept pace with demand, resulting in rising rice imports. Rosegrant et al. (1995) estimate that in order to meet demand for rice in sub- Saharan Africa, about million tonnes will be needed by the year This suggests that SSA will need to increase rice production from the current 13.3 mt annually 2 to almost 35.6 mt by the year In terms of trade, it is projected that annual imports by African countries will increase to 6.2 million mt 3 by 2010 provided the current liberal trade policies are maintained (Kormawa et al., 2004). Large shipments to Nigeria will account for half of the expected imports (Calpe 2002). Worldwide, 589 mt of rice was harvested from 153 million hectares (ha) in 2003, showing a threefold increase over total production in During this same period, most rice production located in West Africa, accounted for 32% of total supply in Africa, followed by Central Africa (22%) and East Africa, where maize is the major cereal. On a global basis, per capita rice consumption is expected to decline (59.3 kg) in 2010, mainly due to dietary changes in Southeast Asia (Calpe 2002), where most of the world s rice is produced and consumed. This could be a result of rising incomes in Southeast Asia that are likely to shift demand from cereals to livestock products. Per capita rice consumption among African countries is, however, projected to continue rising. To meet the increasing demand, rice imports are expected to rise to 6.2 mt by the year 2010, assuming that the current liberal trade policies in the region are maintained (Calpe 2002). The increasing trends in per capita consumption and demand indicate that rice is becoming more of a strategic food in Africa than a simple staple. Present annual rice consumption is estimated at mt (FAOSTAT, June 20042), of which 44% is imported. The international rice market is very thin indeed. It comprises of only 6.3% of the total rice produced globally, compared to wheat (18%), soybeans (25%) and maize (13%) (Kormawa et al., 2004). In Africa, only Egypt exports a sizeable amount of rice. The world rice export market is concentrated, with Thailand, Vietnam, India, China, and Pakistan, the USA, Australia, Italy, Uruguay, Argentina, and Spain as major exporters. The thin and concentrated nature of the international rice market explains the highly volatile prices. Such volatility could result either from shifts in exportable supplies in major exporting countries and/or production shortfalls in large consuming countries. Overall, price changes have implications for rice imports and trade in Africa. Thus any substantial increase in the world market price would raise the price of imported rice in African countries; but might stimulate increased domestic production by making imported rice unattractive due to its costliness. In terms of imports, the international rice market is more diverse, although segmented by type and quality. The major types of rice on the market are indica and japonica. Rice quality issues have become very important among African consumers who clearly show a stronger preference for imported rice, because of both the low price and high quality of the same in terms of cleanliness. This has often been viewed as reflecting the high competitiveness of imported rice when compared to locally produced rice. However, when a complete assessment of costs and benefits of locally produced rice are made vis-à-vis imported rice, rarely are the related benefits of jobs created by producing rice locally ever included in these calculations. If this were made, it will obviously be cheaper to produce rice locally than to depend on external imports. Thus rice quantity and quality are very important in the consumption market. Within Africa, only Nigeria and Senegal are prominent rice importing countries. Indonesia, Philippines, Brazil, the EU, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Malaysia are the leading rice importers in the world. Other important African rice importers are Côte d Ivoire, South Africa, Sierra Leone, Madagascar, Guinea and Benin. African countries spend close to 1.4 billion US dollars on rice imports, 6

9 accounting for 19% of the continent s total grain import bill. On a sub- regional basis, West Africa imports the most rice by value, followed by Eastern Africa. Thus, although these countries include rice self-sufficiency as a major agricultural policy objective, none of them is close to attaining its goal These assessments clearly justify the need to promote locally produced rice either by raising the area under cultivation or output per unit area cultivated (yields), or both. But extensification may not be preferable in areas experiencing diminishing arable land problems due to the pressing need to maintain biodiversity and to conserve the environment. The only viable alternative in such cases is intensification. Here, yields are raised by growing high yielding varieties using the appropriate chemical and organic inputs as well as practicing the necessary crop husbandry techniques. It also entails effective and timely control of pests and diseases, reduced vulnerability to drought, availability of post-harvest technologies and sound marketing channels of surpluses including easy access to ample storage facilities. It is in this niche that WARDA s research mandate is defined and NERICA s role in improving local rice output is emphasized. Yield increases of up to 6000 kg per ha are possible. It is also possible to tailor these new NERICA varieties to fit both uplands and lowland agro-ecological zones and hence utilize a wider range of Africa s arable land area than was previously possible. In addition, high yields are sustained by breeding varieties with diverse benefits such as improved weed competitiveness, resistance to diseases, pests and drought as well as improved capacity to utilize the available soil nutrients hence minimizing the amount of external inputs used. 1.2 Study Background and Rationale WARDA s stated theme for the current period is expansion Towards New Horizons. This theme encompasses a departure from its previous mandate that focused a lot on increasing the supply of rice through generation of high yielding varieties. This expansion to new horizons goes beyond the organization s strategy to serve Africa as a whole to development of rice as a modern technology that can be used effectively to achieve the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, despite all the above positive changes, WARDA has suffered a number of setbacks. Key among these was the civil strife in Côte d Ivoire. This resulted in a significant high turnover of its lead scientists and the death of one of them. The conflict brought massive destruction of its equipment and databases, the loss of its fleet of vehicles to the rebels in northern Côte d Ivoire, the disruption of its services due to the separation of its administrative and scientific wings and the abandonment of its scientific research trials in the previous locations. Interestingly, it is during this period that WARDA won a number of accolades, highest of which was the selection of one of its leading scientists, Dr Monty Jones as the winner of the 2004 World Food Prize. In addition, WARDA has expanded its set of partners during this period to include NEPAD, FARA, the NARES, MDGs and the various donors organizations. There has also been a significant re-organization in the institution such that is better set up to promote integrated rice production in a manner that encourages the development of stress-tolerant cultivars and generation practices that help stabilize yields on the one hand, and the improved understanding of the socio-economic, policy and market environments on the other. This includes addressing issues as diverse as the use of rice in mitigating the effects of pandemics such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and disasters (both natural and man-made). In its 10-year strategic plan, WARDA is positioning itself to address the numerous challenges that are facing Africa today, including poverty, hunger and malnutrition, low literacy rates, high child and maternal mortality rates, high prevalence of malaria and HIV/AIDS, gender inequality, a degrading production system due to poor sustainability, and low levels of partnership. This new strategic plan for WARDA is based on its past experience as well as on CGIAR research priorities. The challenge of this evaluation was to assess the extent to which NERICA could be a core link between the WARDA priorities and its mission of contributing to poverty alleviation and food security in Africa through research and productivity enhancement and the achievement of the same through improving the livelihoods and well-being of a majority of Africans in sub-saharan Africa (SSA). It is in this regard that a livelihood assessment framework is adopted in this report. Low agricultural productivity in resource-poor farming areas is often ascribed to the participation of the inappropriate technologies developed on research stations for adoption by the small resource-poor farmers. In addition, such farmers often play no role in the generation of these technologies. 7

10 Sub-Saharan Africa carries about 198 million people that are resource poor and are also severely undernourished. Low agricultural production is seen as the main reason for their poor and worsening conditions. It is in recognition of these problems that UNDP, with the Japan Human Resources Development Fund for South-South co- operation has financed projects with the aim of building dynamic global research networks. Rice is a prominent area where expertise and experience gained in Asia and other countries with similar challenges can benefit Africa through collaboration. The joint Interspecific Hybridization Project (IHP) was initiated and coordinated by WARDA to achieve this objective. It was started in 1997 by UNDP with the support of the Japanese Government. Phase I of this project ended in 2000 and Phase II was expected to end in July The Phase III is starting but funding is still to be provided. The UNDP wants to review the progress of the project before funding phase III, especially because of the delay caused by the civil strife in Côte d Ivoire, the former home base for WARDA. Research and dissemination were badly affected by this. The main objective of this evaluation study is to: Review progress of the joint IHP research focusing on the outcomes and impact of Phase II Foresee the future project and potential of rainfed lowland NERICA types under development Conduct a preliminary review of ARI since it was delayed for two years 1.3 Purpose of Study This evaluation, as stated in the ToR, is intended to: a) Give a review and economic appraisal of the Phases I and II of the project using a results- based assessment system that focuses on outcomes, identifies gaps, indicate lessons learnt and makes specific recommendations b) Provide information on progress towards achieving stated objectives, goals and targets c) Provide substantial evidence on the basis for any corrections in policies, programs or projects in Phase III of the project d) Prioritize the focus of existing resources on further research on new rice varieties and/or on dissemination of current research findings to the end users. 1.4 Organization of study This study was organized as follows: i. Review and understand all documents provided by UNDP, WARDA, NARS and other collaborating institutions/organizations relating to the IHP (for development, testing and selection of NERICA varieties) and ARI (for adoption, dissemination and seed production of NERICA varieties. ii. iii. iv. Travel to WARDA (Cotonou-Benin) to: meet with Management and Lead Scientists in the IHP and ARI carry out detailed interviews with the Lead Scientists and collect primary data on breeding, molecular biology, protection and INRM research, PVS, CBSS and networking (ROCARIZ) Undertake country visits to GUINEA, MALI AND BENIN (as specified by UNDP for this review) and collect/review secondary data from the NARS National ARI Coordinator and national NERICA Teams, and conduct interviews with UNDP country representatives Meet and interview farmer-groups, policymakers (Government officials), politicians and other relevant key people (as time permits) in each of three countries visited. v. Return to WARDA to: - Continue interviews with relevant scientists as a follow up to country visit findings - Embark on consolidation/analyses of all information and data 8

11 - Start drafting report and generate recommendations - Present preliminary draft report to WARDA Management and Scientists for comments - Incorporate received comments into report and finalize report - Complete final report - Submit the final report to UNDP SU/SSC and WARDA 1.5 Terms of Reference (TOR) The TOR is attached in Annex I This report is in two parts. Part 1 is the main study report containing the executive summary, recommendations, main text, results and analyses and discussions with impacts, ToR and list of contacts. Part 2 contains annexes III-XI which are the tables and figures providing the database for our findings and conclusions, and useful to users and readers of the study report. 9

12 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Data and information collection methods For biological, bio-physical and socio-economic components of this study, the following activities were undertaken: i. Extensive identification and review of all project documents and reports to determine the goals, objectives, targets, milestones, verifiable and measurable observation / indicators and level of achievement of these targets and goals ii. Conducting intensive and informative interviews at different levels of technology development, testing, extension and transfer adoption and dissemination iii. Conducting individual and group interviews with farmers and farmers groups, specifically iv Collect, review and analyze information on the quality and quantity of research to determine intermediate impacts of NERICA variety development (genetic studies, pre-breeding and breeding activities) Participatory Variety Selection process (PVS), NERICA varieties adoption and dissemination (ARI), including documentation and publications v. Conduct a preliminary review of ARI through interviews with regional and national ARI Coordinators and NERICA Teams, to assess progress made in implementing its action plan in the three countries vi. Meet and interview country representatives of UNDP in Benin, Guinea and Mali vii. Meet and interview WARDA finance officers in charge of receiving monitoring and disbursing IHP and ARI funds viii. Hold telephone discussion / interview with AfDB program officer for ARI and IHP ix. Use secondary data collected from the three countries visited (Benin, Guinea and Mali) to calibrate and run simple bio-economic models for evaluating likely impact of different promising lines and released varieties in different countries. To generate primary data for analysis of achievements in IHP and ARI and for quality and quantity of collaborative research conducted. A series of data tables were requested and received from relevant WARDA scientists and national IHP Teams and ARI Coordinators. Some of these were combined and new reconstructed tables derived from the same by the team are in the annexes. Secondary data use Identification and review of available information and documents provided by WARDA, UNDP, NARS, Government officials and donors, and those sourced by the review team based on gaps in collecting primary data Primary data generation Conducting informative interviews at various levels in specific countries using a number of approaches. a) Group discussions b) Key person interviews including key policymakers, e.g. DGs, Ministers and Directors c) Participatory appraisal d) Direct observation e) Preliminary simulation modeling for scenario and sensitivity analysis of different production arrangements for NERICA Study design - sampling framework and representativeness of sampled households 2.2 Design and collection of socio-economic data In order to assess the impact of NERICA on farmers livelihoods in sub-saharan Africa effectively, a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) method was chosen. This approach was preferred due to the difficulty of coming up with a statistically robust way of assessing the system in such a short period of time, i.e. less than two weeks. Secondly, more detailed studies have been done before in phases one and two of the IHP project and hence what is needed is a quick re-affirmation of the results based on farmers perceptions and personal evaluation of the changes in their livelihoods as a result of NERICA adoption. However, it was necessary to control for any biases commonly associated with this approach. First, because of the widespread variation in the policy frameworks in use in different countries, i.e. geo-political differences and, second, because of spatial variation in biophysical and climatic conditions. 10

13 The three countries chosen for impact assessment were observed to be at different stages of NERICA adoption and use. Guinea was chosen as the country with the most progressive dissemination strategy on NERICA adoption, using a very non-traditional seed multiplication and dissemination system. Mali was chosen to represent those countries that are adopting a more traditional approach to NERICA dissemination. Benin could be seen as a country whose policies stand in-between and also a country where the adoption of the NERICAs is still in its infancy. Superimposed on this geopolitical and agro-ecological axis is the variation in the perceptions and economic conditions of the various farm households. As recognized by the UN Millennium Project task force, rural farmers form the epicenter of the success or failure in the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Their decision making process does, however, vary by gender, age and asset endowment or portfolio. Thus there are significant differences in the way poor, fairly better-off, male-headed and female-headed households respond individually to the same stimuli of price, risk or uncertainty, or the way they prioritize their goals and objectives. Superimposing the two axes on each other generates the sampling framework illustrated in figure 1 below. For the sake of being more representative of the farmers socio-economic conditions and also taking into account the fact that over 80% of Africa s rural population live below the poverty line, the worse-off categories of farmers were over-sampled in this survey. In addition, to collecting this household-level economic data, efforts were made to understand the economic policy and institutional framework within which the farm households adopting NERICA varieties were operating. This was achieved by interviewing the key national policy makers and investigating the varying policy implementation mechanisms impacting on the rural communities welfare or outcomes. Thus, the way in which the existing policy, institutional arrangements and organization frameworks could condition the effectiveness of NERICA adoption and hence impact on poverty and hunger (MDG 1), for example, could be gauged in this manner. The same applied to the efforts aimed at determination of NERICA impact on education and increased literacy levels (MDG 2), impact on child and maternal mortality rates (MDG 4 and 5), effect on partnerships development (MDG 8) and impact on HIV/AIDS and malaria (MDG 6). The effect of NERICA on empowerment of women and gender equality (MDG3) differed in its assessment in that, in addition to farmers own experiences, there was a need to speak at the national level with gender experts involved in the dissemination of NERICA varieties in a country such as Guinea where adoption of these varieties is rising rapidly among women. Such government-appointed gender equality and female-empowerment specialists were also a source of information on how NERICA was empowering women by facilitating their capacity to fend for themselves. In regard to assessment of NERICA s impact on environmental sustainability, it was difficult to base this on the farmers own observations given the farmers limited capacity to evaluate the biophysical system correctly and accurately. Instead, attempts were made to build bio-economic models calibrated for different agro-ecologies and representing typical farm families decision- making processes (see appendix for the details of this methodology). The way these decisions impact on the environment or the biophysical system are then assessed through the scientifically- proven functional relationships and inter-linkages between the human production decisions and actions and the response of the natural resource system to these decisions through soil erosion, nutrient mining and decline in bio-diversity. Attempts at calibrating these models were, however, hampered by lack of biophysical data linking NERICA rice cultural practices to soil and nutrient loss (or gain) and these soil losses to yield decline (increases). Such soil losses or gains could then be linked to yields, incomes and food availability. The fact that food availability in turn impacts on labor availability, a dominant agricultural input in sub-saharan Africa, implies that issues of human health and vulnerability to common diseases such as malaria and HIV/AIDS do matter in the next round of household decision making. Unfortunately, lack of the biophysical data linked to the economic system hampered this exercise. The study therefore adopted a more simplified cost - benefit assessment approach involving calculation of NERICA gross margins for the various NERICA production systems prevalent at the various African sites. These computations show the amount of nutrients that farmers use to replenish their soils 11

14 as well as the labor quantities that go into NERICA rice and soil conservation activities on a unit of land allocated to NERICA rice production. The calculations also show the level of other inputs used, including the costs of crop husbandry practices and hence the net benefits (see the display of the same in the annexes). Gross margins in this Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) approach may then be compared to gross margins calculated in phases I and II of the project. It is then possible to approximate any significant changes in farmer returns during these two periods. Similarly, we determine entry points where research on dissemination and diffusion of NERICA needs to focus more by looking at the costs of the various rice-growing cultural practices in various agro-ecologies and countries. Interestingly, by working out the gross margins we are able to ascertain the cashflow being generated by NERICA and hence determine its direct contributions towards the achievement of MDG 1 (on poverty and hunger reduction). Figure 1: Framework used for selection of key farmer and group discussions Agro-ecological and Socio-political Conditions Decision maker Benin Guinea Mali Upland Lowland Upland Lowland Upland Lowland Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Young +Old + Group * * * Young + Old + + Group * * * + Key farmer interview * Farmer group discussions 12

15 3. STUDY FINDINGS 3.1 Impact of political unrest in Ivory Coast Major disruptive and devastating effects of the civil strife ( ) in Ivory Coast on WARDA and its progress in phase II resulted mainly in the delay of implementation of planned and approved project activities, infrastructure and research progress as well as financial arrangements with donors and disbursements to NARS. A number of pledges from UNDP and FAO were made before the launch of ARI in March A temporary coordinator was appointed in June 2002 but had to leave Bouaké almost immediately because of the civil strife. He was, however, appointed to work for FAO. The Rockefeller Foundation then funded ARI for US$ 400,000 for two years to begin the secretarial work and this was extended for An interim coordinator was recruited to carry out administrative work only in Mali Dr Inoussa Akintayo, ARI Coordinator, was hired in July 2003 and is paid by Rockefeller Foundation money. A volunteer is covered by UNDP South-South cooperation under TICAD (Tokyo International Conference on African Development). A World Bank (WB) plan to post an expert to WARDA was abandoned and the support of the WB lost because of the civil strife in Ivory Coast. The 2002 strife affected the funding commitment of the bank to staff recruitment, which delayed implementation of some of the staffing and activities of the secretariat. Effects and possible impacts on biotechnology contribution to IHP-NERICA improvement 1. Reduction in well-qualified scientific personnel who left due to the war disruptions 2. Loss of the mapping populations which were developed over a 3-year period with Advanced Research Institutions in Asia, Europe and USA 3. The anther culture activities were stopped; these were technologies most significant in the process of developing fixed homozygous lines and populations in pre-breeding, which would have been useable to evaluate and identify difficult multigenic traits like drought and impact traits linked with NERICA development. 4. Prevented continued activities in the genetic characterization of NERICA lines 5. Resulted in loss of valuable and expensive equipment, e.g. genomics machine, which will need continuous replacement 6. Slowed down identification and incorporation of genes for RYMV, BLB and Gall Midge using genomics tools in the transfer process for developing stable lowland NERICAs Effects on other research areas in IHP One of the most horrible effects of the Ivorian crisis on WARDA research activities is the fact that a number of well-trained field and breeding nursery technicians and GSS with long-term experience had to leave WARDA. With the loss from the breeding units of these experienced hands, who have watched, identified and assisted in the advancement of all segregating populations during selection and testing of NERICAs, IHP will definitely suffer a somewhat considerable setback. The setback is also aggravated with the loss of field and laboratory documentation accumulated over a 4-6 year period of IHP, breeding stock and some germplasm material both in the field and cold rooms at M bé, the former WARDA Headquarters. ARI activities began fully after WARDA s relocation in Benin. ROCARIZ is the research arm of ARI but both are housed under WARDA. ARI has taken an inventory of expertise and resources in all the regional countries, 13

16 and it has corrected misinformation about NERICA, e.g. that it was developed in Japan and that it is pushed fully by Japan s Government. Despite a low response from African governments, whose national leaders were written to with requests for AfDB support for ARI, seven countries were funded with US$ 30 million in the first round of AfDB support, of which US$ 2 million is paid to countries as soft loans. This gives ownership of the whole process of dissemination of NERICA through ARI to these countries. Japan agreed to send in two experts from JICA, who are already in place working with ARI (one agronomist/ technology exchange transfer specialist and a grain quality specialist). An earlier project in Côte d Ivoire on CBSS creation was funded directly by Japan but was also disrupted by the civil strife. A proposal has been written with Mr Tatsuo Fujimura of UNDP to cover countries not included in the pilot countries AfDB funding, i.e. Ghana, Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso, for PVS extension. Difficulties with late disbursement of funds to the NARS are due to the AfDB using the French system for disbursement of funds. Money is released in tranches to WARDA and it can then only be disbursed in tranches. Secondly, the use of funds previously disbursed to NARS is delayed and therefore delays the next disbursement. Thirdly, the money is delivered from one account and this affects cashflow. In spite of these set backs, WARDA continued its activities in the MTP for: Re-establishing a breeding nursery and test blocks, first at Bamako, Mali and now in Benin The re-establishing of a new genebank and seed cold rooms Search for new national and regional test locations in Benin Continued setting up of molecular capacity Evaluation of genetic variation in Oryza species with EST and SSR Genetic mapping program for rice, including genotyping and phenotyping of most promising NERICA lines Continuing to achieve the CGIAR Challenge Program requirement with genotyping of 3000 accessions using 51 markers Continued resource mobilization by participating in joint project proposals Continued breeding and selection of new populations, new upland NERICAs and NERICA-Ls Continued training of NARS breeders on molecular breeding, in collaboration with ROCARIZ Continued publications by producing a joint paper in 2003 Intensification of ARI activities Country visits Three countries (mentioned above) with effective and deep participation in the IHP-NERICA Project and in dissemination of NERICAs and complementary technologies (ARI) were identified by UNDP SU/SSC for study visitation by the evaluation study mission. These were Guinea, Mali and Benin. The following general format (template) is used to describe the three countries visited, namely: i) A country overview that entails a description of the country s unique economic, geopolitical and biophysical environments ii) The quantity and quality of research in each country iii) The type of dissemination and extension model used by a country and its effectiveness in promoting NERICA adoption and use iv) The role of NERICA in the country s economy in terms of impact on livelihoods. Later, in section 4 of the report, a comparative assessment is done to compare the performance of NERICA rice in changing the livelihoods of people in the three countries visited utilizing different and/or a combination 14

17 of dissemination models. The objective is to tease out the lessons learned from using each model of research output generation (IHP Project) and dissemination of these outputs (ARI) and make the relevant recommendation for use in Phase III of the NERICA Project. To facilitate the country visit discussions, some background of the two systems of NERICA rice dissemination is given in section below. The strengths and weaknesses of the two approaches are discussed in the impact section of the report, i.e. chapter 4 of the Report, which is followed by the conclusions and recommendations chapter NERICA rice dissemination approaches The two dissemination approaches, identified and documented in both phases I and II of the NERICA Project are: 1) the task Force or TF mechanisms approach and 2) the Farmer Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS) approach. These two modes of dissemination referred to as traditional and non-traditional, respectively, throughout this Report. The two approaches are used in different regions and different countries in Western, Central and Eastern Africa for both the early and broad dissemination and adoption of IH progenies by national agricultural and research extension systems (NARES), development agencies and generally, farmers in these regions. The first approach referred to as the Task Force Approach is also known as the Community-Based Seed Production System (CBSPS). This is the traditional or conventional seed multiplication system. In this system once the variety is released, the breeder provides breeder seed from which three classes of seeds are obtained, namely, foundation seed, registered seed and certified seed. In most cases, these seed multiplication processes are organized by the Ministry of Agriculture of the respective countries and it takes about six years from release of a variety to the production of sufficient quantities of seed for distribution to a large number of farmers. The second approach known as the PVS system of dissemination (i.e. the non-traditional approach) proceeds by establishing trials in collaboration with farmers in order to a) identify promising cultivars for further evaluation, since there is no guarantee that a cultivar that has all the right characteristics will be adopted by farmers, and b) classify desirable grain and plant characteristics for continued integration into the varietal development process, and finally, c) reduce the time it takes to introduce new IHP progenies to farmers from 7-8 years to 4-5 years GUINEA Overview of the Guinean economy and performance With a population of about 9.5 million people growing at 2.37%, Guinea typifies a country in need of a rapidly growing food production sector. It is estimated that about 40% of this population are living below the poverty line and that most of the poor are engaged in the agricultural sector, which employs 80 % of the country s total labor force. The country s food deficiencies are exacerbated by the instability in the neighboring countries of Liberia, Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast that has resulted in a sizeable number of refugees (estimated at 150,000) fleeing to Guinea. These regional instabilities have caused major economic disruptions in Guinea. From time to time, panic buying has created food shortages. Infant mortality rates are now estimated at deaths per 1000 live births with a life expectancy of years. HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is 3.2% (2003 est.), with about 140,000 estimated to be living with AIDS and 9000 to have succumbed to the disease by Guinea s per capita GDP was estimated at US$ 459 in , according to UNDP human development data. By 2004, estimated Guinean GDP real growth rate was 1% with an inflation rate of 18%. It is against this background that the introduction of NERICA rice is heralded by both the government and the Guinean people as a major breakthrough Quantity and quality of IHP Research in Guinea Of the three countries visited, Guinea has the most intensive and extensive experience with NERICA research (IHP) and dissemination (ARI). Interviews and discussion of outcomes with the WARDA and NARS scientists, farmer groups and individual farmers as well as SG 2000 (NGO) were made to generate sets of both primary and secondary data on biodiversity enhancement/production. These were in terms of number of interspecific progenies rated as acceptable by farmers and also the area of land under new varieties. Some of this data is used in the gross margins analysis 15

18 and socio-economic analytical processes which are reported in the ARI dissemination section of this analysis as well as in section 4 of this report where the costs of conventional versus PVS are used as an indicator of dissemination impact. The success story in Guinea has been due to a very positive interaction between committed actors, including research (IRAG and WARDA), national extension, the political will of the state, NGOs (SG 2000) and donors. Overall, seven NERICA varieties were released in Guinea during Phase II of the NERICA Project. These varieties have not yet been given local names by farmers. They are as follows: NERICA 1, NERICA 2, NERICA 3, NERICA 4, NERICA 5, NERICA 6 and NERICA 7. Only six are under cultivation by farmers. The seventh variety, NERICA 3, was dropped due to being out-yielded by NERICA 4 and also because of its tendency to germinate when there is heavy rain during harvest time. This makes it very difficult to thresh. All the six NERICAs grown are geographically well distributed across Guinea s four agro-ecological zones. Annex X: tables 1-5 compiled by two Guinean respondents and the review team show public rice varieties released during phase 1 ( ) with no NERICA varieties, and in phase II ( ) it shows these public varieties, now including 7 NERICA and 3 interspecific varieties out of 10 and total of 21 in the nine year IHP period. This is a very significant increase of approximately 50% for emergence and popularity of NERICAs and the IHP. The status of NERICA rice cultivation as an indicator of quality of research, was 0% in phase 1 but rose to 9% (47,918 ha) of NERICAs in phase II. Similarly, national rice research capacity increased to a total of 12 scientists (BSc, MSc, PhD) trained in the last 5-10 years on rice improvement. Some of them formed the national NERICA Team. Seed production of upland rice was estimated at 470,582 ha in 2005/2006 and is projected to rise to 5.55 million ha in 2009/2010; with NERICA seed production taking 12% of the area (at 56,420 ha in 2005/2006 to 99,817 ha in 2009/2010). In summary, farmer seed production of NERICA varieties is expected to increase from 3400 tonnes in 2002 to 4200 tonnes in Despite the above impressive achievements, some gaps in the quality of research were noted. These are enumerated as follows: i) Some NERICAs are high input while others are low input. However, there is an increasing need to generate medium input varieties that are more efficient for a middle-income farmer. ii) The team and national coordinators observed some contamination or segregation in some farmers seed fields. The coordinators and seed technologists were advised to monitor this development as it is due to non-renewal of foundation seed for farmers since production of quality seed is not a mandatory requirement. iii) The national coordinator for extension is concerned that the PVS has too many varieties for farmer relocation. This stage of the IHP could be put into a preliminary on-station farmer selection to reduce the numbers before they go to farmers fields. They made a compromise by combining the PVS with their own UEP. iv) Guinea needs a strategy for continued national seed production, storage and marketing and for continued improvement of the PVS approach v) Management of soil fertility is still a problem in NERICA fields vi) There is a need to develop more post-harvest technologies for NERICAs; especially the grain quality of parboiled rice to be able to compete with imported rice vii) The requirement for improved NERICA lowland types is urgent There is a need to focus also on complementary technologies in the push for diffusion of NERICA varieties The iron toxicity problem is being tackled in Guinea with development of the resistant variety CK 73. This variety can be used by WARDA IHP to develop more NERICAs resistant to iron toxicity IHP and ARI should assist Guinea to establish a working national variety release committee PVS dissemination model and its effectiveness in Guinea Guinea utilizes the PVS model of dissemination. This approach is behind the rapid expansion of NERICA rice production in the country. Fig 1 of Annex III displays the general trends of area, output and yield of rice production 16

19 in Guinea from the years 1985 to We note that although the area under rice production did not increase significantly over this period, production rose rapidly especially in the mid-1990s. This increase in output, even at a time when area under production was stagnant and/or even declining, defines an intensification process in which per unit returns are raised due to the use of better quality inputs (i.e. use of high quality seed varieties and chemical inputs). It could also be due to use of better crop husbandry practices or a combination of all the three. In Guinea, this period of intensification coincides with phase 1 of NERICA IHP Project and the beginning of phase II. Thus we could generally conclude that a lot of these positive changes are due to the diffusion and adoption of NERICA rice through the efforts of the NARES-NERICA teams. The country visit revealed a very dynamic team both for extension and dissemination as well as in the national research institution (IRAG). At the moment, there are 45 extension officers in each of Guinea s 303 counties. Given the PVS model of NERICA dissemination, it is obvious that such a strong network of extension agents was behind the rapid expansion of the NERICA rice through the PVS extension strategy. At the moment, Guinea is now ranked among the top 5 countries that are leading in NERICA rice production in West Africa. Current monitoring and evaluation carried out by these extension officers through the Ministry of Agriculture (extension) is well organized and has the capacity to channel any NERICA problems on the ground back to HQ for immediate action. It was reported that Guinea had not received ADB funding for NERICA promotion in February of 2005 because of the country s pending repayments of existing loans. This has, however, not held back the work since, through pre-finance from the country s research funds, dissemination by PVS research and extension has gone ahead with good collaboration between the Guinea NERICA team and WARDA. The pre-finance portrays a willingness on the part of the Guinean Government to do whatever it can to promote NERICA cultivation. This strong political will and support has definitely contributed to the current speedy progress in NERICA seed multiplication and dissemination. The work has also progressed rapidly through inclusion and empowerment of women by supporting their women groups and by ensuring that a good proportion of all the extension agents comprises women. This female empowerment has been achieved through establishment of a gender office as part of the extension unit in the Ministry of Agriculture. The unit sensitizes (through training) all the extension workers on gender issues, especially on how to work with women. This change has also resulted in a rise in the number of female agricultural staff in Guinea to about 50% of the workforce. Thus, NERICA is the first project in Guinea to target women for seed production, post-harvest technologies and for transportation, and processing. Similarly, well organized training in terms of seminars both in-country and at WARDA for different government and NARES personnel has boosted the country s capacity to promote NERICA production. This has also boosted immensely the NERICA team s capacity to monitor and evaluate NERICA production. Overall, it was felt that the seed dissemination system in Guinea was impressive although the non-traditional3 approach makes it pretty ad hoc and that, whereas this was a faster way of getting seed to the farmers, it could impede progress in the future as seeds get diluted and segregation begins to occur. An area of priority, therefore, was the setting up of a seed policy at the national level that formalizes seed production and makes seed readily available to farmers in all the rice growing areas at an affordable price. Other areas of need or gaps were identified as follows: a) labor-saving devices (production and post-harvest machinery, threshers, parboilers, decorticators) are still inadequate. These were introduced and provided by SG Thus in 2005, 3000 tonnes of NERICA seeds were provided to pilot farmers in a 6000-member national NGO for multiplication. The extension service expects an output of 540,000 tonnes for 2006 planting. They observed that in a 0-10 year period (IRAG established in 1987, and NERICA-IHP established in 1997) the number and percentage of improved interspecific varieties (NERICAs) are more than double those IRAG developed. b) the importance of extra NERICA cultivation in Guinea is due to the fact that 60% of total rice grown in the country is upland and NERICAs are improved upland varieties. But this calls for an immediate supply of high quality NERICA seeds. This may not be forthcoming in the immediate present. Yet, as observed by the Guinea Minister of Agriculture: NERICA is the answer and not the alternative. It also sits well with the use of Rice as 17

20 a strategic food source for Africa. Thus if rice production is raised drastically, people will be less hungry and the problems of political instability will be reduced Impact of NERICA on livelihoods in Guinea The assessment of NERICA on the livelihoods of the rural poor in Guinea revealed significant linkages to improved food security and increased availability of funds especially among women. This implied significant levels of women empowerment. It also implied improved nutrition to most of the family members, especially children who were reported to perform better at school due to increased food availability. They were also better clothed and were less vulnerable to diseases. The gross margins for the different categories of farmers are displayed in Annex III of part II of this report. Basically, it was observed that a household headed by a woman belonging to a women s group fared better than the household of a young male farmer with a sizeable amount of land. The reason for the difference was the benefits of group action. It was also noted that use of post-harvest facilities for parboiling, threshing and winnowing was a very lucrative business for the women groups that engaged in these activities mainly facilitated by SG Out of the numerous groups interviewed, it was revealed that post-harvest technologies would basically raise the quality of rice produced locally to the standard of the often clean and highly sought-after imported rice from overseas. These technologies would hence improve the competitiveness of NERICA rice in the local markets thereby enhancing their income generation capacity. Indirect effects of NERICA rice production were also reported. These were in terms of the synergistic use of straw as animal feed and the use of dung manure to fertilize NERICA rice fields. This symbiotic relationship is best illustrated in the Futajahlon region where livestock production is the biggest in Guinea. Animals are used to promote agriculture by providing draft power and also the animal manure necessary for potato and rice production. The role of chicken manure has become increasingly important. Today, a bag of chicken dung, which is rich in phosphorous and potassium, is as expensive as a bag of urea. People are traveling to other localities to buy chicken manure for use on NERICA rice and potatoes in Futajahlon. Animals are also put at night in a particular area of the farm which is later cultivated for rice and potatoes. This saves the manpower on transportation of the bulky manure to the respective fields. The whole role of livestock in leveraging soil fertility problems is promoted through transhumance whereby the Fulani livestock are grazed in Futajahlon area just before rice is cultivated and then moved south when rice has been planted and is about to be harvested. After the rice harvest livestock is then moved back to Futajahlon where they can feed on rice and other crop straw as well as grazing on rice field stubble. In doing this they deposit dung for use in the next rice and potato crop in the following season. Land rehabilitation in the Futajahlon region was another positive impact area of the NERICA Rice Project. In this region, it was reported that there are about 100,000 ha of very acidic soils with aluminum that are abandoned due to toxicity and only sorghum can survive this toxicity. Attempts to improve these soils with chemical fertilizers in order to grow other crops were very expensive. Irish potatoes are the main crop grown with significant amounts of liming. By bringing in rock phosphate from Mali and Senegal, it has been possible to improve soils well enough to cultivate rice and obtain rice yields as high as 6000 kg/ha especially when rotated with potatoes. Thus, use of rock phosphate has caused farmers to shift from being rice buyers to rice sellers in this region. This has been possible through the facilitation (funding and organization) of Sasakawa Global Hence, before intervention through SG 2000, it would be considered crazy to attempt growing rice in Futajahlon but now it is happening! Further rehabilitation in this area and also in the mangrove swamps and other areas suitable for NERICA rice production are soon to take place MALI Overview of the Malian economy and performance Mali is among the poorest countries in the world, with 65% of its land area under desert or semi-desert conditions and with a highly unequal distribution of income. With a total population estimated at 12.3 million people growing at 2.74%, Mali is regarded to be highly in need of food stocks. These must arise from land intensification rather than extensification due to the limited cultivable land area. Economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger. About 10% of the population is nomadic and some 80% of the labor force 18

21 is engaged in farming and fishing. Industrial activity is mainly processing of farm commodities. The country is landlocked, heavily dependent on foreign aid and vulnerable to fluctuations in world cotton prices. Per capita GDP is estimated at US$ 371 ( ). But GDP growth rate stands at an impressive 5%! This is mainly due to the country s commitment to pursue an IMF-recommended structural adjustment program that is helping the economy to grow, diversify, and attract foreign investment. Infant mortality rates stand at 117 deaths per HIV prevalence is 1.9% of the population, with about 140,000 people living with the virus and 12,000 known deaths from HIV infection Quantity and quality of IHP research in Mali The government of Mali appreciates the involvement of WARDA and the major role it is playing in Malian agriculture, especially in production of rice, which is a crop grown in three regions Sikasso, Kolikoro and Kayes. There is strong political will in Mali backing the IHP-NERICA project and dissemination of released varieties. It is the first country to fulfill ADB field conditions before fund disbursement, and support of NERICA rise dissemination and production is fully acknowledged and approved by Parliament. A NERICA Team is now in place with a National Coordinator and a Monitoring Evaluation Specialist. Disbursement for all national NERICA activities comes from a NERICA project account in the country. The ADB fund is also being leveraged by equivalent amounts by the government through World Bank loans. The following are noted: The demand for NERICA 4 is high in Mali and its cultivation is on the rise. There is therefore a need for rapid dissemination of the variety to be able to provide an adequate quantity of seeds to farmers. While pushing increased adoption of NERICA 4, more efforts should be put on providing more varieties for testing and selection in the PVS In 2005, 50 ha of NERICA 4 seed production were underway; at the moment 50 tonnes are expected for 2006 planting. With the problems presently facing cotton production and marketing, NERICA varieties could replace cotton making rice the new cash crop. From the above quality of research assessment, we may deduce that one reason why the IHP Project outputs are limited in Mali is because pursuance of the traditional or conventional system of dissemination slows down the speed of getting seeds to the farmer. The advantage of the systems is that the limited seeds generated are of high quality. Constraints and requirements 1. The NERICA team in Mali needs assistance with harvest and post-harvest processing equipment, training of farmers for seed production, labor-saving devices for cultivation, sowing and weeding 2. A major problem now is how to make adequate quantities of good quality seeds available to farmers 3. Need assistance to improve rice-intercropping technology with maize, cowpeas, sorghum and potatoes The Task Force (TF) dissemination model and its effectiveness in Mali As explained in section of this report, the model of NERICA rice dissemination used in Mali is very traditional. Looking at Figures 1 and 2 in Annex IV of Part II of this report, we note that the general rice production trends for the period in Mali indicate a gradual but steady increase in both production and total land area under rice. The strong correlation between the area cultivated and the amounts produced seem to suggest an extensification process implying a limited or delayed take-off of the use of high yielding technology packages such as NERICA. This is not surprising given the fact that the formal model takes 7-8 years to get seeds of newly released varieties to the farmers. Again looking at the trends, we note a slight steep rise in amounts of rice produced in the last 2-3 years but again it is not clear whether these changes are due to a switch to an intensive rice production system in the period prior to

22 The country visit confirmed, however, that the country pursues a national seed service that solidly monitors and controls seed production including the non-traditional, own-farm seed production. This includes use of a very formalized CBSS strategy in which farmers seed fields are supervised by the MOA and some seed multiplication and dissemination NGOs such as PRODEPAM (a USAID-funded project sponsoring farmer seed production efforts) fund the seed bulking, packaging and certification. One implication of this traditional seed generation system in Mali is that seeds from Guinea are now being rejected as quality and purity cannot be guaranteed. This has, however, increased the gap between the demand of NERICA seed and its supply. Hence, most of the areas visited in Sikasso region were in dire need of NERICA seeds. In fact, most of the farmers and farmer groups growing NERICA in this region seem to be geared towards NERICA seed production rather than rice production for the consumption markets. These efforts have been fully supported by the Malian government. An overview reveals that NERICA rice was first grown in the Sikasso area of Mali and is now being disseminated in other parts of the country, namely Kolikoro and Kayes, near Senegal. This is done with assistance from NEPAD. Similarly, NERICA rice promotion using the ADB loan is also in progress. It is now projected that due to these efforts and given the very formal seed generation process, NERICA rice adoption is expected to raise production by 60,000 tonnes. This will be an equivalent saving on the rice import bill of about 6 billion CFA per year. However the NERICA Rice Project has just started, i.e. February 2005, and hence there is little to report on. As indicated above, Mali was among the first countries to fulfill the conditions set by the ADB to set up the NERICA team among others, i.e. nominate a national co-ordinator, nominate a monitoring and Evaluation specialist to set up the unit, get the official approval by the government to support and facilitate the project, and finally set up a special account for NERICA that is subject to external audit to generate both the financial and technical reports for ADB etc. But the length of time it takes for the formal system to make results available has made Mali trail behind Guinea in the NERICA project in terms of adoption and diffusion rates. Thus, between , five rice varieties (2 NERICAs and 3 sativas) have been selected and adopted. However, only two of the varieties are released (NERICA 1 and NERICA 4) through the national seed service and variety release system. NERICA 4 (named DOUSSOUSUMAMALO = variety that satisfies the heart) is the most popular with farmers, as NERICA 1 is showing susceptibility to disease, rodent and bird attack Impact of NERICA on livelihoods in Mali Annual rice production approximates to 100,000 t grown mainly in the Selange area of Sikasso, relative to cotton (>400,000 t a year, which is 50% of total crop production) and maize (60, ,000 t annually). With increasing production of NERICA, importation of rice would be reduced, thereby saving the country up to 6 billion CFA annually. Most of the rice produced is in the irrigated, deep flood and lowland agro-ecologies (contributing 95%), while upland rice ecologies make a relatively small area contribution of only 5%. Thus information on upland rice is scant and the need for and interest in upland NERICAs are great. Direct impact on livelihoods is listed as a reduction in hunger and malnutrition as well as in poverty levels. The crop would also address the problem of gender imbalance in income generation that was biased against women, i.e. men are the main cotton growers. Women are hence taking up NERICA as their new source of income. This improvement in the women s income and availability of rice would improve the children s health hence reducing child mortality rates. In terms of impact on HIV AIDS and malaria, NERICA has drastically improved sensitization of the population to these issues through the NERICA group action in CBSS training. Overall, NERICA has enhanced collaboration between extension, research, ARI, ADP JICA, JICAF and UNDP TICAD in Mali. Main rice cultivation problems experienced are very high labor input for weeding especially, lack of seed, infestation with termites during the dry season, limited use of certified seeds and fertilizer due to costs and finally post-harvest losses and processing problems. An interesting problem reported was that of early maturity. Because NERICA rice matures early when the rains are still high, drying the grain for de-husking becomes difficult and results in substantial post-harvest losses. Yield for upland local rice varieties were estimated to average kg per ha while those for NERICA 4 were tonnes per ha. It was also observed that NERICA 4 did well even in poor soils compared to the other rice varieties. Similarly, NERICA was introduced as a food crop but has now started taking up some of the area commonly used for cultivation of other crops namely cotton, sorghum and millet. There is no doubt that NERICA rice is fast becoming a cash crop and is replacing 20

23 cotton due to low cotton prices, delayed payments and heavy input requirements. Production of quality seeds, however, needs to be addressed on a very serious note BENIN Overview of the Benin economy and performance Benin is estimated to have a population size of 7.9 million with a growth rate of 2.82% per annum. GDP per capita was estimated at $571 in Only 18% of Benin is considered to be arable. The economy remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged around 5% in the past six years, but rapid population growth has offset much of this increase. Inflation has subsided over the past several years. In order to raise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreign investment, place more emphasis on tourism, facilitate the development of new food processing systems and agricultural products, and encourage new information and communication technology. At present the country s estimated rice production is 30,000 tonnes per annum while the consumption is 80,000 tonnes. The 50,000 tonnes deficit is met through imports. Yet Benin has more than enough capacity to meet all its domestic rice needs through local production Quality and quantity of IHP research in Benin The Benin government and national assembly agreed to continue to support and host WARDA for the benefit of WCA and other SSA countries, and the country wants WARDA to continue its technological and dissemination developments for NERICA as it needs to close the gap of 50,000 tonnes between production (30,000 tonnes) and consumption (80,000 tonnes) which is currently filled through importation of rice. The Ministry of Agriculture has put in place a national policy on the rice sector with the aim of increasing rice production and reducing importation. Rice is a staple food in Benin, more than a subsistence crop, and grown in a double cropping system with cowpeas. A technology is being developed for rice livestock feed production using a shrub species. Benin is very glad to be a member of the ARI, particularly the rice dissemination NERICA Project, and believes ARI must expand its activities from the already popular upland NERICAs to include the lowland, mangrove and irrigated rice ecologies. In the national NERICA Team, there is a Project Coordination Unit (PCU) for Monitoring and Coordination, accounting and a national steering committee. Three NERICAs have been disseminated in Benin. Two pairs of pilot sites in Benin were identified for NERICA development and dissemination at Dassa/Glazoue and Tangeta/Naterikobi. These sites will also be used for training and seed production. Benin would also like NERICA varieties for mountain ecologies and is already collecting indigenous accessions from the mountain ecologies. NERICA impact assessment research carried out in Benin in indicates that 500 ha were being grown and that 18% of the farmers sampled had adopted NERICA. The estimated potential adoption rate, had all farmers known about NERICA, was put at 50%, with a potential area under NERICA in 2003 of 5500 ha. The yield impact of NERICA was put at kg/ha in and the impact on per capita rice income at 1959 FCFA based on estimated rice production impact of 7.62 kg per capita The combined Task Force and PVS dissemination approaches and their effectiveness in Benin A macro-level assessment of Benin rice production was done based on FAO data and the same are presented in Figures 1 and 2 of Annex V of part II of this Report. The trends show a very low change in per ha rice yields between 1994 and 2002 suggesting that much of the increase in production has been due to cultivation of new areas rather than increased use of high yielding rice varieties as well as use of chemical and organic inputs. Thus, the role of NERICA in such an economy could be huge upon successful diffusion and adoption of the same. It is also evident from these figures that there is striking resemblance between these trends and those of Mali with the only difference being that the Mali figures are significantly higher. 21

24 On dissemination, we note that NERICA rice is a key element of hope for the Benin Government in achieving food security, eradicating hunger and improving the livelihoods of the rural poor. Both the MOA and the NARES have the express mandates to increase rice output in order to curtail expensive rice imports. The main objective is to do everything possible to promote a rise in per ha yields. The country has identified two pairs of pilot sites for NERICA development and dissemination at Dassa and Glazoue, Tangeta and Naterikobi. These sites are also used for training and seed production. Dissemination of NERICA rice in Benin is done using both the traditional and non-traditional methods. In the lowland irrigated areas, the traditional approach seems to be in operation while the uplands appear to be inclined towards the non-traditional (PVS) approach with active participation by the local farmers in the research and dissemination of new varieties. NERICA varieties for lowlands and mountain ecologies are being disseminated under both these systems including the collection of indigenous accessions from the mountain ecologies. As in Mali, the Ministry of Agriculture has put in place a national policy on the rice sector with the aim of increasing rice production and reducing importation. However, NERICA rice production in Benin is fairly new and hence it is not easy to assess the success or failure of the dual utilization of the dissemination system. The country has however embraced ARI, particularly the rice dissemination NERICA Project, and believes ARI must expand its activities from the already popular upland NERICAs to include lowland, mangrove and irrigated rice ecologies. (This is, however, already being done by WARDA which is proactive in its strategic action planning). Benin has also set up a NERICA Team that has a Project Coordination Unit (PCU) for Monitoring and Coordination the seed production and dissemination activities. It has also set up a National Steering Committee to oversee the overall rice production activities in the country. The effectiveness of these systems in promoting NERICA rice dissemination is, however, not yet known as they were implemented earlier this year when the first disbursement of ADB funds were released. The gap between the demand and supply of NERICA seeds is, however, substantial with the demand far outstripping the supply The impact of NERICA on livelihoods in Benin Rice in Benin is quickly becoming a staple as well as a cash crop, more than a subsistence crop. It is grown in a multi-crop system. There is adequate evidence that shows the complementary nature of rice cultivation in relation to other crops and livestock. It is grown together with maize, yams, cassava and cotton. Progress in rice processing techniques has resulted in rice being parboiled before being milled to enhance its nutritional content. It is also grown in rotation with legumes such as cowpeas to boost the soil fertility content. Similarly, there has been progress in generation of adapted technologies, including rice intercropping with Aeschynomene histrix which is used as an animal feed. Benin agriculturalists have also come up with a tool for making holes (rather than using a stick) in which to sow rice. Farmers are now waiting in great anticipation to receive rice seeds. Therefore more effort needs to be made to ensure a timely and adequate dissemination of existing NERICA varieties in order to meet the immediate needs of the Benin population. This could be achieved through higher allocations and timely disbursement of funds to ARI. Compared to Guinea, however, impact on livelihoods in Benin is low due to the fact that introduction of NERICA in the country and its subsequent dissemination is still in its infancy. Group discussions with farmer groups and evaluation of gross margins suggest that NERICA rice has a high potential of impacting livelihoods in Benin. Most areas of impact are similar to those in Mali and Guinea. An added dimension that needs to be highlighted for Benin is the capacity building in terms of farmer training for seed multiplication. There is also significant impact on group formation for seed production as well as for hedging against unexpected circumstances. This pooling of risk was highlighted as of critical importance in management of lives in rural Benin. There was an obvious gender specialization in crop activities, i.e. men in yam cultivation and women in NERICA production. Rice is grown in rotation with horticultural crops. Women specialize in rice production because it is not too difficult to cultivate, unlike yams that require compiling soils into mounds. However, rice cultivation also requires meticulous care. Plowing is the most difficult part of rice cultivation. NERICA cultivation has brought high yields arriving at the peak of the hunger period. Thus women are able to adequately feed their families and at the same time make money by selling their rice output at the highest price possible. The taste of NERICA rice is also good and children tend to eat more. Fertilizer affordability is, however, the main problem. 22

25 At a landscape management level, some activities such as land conservation only make sense if there are some community level contributions. Labor sharing is a major reason for community action. Finally, sharing of experiences and learning from one another is a major reason for group action in rural Benin. Gross margin calculations for this are displayed in Annex V gross margin tables in part II of this report. Group action problems are identified as follows: since the group is meant to purchase inputs in bulk for its members, it must solicit for money from each member in advance. But different members will have different times and levels of contributing to the communal fund. Similarly, where the group takes credit, it becomes increasingly difficult to pay back on time due to differences amongst the group members in commitment to pay back the credit. 23

26 4.0 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE IHP NERICA PROJECT IN THE THREE COUNTRIES 4.1 Dissemination This comparative analysis is done to compare the effectiveness of the two dissemination strategies, i.e. identify their strengths and weaknesses as well as compare their achievements in terms of IHP quality and quantity of research outputs and outcomes generated. Factors that account for these differences across the countries are then highlighted and used as a basis for making recommendations in chapter 5 and 6 of the report. In order to determine country-specific impact of NERICA on livelihoods in general and whether they vary by country and policy environments, comparisons of the same are made across the three countries. Table 2. Level of various NERICA use indicators in Guinea, Mali and Benin Country Quantity of research Quality of research Impact on livelihoods Guinea 7 NERICA disseminated -early maturing varieties - high yielding-drought resistant- capacity to withstand iron and aluminum toxicity -increased food availability- improved cash flow- better tasting aromatic rice for foodenhanced community participation in the development processimproved basic education for the children Mali 1 NERICA (4) disseminated and 3 new in pipeline - high yieldingearly maturing - increased food availability- improved cashflow- enhanced community participation in the development processimproved basic education for children Benin 3 NERICA disseminated - high yieldingearly maturingweed resistant - high financial returns We note that the country that has strong impacts of research in terms of quality and quantity of research output also has the most dynamic dissemination strategy. This is best illustrated by comparing the outputs from the NERICA project across the three countries. The main conclusion that can be drawn from this observation is that sustainability of a human livelihood system can be maintained through use of a sufficient array of options (Palm et al., 2005) Guinea recorded the highest number of varietal releases during phase 2 of NERICA Project and also had the highest and most diverse level of livelihood impacts of NERICA. The following are some of the reasons that lie behind this success: 1) A good organizational structure of the rice research stations by agro-ecology with one main research station specializing in generation of foundation seed for the various NERICA 2) Strong linkage between the NARS and WARDA, with the latter providing the relevant material for further research under the country specific conditions 24

27 3) A very dynamic team of policy, research and extension officers that are well motivated and whose level of co-ordination and co-operation reduces unnecessary delays in both decision making and implementation of the decisions reached. 4) Capacity to leverage funds from other sources to ensure that critical research activities are carried out on time even when the original source of income is delayed 5) Strong political and administrative will to promote NERICA at all costs as a means of ensuring that the country uses NERICA to achieve its food security goal. Based on the above, we note that upland rice is 65% of all rice grown and most of this is NERICA. If one was to compare NERICA to all NARS improved varieties 70,000 hectares out of 350,000 ha were under upland rice. In Mali, the above characteristics were similarly evident. The demand for NERICA 4 was especially high but seed availability was extremely low. The number of varieties ready for release to farmers in Mali was similarly low resulting in a high demand for increased efforts at the NARS to generate varieties that are adopted to Malian agro-ecologies. While pushing for increased adoption of NERICA 4, more efforts should be placed on providing more varieties for testing and selection in the PVS. So far we note that in 2005, 50 ha of NERICA 4 seed production were underway and that 50 tonnes are currently expected for 2006 planting. Part of this very low research and dissemination is due to the stylized formal approach to research and dissemination. With the problems presently facing cotton production and marketing, NERICA varieties could replace it and rice may become the new cash crop. The situation in Benin is slightly different since both formal and informal systems of research and dissemination are in operation. However, the number of NERICAs released in this country is still low partly because rice research has not been aggressively promoted in the past. Overall, it was noted that compared to the local varieties in the region, the comparative advantage of the interspecifics was 606 kg/ha yield in the forest zone and 472 kg/ha in the savanna zone. This translates into a gross profit of 45,000 FCFA per ha, less 20,000 FCFA. Similarly, it was noted that generation of NERICA varieties with sources of resistance based on the native species continues to be an area of significant gap in all three countries. This is an area on which future research should focus in order to broaden the genetic base and to develop durable resistance to major diseases such as blast and other pests. The resulting high yielding varieties that are stable and have a wider adaptation of improved rice cultivars in the region could then be aggressively disseminated to result in massive positive impact on livelihoods. On the dissemination (ARI) side, we note that the PVS approach used mainly in Guinea and most recently, Benin, results in a very clear and significant reduction in the time a new variety takes to be cultivated by a farmer for food and/or for cash. This contributes to efficient technology transfer by identifying the niches for the various varieties and plant characteristics preferred by farmers, thereby achieving a better targeting of the various IHP technologies and the related low, medium and high input utilization systems. The added advantage of this approach is that researchers in turn learn and even study the farmers indigenous methods and knowledge of currently-grown rice cultivars, landraces or introductions as well as those of new NERICA progenies. Secondly, since both women and men visit the demonstration plots, it is possible to capture differences in choices due to gender orientation. Formal plant evaluations thus take place at (1) maximum tillering to select the preferred plant architecture from the farmers perspectives, (2) reproductive stage for panicle type, plant height and the type of cycle length as well as other agronomic and morphological traits and finally, (3) post harvest to focus more on grain yield, attributes of quality, grain shattering levels including size, shape, taste and aroma of the grain. It also includes the ease of threshing the grain. All these activities are done in the first year of the PVS trial. We note that combining these advantages with a dynamic and enthusiastic team of agricultural extension officers and agricultural researchers results in an efficient transfer of seed bulking information from the extension agents to the farmers and vice versa. This was pretty evident in the case of Guinea. However, for this to be fully effective, substantial resources must be available to properly train the farmers and researchers. However, due to political good will, the NERICA dissemination team was able to pre-finance and hence get over this hurdle. By implication, it appears that both modes of dissemination would greatly benefit from leveraging of funds from 25

28 different sources. It is also obvious that a timely disbursement of funds would go a long way to ensuring that agricultural activities are carried out on time. In year two of a PVS project, we note that farmers visit the demonstration fields and receive up to six of the entries grown in the first year. These are used to record performance indicators and farmer appreciation of the entries, especially threshing and taste, as a way of providing a complete picture of each variety s strength and weaknesses. Finally, the capacity of the farmers to pay for the seeds is evaluated through the third-year assessment of their willingness to pay. This is done to estimate the demand for each of the preferred varieties. Once seeds are produced in this manner, an informal approach is employed by which the National Seed Service certifies only the foundation seed while the national extension service makes small quantities of these seeds available to various informal seed growers, e.g. farmers co-operatives, private seed producers and NGOs. These produce non-certified seeds for their respective regions from which seeds of acceptable quality are produced by trained farmers for their communities based on the regional cultivation methods and practices. Seed is hence provided to at least some farmers within four years of a variety s release, i.e. three years earlier than under the purely formal system. At the same time, the national seed services are not overstretched by attempting to meet the whole country s seed requirements. Guinea uses this approach and hence typifies the various pros and cons of this system. The successful implementation of this non-traditional model of seed multiplication depends on: a) farmers willingness to produce their own seeds; b) their willingness to be coached and/or trained to produce quality seeds; c) their preparedness to handle seeds carefully during harvesting, threshing, winnowing and storage; d) their preparedness to properly dry the seeds then purify them by removal of offtypes, i.e. grains that do not conform to the standard of the variety seed being produced; and d) farmers preparedness to test the germination of their seed before giving it to fellow farmers and/or neighbors. From the above country discussions, we note that the key persons in this community- or farmer-based, nontraditional seed production system are: i) basic seed producers who must meet the farmers seed requirements at the regional level at sufficient quantities and affordable cost; ii) senior seed multiplication technicians who train the basic seed producers on how to produce seeds by following recommendations regarding maintenance of purity of previous crops of rice and the use of fertilizers; iii) extension agents who supervise farmers and control seed quality, observe standards set by the foundation seed producers with an 80% to 90% varietal purity; and iv) research personnel that provide initial training of trainers done by the scientists. In all the three countries, it was obvious that the numbers of these three categories of skilled seed production personnel were grossly inadequate. Hence there is need to allocate funds for training of the same as a means of building capacity for seed supply. From all the above, we note that the advantages of this system are: a) it is an open system unlike the conventional model, utilizing the farmers cultural practices and channels for seed distribution and hence fosters the full promotion of traditional and improved varieties; b) it drastically reduces the seed production costs in that it equates them to the production costs of ordinary paddy; c) it reduces the amount of time a newly released variety takes to reach the farmer s from 7 to 4 years as mentioned above; d) it helps any farmer who is interested in making quality seeds, thus readily putting cash in his hands; e) it encourages the availability of seeds of acceptable quality at the community level and hence improves the community s NERICA rice productivity levels; f) it facilitates the rapid spread of improved varieties. Overall, the approach is simple as it operates on simply selecting the best grains at harvest to save seed. It also helps farmers to be readily sufficient in seed and handle local diversity and preferences better. The main disadvantages are that farmers may end up with polluted seeds that are quickly proliferated to other farmers resulting in massive decline in yields and loss of confidence in the NERICA seed varieties. Second, close monitoring, training, and meticulous care in handling the seeds may quickly raise the production costs to levels that are close to formal seed production costs. Governments may lose control of seed production in terms of quality and quantity. In comparison to the PVS seed dissemination approach, the Task Force traditional approach of dissemination used in Mali entails a very stylized top-down seed multiplication procedure that requires strict enforcement of rules and regulation to ensure that all seeds generated are of the required standards. Quality is hence of highest priority. There is also a high level of monitoring of the seed crop while in the field and at every stage of 26

29 physiological growth. As explained in the Mali country description above, we note that this system requires a substantial amount of time and financial outlay to implement. The Malian government was able to implement this approach based on the substantial support of the US government through the PRODEPAM NGO and also some leveraging of other financial resources from other sources such as ADB. Also, we note that the economy is currently growing at a healthy 5% of its GDP and hence could be defined as being vibrant. Nonetheless, it is obvious that the time required to generate farmer seed under this system is long and hence there is extreme scarcity of seed in the initial years. This could be the dead-weight problem of this approach. Clear choices have to be made on whether it is worth it to wait that long just to get quality seeds or whether it may be better to use a well monitored (supervised) informal system to generate seed in almost half the period of time with the advantages that seeds arrive in their already well targeted and community-preferred forms and that the farmers are mobilized in the process of generating the relevant seed. 4.2 Overall assessment of NERICA s role in improving livelihoods of the rural poor According to the CGIAR Standing Panel on Impact Assessment (SPIA), a comprehensive assessment of a research output and its dissemination strategy should be based on the way it impacts on the lives of the rural poor, i.e. the end users (Menzen-Dick et al. 2003). Since the majority of the poor reside in rural areas and are engaged in agricultural activities, a comparative assessments of impact on livelihoods as discussed above is done. We note that throughout the three countries whether a technology benefits the poor or not depends not only on the characteristics of the technology, but also on the underlying socio-economic, geopolitical and agroenvironmental conditions. This approach is in line with the overall goal of the CGIAR and its partners which continues to be to improve the livelihood of low income people (prevalent in most of rural Africa) through reduced poverty, food insecurity and malnutrition [Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG1)], reduce gender inequality (MDG3), reduced child mortality (MDG4), improve maternal health (MDG5), combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG6), ensure environmental sustainability (MDG7) and develop global partnerships (MDG8). This economic assessment of impact of NERICA on livelihoods is hence in line with both the CGIAR goal of research as well as the UN Millennium Development Goals pursued by most developing countries in rural Africa. It also acknowledges the recently published UN Millennium Project Report (2005), which concludes that the world s global epicenter of extreme poverty is the smallholder farmer. Similarly, the World Bank in its report on, Meeting the Challenge of Africa s Development, states that, Poverty is increasingly a rural phenomenon in sub-saharan Africa (SSA). Agricultural growth is therefore essential for achieving the broad growth needed to attain the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Thus, of the world s 1.1 billion people living on less than a dollar a day, 74% live in rural areas and depend on agriculture for survival. Out of this, almost all of them suffer from chronic hunger an estimated 815 million, of which 204 million reside in the rural parts of sub-saharan Africa. The country-specific impacts on livelihoods discussed above for each of the three countries clearly show that NERICA rice impacts the whole spectrum of human life problems in the areas of health, nutrition, education, female empowerment, environmental protection, and improved collaboration and partnerships for enhanced development. The impacts in all the three countries are hence the same although they vary in magnitude. The most significant impacts in all the countries are the amount and timeliness of the harvests relative to the hunger period. Thus the crop matures early releasing the land for other uses and providing a ready supply of food at the peak of the food scarcity period. For those who want to sell some of their harvest for cash, the prices are at their highest and so is their bargaining power. 27

30 5.0 PROJECT ASSESSMENTS, DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 1.1 Review and Assessment of the IHP-NERICA project and ARI in Phase II The conceptual framework and logframe for the IHP and upland NERICA varieties development and testing (Project I with WARDA / rolling MTPs) is shown in Annex III. In summary, the outputs expected are: 1. Improved lines and varieties of good quality with higher and stable yield 2. Integrated management options for pests and diseases 3. Profitable integrated soil fertility management options 4. Determinants of adoption and impact of improved technologies At the same time the project 2 in the WARDA rolling MTP / focuses on new cultivars for the lowlands with the following expected outputs: 1. High-yielding and stable lowland rice lines and varieties with good quality and resistances 2. Sustainable integrated crop management options for lowland rice systems 3. Stable and profitable crop diversification in lowland rice systems 5.2 The Interspecific Hybridization Project (IHP) From the above livelihood assessments and country-level evaluation of IH; it is clear that the basic concept of the Project was to support small-scale farmers in West and Central Africa (and spread to the rest of Africa) by developing interspecific lines combining the high yield potential of Oryza sativa with the high adaptability of Oryza glaberrima to the production systems of the region. The IHP therefore commenced in July 1997 with financial support from Japan and UNDP/TCFC, and Rockefeller Foundation funding the anther culture component. This followed the successful fixing of the first fertile interspecific progenies for the upland ecology in 1994 at WARDA. Successful plant breeding depends on exploiting a wide diversity of genetic resources for genes responsible for several useful traits. The genetic diversity to be deployed in the coming phase III should include systematically and logically characterized (using phenotypic and molecular biology tools) and selected wide ranging indigenous landrace genes combined with tested and superior introductions (O. sativa types). This will result in selected recombinants (interspecifics), such as the NERICA varieties, with better adaptability and stability of performance. The IHP Phase I was from July 1997 to June Phase II immediately started in July 2000 to During the phase II of the IHP, from the review of all documents provided by WARDA and UNDP and interviews with the breeders, very significant progress was made. The achievements are impressive and commendable. In collaboration with eight ARIs and IARCs/CG Centers (IRRI, CIAT, IRD Montpellier, JIRCAS, JICA, Cornell University, YAAS and University of Kyoto), the breeders, molecular biologist and crop protection scientists have recorded tremendously large quantities of high quality research. All the four outputs in project I of Program I in the MTP were achieved at varying levels of projected targets in the phase II. Major Issues and Challenges 1. The progress of IHP (breeding, PVS and breeder seed issues) was severely affected by the civil strife in Côte d Ivoire, which took place in both September 2002 and November The impact of the resulting delay needs to be monitored and assessed in due course. Some effects are already showing from the double relocation of WARDA from Bouaké to Bamako, then from Bamako-Bouaké but aborted to Cotonou due to 28

31 the second civil strife. Disruption to WARDA and IHP activities was evident, especially in the loss of very senior and experienced field and breeding technicians, other GSS staff, established breeding nurseries and developed disease/pest hot-spots, germplasm accession stock in storage and in the genebank, breeding log and field books, unpublished documents and records/reports of breeding lines and populations. How to and when can these losses be replaced is still confronting the breeders and their collaborators. 2. Expanding PVS in main pilot countries; and modifying its strategies towards systematizing selection of improved seeds 3. Harmonizing rice breeding and seed production strategies through target training courses 5.3 Achievements in IH Project ( Upland Rice-based Systems in Project 1 of WARDA s rolling MTP , which captures Phase II of IHP) Pre-breeding, breeding and genetics The following highlights key technical genetic achievements of the IHP: i. Improved efficiency in producing fertile interspecific progenies using anther culture (AC) and embryo recovery. Using this method, the time taken for development of stable and fertile interspecific (IS) progenies to form record backcross generations was reduced from two years to six months. ii.continuation of studies to assess adaptation and stability traits in African japonica, indica and O. glaberrima germplasm. Parental lines and progenies of 576 japonica x indica, japonica x O. glaberrima, and interspecific progeny (bridging materials) x O. glaberrima or O. sativa F 1, F 2 and BC 2 F 1 crosses were subjected to AC. iii.though AC response (green plants per anther) is low, 43% of the plantlets were green and used for next stage of the process. Among the green plants, 75% were found to be haploids with 12 chromosomes, 36.5% were spontaneous doubled haploids and only 7% were polyploids. iv.using molecular maker gene technology (microsatellites) and marker-assisted breeding, a mean level of 90% polymorphism was shown in sativa and glaberrima accessions indicating that almost all the rice genomes in these species are covered with microsatellite markers. As a result, fingerprinting and graphical genotyping of NERICA lines, and evaluation of genetic diversity in O. glaberrima are made possible. Two hundred (200) accessions of O. glaberrima collected from 12 countries in WCA have been characterized to have 4-67 alleles per locus with an average of 16 alleles. v. Polymorphism was also detected among the three O. glaberrima varieties/parents CG 14, CG 20 and IG 10. This finding confirms the strong variability characteristic and greater usefulness of microsatellites compared with other markers (RFLP and isozyme) vi. A quantitative screening and evaluation method for drought tolerance using quantitative trait loci (QTL) analyses was developed. Under severe drought stress, four top lines out of 112 originally selected for drought tolerance were identified, including: WAB BC12-HB, WAB BL1-DR2-HB, WAB BL1- HB and WAB BL1-HB. vii. Abundant genetic variation continued to be demonstrated in O. glaberrima collected from its WCA center of origin using 81 microsatellite markers; indicating the potential of continued use of this local germplasm to develop new and better adaptable NERICA upland and lowland varieties viii. At different management levels, 256 NERICA lines outyielded the best performing O. sativa check (WAB 56-50) by 6-68% under low input (i.e. use of limited chemical and other factor inputs affordable by poor farmers) and at high input levels (i.e. use of chemical and other factor input levels that may not be affordable by a majority of farmers except the fairly rich ones) of the recommended chemical and other factor inputs levels by up to100%. In a positive response to fertilizer, 28 of 73 NERICA lines, and only 18 of the 73 out-yielded O. 29

32 sativa cultivars (and not significantly better than O. glaberrima cultivars) at high and low levels, respectively. The inference is that NERICAs can not be said to be low-input or high-input varieties, as they behave variously at different input levels and agro-ecologies/locations depending on the NERICA variety! More input-responsive and efficient varieties need to be developed and more widely tested in phase III for both upland and lowland ecologies. ix. The recognition of the significance of severe damage caused by major pathogens of rice in uplands and lowlands of WCA (including RYMV with % damage, blast up to 100% and AfRGM with 10-75%) strengthened research efforts by WARDA scientists to develop IH varieties resistant to these diseases and pests. Some 920 lines (including about 550 IH and O. glaberrima lines) identified earlier as resistant materials were again screened in phase II to confirm their resistant reactions to RYMV, Blast, AfGRM and stem borers in hot-spot locations. Also, the newly developed NERICA lines are being further tested in hot-spots to confirm their stability of resistance across several locations. x. Resistant sources identified with environmental and molecular screening methods include four WAB450 series for extreme drought stress; 4 for blast resistance, the best one being WAB450-I-B-P ; for African rice gall midge (WAB 450-I-B-P HB); (IGIO) selected bent for weed competitiveness; and 3 NERICA lines (WAB HB, WAB 450-B-1A, 1 WAB 450-I-B-P65-1) were selected for resistance to the three available isolates of rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). A total of 59 IS lines showed multiple stress resistance to blast, brown blotch and leaf scald. xi. Methodology of strip-cropping maize with rice was developed and found to significantly reduce disease on the companion rice crops, indicating that rice/maize intercropping has potential as a natural control method for stem borers. The NERICA line WAB B-P-133-HB was least infested when intercropped with maize at two locations. NERICA-2, -4 and -7 had less stem borer damage than NERICA-1 and -6 in the same locations. xii. Some interspecific lines were found with high protein content and appropriate amylose with amylopectin quality. The grain quality of 50 IH varieties selected (derived from O. glaberrima) is better than that of the O. sativa reference varieties. These varieties also showed high coefficients of variation for translucency, chalkiness, head-rice ratio, setback and breakdown (shrivelling of grain). This finding indicates a strong possibility of selecting IH rice lines with good texture, good milling qualities and high market value with high protein Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS) As explained above, the PVS methodology is a collaborative process that empowers the ultimate farmerstakeholders (female and male alike) to play a major role in the testing, identification and selection of varieties on-station and on-farm for adoption. PVS with upland varieties started in 1996 in Côte d Ivoire (CI). In the research phase (PVS-R), up to 60 farmers in a village test on their farms up to 10 varieties selected from a rice garden. By 2000 PVS-R had spread to 17 WCA countries. In 2001 the 3 5 most popular farmer-selected varieties across a zone were multiplied for wide-scale country dissemination and for further evaluation on-farm by up to 500 farmers over two years in a PVS extension phase (PVS-E). In 2001 and 2002, the total number of test sites for PVS-E was 165, ranging from two in Liberia to 26 in CI. At the same time, 129 lines were tested in the PVS-R in 26 trials on sites in the 17 countries; resulting yields ranging from t ha -1 and significant yield increases over controls, ranging from %. In total, 24 agronomic and pest reaction traits are observed and recorded in the first year of the PVS-R. There are three stages of PVS research: year 1 = rice garden comprising varieties from the village s first selection; year 2 = farmers sow and evaluate collections from the first year on their own farms; year 3 = farmers continue evaluation of preferred material, followed by adoption. In 2005, the rice garden contained 91 lines while the Year 2 farmer on-farm evaluation contained 5-11 lines. Breeding of interspecific lines continued after the first set of NERICAs (7#) was named and released in 2000 on a wide scale. These new NERICA lines (11#) selected in phase II are derived from three sources using the same O. glaberrima parent but different O. sativa parents. In all, 28 interspecific and sativa lines were selected 30

33 and adopted by farmers from PVS activities; the numbers ranging from 3 in Burkina Faso to 12 in Côte d Ivoire with yields of 3 5 t ha -1 in farmers fields. Of the lines selected, 43% were NERICA and 57% were sativa. Annex 6 shows the list and pedigrees of the early (NERICA 1-7) and new (NERICA 8 18) NERICA lines. Substantial progress was made during phase II in farmer PVS in both WCA and Southern Africa Regions. By 2001, all countries had PVS sites in the second or third year stage. Progress was found to differ from country to country as a result of interest/commitment, motivation, resources, staff capacity, institutional and policy settings. Beginning in 2001, PVS activities were split into two types: researcher-led PVS (PVS-R) and extensionled PVS (PVS-E). The major objectives then were to obtain high quality data for research and to test potentially interesting varieties with a large number of farmers. However, by 2004 the PVS methodology was rationalized and the two types were re-combined into one PVS, with new objectives, which the study believes are more result-oriented to achieve significant outcomes of increased adoption of selected varieties. These new objectives include: 1. to have a harmonious flow of the variety development and release process, by maintaining research extension continuum 2. enhance the feedback mechanism which is inherent in the PVS methodology; a process which would have otherwise been lost due to separation 3. to streamline management and responsibility for the process for cost- and time- effectiveness in achieving desired results One major outcome of the PVS in phase II is the unanimous choice of farmers of short cropping cycle as best out of 10 characters consistently scored on NERICAs across all countries test locations. This is significant socio-economic factor in the IHP-NERICA Development and Testing as farmers often face a hungry period just before harvest of local rice; thus an early maturing variety (like the selected NERICA varieties) is considered a welcome relief. Expansion of cultivating ecology and area from upland to lowland by the development of lowland NERICAs This is a follow-up next step after the success of the development of the upland interspecific NERICA varieties. The future prospects and potential of lowland NERICAs are very high for intensification, which is conditioned by local land pressures (push) and urban market demand (pull). With improved water control, external inputs will become attractive and cost- effective with increasing rice yields. Rice yields in rainfed lowlands (flood plains and valley bottoms) can average 2-4 t ha -1. With a total cropping area of 1.65 million ha (almost the same as the uplands at 1.74 million ha) in WCA region, increases in rice production should be apparent early on, with higher yields and more adoption of lowland NERICAs. High yield potential is the priority objective in project 2 of the WARDA / rolling MTPs, combined with weed competitiveness, short duration, resistance to blast, RYMV, AfGRM and tolerance to iron toxicity. As at 2004 wet season, 59 lowland interspecific lines (NERICA-L) have been tested in 14 countries from 493 segregating populations developed in Four of these have been selected, adopted and released in 2 countries of Burkina Faso and Mali: WAS FKR-B-1 =FKR58N, WAS 161-IDSA-1-WAS-B-IER-2-4 =N1, WAS 122-IDSA-1-WAS-B-FKR-B-1 = FKR60N and N2, WAS 161-B-9-3 =FRR56N, WAS 161-B-9-3 = FRR5N. The parentage of these new released NERICA-L varieties are: TOG 5681/3*IR64; TOG 5681/4*IR ; TOG 5681/2*IR64//IR ; TOG 5681/2*IR64//IR ; TOG 5674/4*IR 31785; IR 64/TOG 5681//5*IR 64; TOG 5675/4*IR28; TOG 5681/4*IR31785; IR 64/TOG 5681//4*IR64; IR 31785/TOG 5674//4*IR3585. Among a set of 10 crosses, similar procedures of PVS (3 years) followed by CBSS for seed availability and adoption were followed. Already 200 ha are under NERICA-L cultivation with the expectation that 20,000 ha will be covered with these lowland NERICAs by 2010, incorporating 20 countries. 31

34 5.3.3 Documentation and training Impressive publications totaling 116 were produced from the IHP research activities, spanning nine years of phases I and II ( ), (see Annex on publications). Out of this total, 66 (57%) cover research activities in peer-reviewed journals, 18 (16%) are paper and workshop presentations, while 12 (10%) are books and book chapters. This shows a very good quantity of publications with a very high quality ratio. The training and collaboration resulting from the tripartite partnerships with Advanced Institutions, and IARCs/CG centers are of cutting-edge standard. The PVS-Community-based Seed System (CBSS) As discussed at length in the previous sections of this report, this is a relatively new seed multiplication scheme (launched in Côte d Ivoire in 2002) that combines farmers practices and indigenous knowledge. It was introduced by WARDA as its next step after NERICA lines development and varietal adoption for dissemination of the preferred varieties to farmers through appropriate tools. It is an alternative seed supply mechanism for smallholder farmers, different from the traditional seed production system of breeder seed foundation seed registered seed certified seed. In this CBSS system, the national seed service of a country certifies only the Foundation seed. The extension services make small quantities of Foundation seed available to the various non-traditional seed farmers, such as farmers cooperatives, private seed producers and NGOs. These organizations will produce non-certified basic seeds for their regions, from which trained farmers will use their normal production practices to produce seeds of acceptable quality for their communities. In this process, the seed needs of many farmers can be satisfied within four years of the release of a variety, three years earlier than in the conventional system. This is a significant achievement towards attaining food security at household level! As seen from our discussion of country visit findings, CBSS has been adopted by Guinea (with modification) and Côte d Ivoire, and is the heart of the success of NERICAs in both countries (its limitation of lack of monitoring and control for seed quality notwithstanding). 5.4 Identified constraints, gaps and comments Based on discussions with and documents from both upland and lowland breeders, the review team observed some constraints and gaps in the pre-breeding process involving characterization genetic studies and molecular biology aspects. We noted that the genetic base of the present NERICAs 1-18 is narrow, with only 2-18% of the indigenous rice Oryza glaberrima genes being introgressed, while 75% - 90% are Oryza sativa genes. It is necessary that in the next phases of NERICA lowland development and upland continuation, the biodiversity base of indigenous Oryza glaberrima species be more researched and characterized using both morphophysiological and molecular methods. More genetic sources need to be added to the only glaberrima (CG14) and three sativas, WAB , WAB and WAB , mostly used as the sources (total of 56) to generate NERICAs. Because of the excellent drought stress resistance required, more sativa lines may be used in more sources with NERICA varieties to generate new NERICAs using index selection, ideotyping and three-way crosses. 1. The PVS on-station and on-farm testing with selection needs to be improved for generating solid and valid data usable for robust analyses and valid results for documentation/publications of the process. The second year of PVS on-farm testing should be repeated for one more year (while still moving on to the extension phase in the third year at the same time) with the same farmers (used as replications) to be able to obtain genotype x environment (year x farmer locations) interactions and effects of the selected lines. PVS should also be improved for multiplying seeds used in the activity. In the initial stages of the PVS (PVS- R), there will be no problem for that since the number of farmers is limited. However, in the next following stages when PVS-R is up-scaled to PVS-E in terms of the number of sites and farmers, the current scheme is not clear who will produce and provide quality seeds used in the first year of PVS-E. 32

35 There could be the following three scenarios: (1) NARS which is conducting PVS-R multiplies seeds during the PVS-R phase; (2) WARDA does; and (3) seeds that have been produced in PVS-R are used. In case of (1) and (2), NARS or WARDA cannot know which lines/varieties will be selected by farmers beforehand and multiplying seeds for all lines/varieties used in PVS-R is waste of resources. In case of (3), the seed quality is questionable. The impact of pest resistance gene incorporation into NERICAs is increasing with wider adoption of the varieties. However, with NERICA popularity comes new problems. More and more varieties are collapsing and becoming susceptible to the major diseases and insect pests like RYMV, blast, gall midge. There is a need for more integration and collaboration of the WARDA NERICA Teams/Scientists to address these emerging problems. One problem that arose from the series of dislocations and relocations of WARDA due to the civil strife in Ivory Coast is the new look of the Africa Rice Center, having several new and institutionally-young scientists replace older and experienced leavers. The result is that smooth integration and progress in scientific collaborative research is somewhat hampered. There is a need for financial managers to understand the research process and special projects operations, and for scientists to be aware of cashflow problems that occasionally do arise in organizations such as WARDA. Such reciprocal understanding would enhance smoother disbursement and use of funds. The lack of complementary post-harvest processing and utilization technologies is very glaring. It is necessary for WARDA and the IHP to begin to put in place activities in these areas to support and enhance uptake, value addition and scaling-up of rice production in the NARS. The present absence of adequate and appropriate labor-saving devices, e.g. animal traction or draft power for land cultivation, sowing, weeding, harvesting and threshing will slow down the scaling-up of NERICA production in many NARS. The ASI thresher needs to be manufactured and made available more widely. The IHP should assist in procurement, adaptation and use of other devices through the ARI and CBSS. 2. The Africa Rice Initiative (ARI) is a newly created platform for the wide dissemination of NERICAs to WCA and ECA regions. In the dissemination process, it was identified that availability of good quality seeds is the most important constraint in NERICA diffusion. It is, however, not enough to say seed production is the problem. It is necessary that WARDA in the CBSS and ARI put in place strategies to produce good quality seeds in the NARS using better and improved seed production approaches. CBSS needs improvement. Two JICA experts seconded to WARDA in 2005 were to assist: - with the multiplication of NERICA foundation seed and other seed crises; - work with PVS scientists to collect, collate and analyze the large body of data generated on the NERICAs already disseminated. Harmonization of the testing (PVS) and dissemination (ARI and ROCARIZ) strategies is required. Naming of the NERICA varieties released in the NARS by the NARS and their farmers will enhance ownership and encourage more interest in NERICAs. 33

36 6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS AND COMMENTS Based on the study findings, general recommendations with accompanying comments are made herewith for Phase III. In all the assessments it is important for WARDA to recognize that all MDGs are multidimensional, multi-sectored and interdependent. For this reason, WARDA should critically evaluate its work and determine the entry points for the different types of NERICA varieties and dissemination of same using a twintrack approach that promotes NERICA growth and general rural sector development 1.1 Research: Interspecific Hybridization Project, IHP-NERICA Project, PVS and CBSS 1. Considering the study teams finding that the genetic base of the present NERICAs -1 to -18 is very narrow (section 4.1), WARDA should investigate more the very large inherent genetic variation found in O. glaberrima landrace cultivars, with continued and combined use of molecular and morpho-physiological techniques to identify further unique and novel traits/genes for use per se and incorporation into new NERICAs that are being developed for both upland and lowland/valley bottom agro-ecologies. 2. No single breeding program can select lines that will perform well across a range of rice production ecologies in WCA and ESA due to large spatial and temporal variations in bio- physical constraints. Consequently, WARDA should continue to supply indigenous collections/accessions, introductions from outside the regions, segregating populations and lines to the NARS who must impose initial preliminary, simple selection in one or two national nurseries for local adaptation. Such initial identifications and selections are then used by WARDA in molecular and crossing programs to develop new, more adaptive NERICAs for/with the respective countries. Where there are no adequate pre-breeding capacities in the national programs, funding for training at WARDA could be included in the budget for phase III. The study team s observations include inadequate plant protection inputs into development of new lines in phase II; this has resulted in some of the new lines having low or unstable disease and pest resistances. WARDA must therefore adopt more integrated approach to breeding new varieties for impact, and which insures against present and unsuspected disease and pest infestation. More multi-disciplinarity and collaboration is required in phase III involving teams of breeder, INRM scientists, molecular biologists, physiologist, protection scientists and economists, to achieve stability of performance of released and adopted new NERICA varieties. Focus traits of major significance (for improved human livelihoods) should continue to be early maturity and weed competitiveness 3. Because of the civil strife in Côte d Ivoire, WARDA lost most of its core research staff and genetic resources. This has resulted in a significant loss in WARDA s institutional research memory, scientific and technical/support staff, and research laboratory/field documentation. Thus the presence of a crop improvement coordinator to integrate crop improvement activities is lacking. A gap has existed since the departure of the initial IHP Coordinator. We understand the long time it takes to replace staff and note that there is still no interim solution put in place to bridge the gaps created. Consequently, among other considerations, the study recommends: - a senior crop improvement scientist/breeder should be identified to coordinate the pre- breeding, breeding, testing and promotion activities in phase III - a quick replacement of an anther culture staff member to continue the development of new crosses now that a new molecular laboratory has been rebuilt in Cotonou - an increase in the use of Visiting Scientists (short term solutions) and/or Adjunct Scientists (National Scientists deputed to WARDA from the region, with their normal salaries topped up with agreed amounts by WARDA, and working in WARDA on IHP research for, say, 1 week/month). Using Adjunct Scientists would also strengthen NARES research capacity - a minimal WARDA/National policy agreement change or modification in the promotion or re-designation/ transfer exercise to allow for the effective/continued use of existing very scarce, experienced field 34

37 technicians (with years field/breeding nursery work but with less than degree qualification or nationality requirements) - recruitment of new field technicians with appropriate degrees for fast on-the-job training - urgent re-characterization of available germplasm resources of landraces (O. glaberrima and O. sativa) using special funding - urgent re-collection (point collections) of landraces (glaberrima, sativa, longistaminata and their intermediates) including wild types from centers of origin and centers of adaptation, to replace lost/displaced germplasm, and utilization in new interspecific development programs, using special funding 4. Varieties need to be developed at the lowest cost possible. WARDA and NARES allocate money but this disbursement is late/untimely, delaying experimentation completion and data analyses/publications from an expected 3-4 years to 5-6 years, thereby incurring unnecessary expenses (costs). This seems to be a cashflow problem, which WARDA Management should improve, while scientists should also understand its seasonal nature. To address the problem, the study team recommends: -increased activity in and strengthening of resource mobilization capacities by scientists (especially) and management to leverage donor funding and its utilization efficiency, especially for special projects -putting in place by WARDA a process that could allow temporary virement/transfer of funds from related projects, e.g. IHP to ARI and vice versa 5. The PVS approach that has proved very successful so far in integrating farmers into the selection process and led to the release and adoption of several interspecific (NERICA) and sativa lines in a number of countries, will need improvement in phase III within its 3-year progression scheme. The study recommends thus: - the first year of the PVS remains the same as the rice nurseries, with high numbers (50-100) of promising and preliminary lines - second year on-farm testing, with fewer farmer-selected varieties (10-15) from the nurseries, should continue to be advanced into the next extension stage in the third year as at present, and - activities in the same second year of on-farm testing with selected varieties should be repeated in the third year to obtain statistically-analysed data which exploits genotype x environment interactions, and forms the basis for selecting productive varieties that have stability of performance across country locations 1.2 Cross-cutting issues 6. The current pending serious limitation of seed availability by most farmers in the region calls for an intensive seed multiplication and production program for NERICAs and released Sativa varieties that strives to maintain genetic purity of both breeder and foundation seeds. Difficulties of adequate quantities and quality of seed are very serious problems in phase II. Finding solutions to these problems are the responsibilities of WARDA and national breeders, CBSS, and Regional and National Coordinators of ARI. The study recommends the following: - breeder seed (the purest original/first stage seed produced by breeder of any developed variety) for all named interspecific (NERICA) and sativa varieties must be multiplied by the WARDA breeder for cold room seed storage and use in PVS 1 st year nurseries - breeder seed for all farmer selections in PVS 1 ST year going to 2 nd year PVS must be produced by the national breeders - foundation seed for all farmer selections in PVS 2 nd year and going to dissemination must be produced by ARI, national breeders with accredited seed producers/ngos - certified seed and standard acceptable quality seed SAQ (farmer seed) will be produced by seed farmers, NGOs and accredited seed producers; seeds produced by this group will be monitored and certified by a government/private seed certification agency in the respective countries - seed of varieties officially released by NARS must be produced by the national breeders and Seed Producers/NGOs in the respective countries 35

38 7. There is urgent need to harmonize seed categorization, control and certification across countries in the region. Nomenclature for seed types during seed increase and production need streamlining and re-definition spearheaded by ARI. Internationally-agreed seed categories in succession, i.e Breeder seed Foundation seed Certified seed/registered seed Farmer seed (Common seed or SAQ) must be understood and used uniformly in the PVS- CBSS-ARI Continuum. The word Basic should be deemphasised in describing seed type as it is being used erroneously by the different groups 8. The link between rice cultivation and its impact on the natural resource base in terms of broad sustainability effects on soil minerals, bio-diversity and the related feedback effects on the human and natural systems need to be monitored and evaluated. The study recommends that: - a more integrative methodology of assessment be adopted that simultaneously assesses impact in both the bio-physical and socio-economic factors in the system 9. Plans are now needed to enhance the capacity of the monitoring and evaluation unit in WARDA, to be able to undertake more robust assessments that show impact of NERICA on the achievement of all livelihood dimensions as enunciated in the UN Millennium Declaration and Development Goals for the region. To accomplish these, the study recommends: - support to strengthen the human capacity of WARDA Impact Assessment Unit - support for capacity development of NARES in impact monitoring, evaluation and assessment, achievable through: organized training courses at WARDA, in-country training, degree training and small competitive grants to NARES - strengthening old and initiating new collaboration and exchanges with the millennium team in the World Bank Such supports and exchanges could be sourced through inter-center collaboration and improved resource mobilization by WARDA scientists 10. The role of policy in the achievement of all the goals and objectives enumerated, as well as any subsequent ones is critical. Appropriate policy framework coupled with an intense commitment by respective governments to pursue achieving an African Green Revolution is paramount. Unfortunately, such elements are very weak or non-existent in Africa. In phase III, WARDA should increase its efforts to promote and facilitate generation and use of consistent and well-articulated regional and national level policies for rice production/processing, consumption and marketing of locally produced rice. The study therefore recommends that WARDA: - continues to provide new and improved packages of production technology for rice growers - facilitates creation of a network of institutions and systems of delivery of yield increasing modern farm inputs and services including credit - works with regional and national bodies to assure a remunerative and favorable price and marketing environment for rice growers 6.3 ARI 11. Given the nature of work involved in rice cultivation, the over-dependency on family labor and possibility of unavailability of this labor may undermine some of the expectations of the goals of universal primary education, women s empowerment and improved maternal health. WARDA should therefore: - increase research efforts in phase III on generating supportive technologies that are labor-saving and which enhance the utilization of existing resources 12. Dietary diversity and the beneficial effects of NERICA rice should be used to bring change in the mindset of rice farmers and consumers so nutrition and health are enhanced, especially in young children and pregnant mothers as a way of reducing infant mortality rates. ARI should therefore: 36

39 - strengthen nutrition literacy through participation in knowledge management that effectively involves women and youth, by assisting NARES to train agricultural extensionists in the various forms of rice processing, food and health snack preparations. 13. Overall, WARDA, through ARI/ROCARIZ, should strive to make locally produced rice (especially NERICAs) competitive in price and quality. This could be achieved by improving the taste, and cleanliness of the cereal through use of cost effective ways of production and processing that would result in the locally produced rice being either equally or more desired by consumers than imported rice given the same market price. 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The team is very grateful to Mr. Ken Fujimura of the UNDP and Dr. Kanayo F. Nwanze of Africa Rice Center (WARDA) for giving us the opportunity to be part of the success story of NERICAs by entrusting us with the implementation of this evaluation study on the Africa-Asia Joint Research for IHP. We are very appreciative of all the efforts of Dr Shellemiah O. Keya, Assistant Director General, Research and Development WARDA in providing support for the studies and consistent follow up on our progress from country visits through to the report drafting stages. He ensured that we succeed in this study. We are very grateful to Dr Inoussa Akintayo, ARI Coordinator, who accompanied the team throughout the country visits and made sure discussions and interviews with the Government officials, farmers and the national NERICA Teams were successfully completed. His very close interaction and rapport with these groups in all countries visited is commendable. The team expresses its gratitude to all WARDA scientists interviewed and for sparing their time to respond to our needs at short notice. We also express our gratitude to all persons met and interviewed in the countries. The Directors General, scientists and National NERICA Teams were most welcoming. The UNDP program officers, assistant program officers and representatives in Benin and Ivory Coast were most welcoming. We congratulate WARDA and UNDP for the level of collaboration in achieving the IHP progress in Phases I and II, and for implementing this study mission. We wish to encourage them to pursue this impact-oriented collaboration through the funding of Phase III. 37

40 8.0 ANNEXES I and II 8.1 ANNEX I Terms of Reference (TOR) Evaluation Mission of INT/00/922 Africa-Asia Joint Research: Inter-specific Hybridization between African and Asian Rice Species 1. Introduction Recent empirical assessments based on development work and experience in much of rural Africa and Asia show that broad based agricultural development is still the foundation of economic growth and prosperity in these parts of the world (Sanchez and Swaminathan, 2004). Agricultural production, however, is still low and on the decline while poverty and hunger are on the increase. It is now estimated that about 198 million people in sub-saharan Africa are under nourished while 30 million of them are infected with HIV/AIDS and will have died by the year The inability of agricultural production to keep pace with rapid growth in food demand is one of the key reasons for these trends. In turn, low agricultural productivity is often ascribed to proliferation of inappropriate technologies developed on research stations for adoption by small resource poor farmers. Such farmers, often, play no role in the generation of these technologies. In recognition of these problems, UNDP with the Japan Human Resources Development Fund from South Co-operation has financed projects with the aim of building dynamic global research networks. The objective is to get Africa to benefit from the expertise and experience of Asian and other countries that underwent similar challenges about a decade ago. Rice is a prominent area where such expertise and experience could be shared and where phases 1 and 2 of the Inter- specific Hybridization Project between African and Asian Rice species have been funded by UNDP with the support of the Japanese Government. Phase 2 of this project was expected to end in July 2003, however, due to the civil strife in Ivory Coast, the project was interrupted and delayed. It is under such circumstances, that the current evaluation study has been planned to review the progress and assess the impact on future cooperation. 2. Purpose of the Evaluation: This evaluation is needed for the following reasons: a) Give an economic appraisal/review of the past phases of the Project using a results based assessment system that focuses on outcomes rather than just outputs and hence make specific recommendations for action. b) Provide information on progress towards achievement of stated targets or goals c) Provide substantial evidence as basis for any corrections in policies, programs or projects in phase 3 of the project d) Prioritize the focus of existing resources on further research on new rice varieties or on dissemination of current research findings to the end users All the above assessments will be carried out with the five pillars of evaluation in mind, namely; a) Ensure that all the activities and outcomes of intervention are relevant to the prime objectives stated in the project document b) That the stated activities are carried out in an efficient manner to ensure thatresources are not wasted c) The outcomes arising from a combination of all outputs are effective enough in terms of having an impact on the target objective e) All efforts are made to capture impacts or long term effects (intended or unintended, positive or negative, direct or indirect) of the documented interventions in this exercise f) The sustainability dimension of the project achievements are duly recognized and assessed. 38

41 3. Scope of work: The Team Leader will undertake the following scope of work: 1) In collaboration with agricultural economist, carry out an extensive literature review of all the relevant project documents to determine the objectives, goals, targets, milestones and the level of achievement of these targets or goals 2) Understand the likely impact that the political unrest in Ivory Coast may have had on the extent of achievements of some of the research and dissemination goals of new rice varieties. 3) Collect and review information on the quality of research undertaken by participating research institutions through the reports published and evaluation of the number of articles published in peer reviewed journals, the methodologies generated by scientists and adopted for use by scientists elsewhere and the number of new varieties with high potential for adoption (both present and in the future) generated in the course of the project 4) Collect and review information on the quality and quantity of dissemination undertaken both directly through the Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS) for extension purposes and indirectly through self proliferation 5) In collaboration with agricultural economist, conduct preliminary review of ARI Action Plans and progress made so far in implementation of the same. 6) Collaboratively, provide leadership in the drafting and actual writing of the Evaluation Report and submit the final report after revision with the comments. The Agricultural Economist will undertake the following scope of work: 1. In collaboration with the team leader, carry out an extensive literature review of all the relevant project documents to determine the objectives, goals, targets, milestones and the level of achievement of these targets and goals 2. Understand the likely impact that the political unrest in Côte d Ivoire may have had on the extent of achievements of some of the research and dissemination goals of new rice varieties 3. Assess the economic impact of dissemination (both positive and negative) on a small but representative and unbiased sample of selected households in a few communities located in specific rice growing geographical regions in Benin, Mali and Guinea 4. Conduct preliminary review of ARI Action Plans and progress made so far in implementing same In collaboration with the head of mission, draft the evaluation report and submit the final report after revisions with comments. 4. Methodology for Evaluation A number of methods will be used to carryout this evaluation. They include but are not limited to: a) Review of relevant secondary data from various sources including those provided by the key institutions of interest i.e. SU/SSC, WARDA, NARS, Farmer Communities and government and NGO reports b) Conduct a number of interviews with key members of participating institutions to generate the relevant information for use in the evaluation process. The institutions and respective individuals to be interviewed are: i. UNDP SU/SSC Unit. ii. Cornell University (molecular marker capacity training especially training in micro-satellite techniques) iii. WARDA (Benin) iv. NARS associated with PVS (R) and PVS (E) dissemination and especially those involved in the dissemination of the most preferred varieties such as drought resistant NERICAs, the IH variety, WAB 450-I-B-P38-HB (good for earliness, high yielding capacity, straw paddy color and aroma), WAB 450-I-B-P38-HB (the variety with the shortest growth cycle), and two IH varieties that have shown good adaptability to low input conditions. The most likely countries to be visited in this regard are Mali, Guinea and Benin. 39

42 c) Use secondary data to calibrate and run simple bio-economic models to evaluate the likely impact of different promising lines of rice varieties in different locations and under different economic conditions d) Interview the following key persons: i) Farmers and extension officers that participated in the PVS ii) Senior government officers in the respective countries identified in b. iv above iii) Researchers involved in generation of the various promising varieties vi) Scientists involved in the dissemination of the respective varieties of interest most favored by majority of farmers e) Meet with donor institutions such as the South South Co-operation fund managers, UNDP country offices, the World Bank, AfDB, WARDA, Sasakawa Global 2000, Japanese Embassy in the countries to be visited 5. Mission Composition: The mission will consist of two independent international consultants (Team leader and agricultural economist). 6. Qualifications of the Team leader cum breeding scientist: a) Experience in research management in the tropics over 10 years b) Experience in breeding research undertaking over 10 years, and knowledgeable about rice breeding and growing in African rain-fed rice growing belt c) Strong publication record in breeding work and related fields d) A PhD degree in Plant breeding, agronomy or soils but with emphasis on rice e) Possess a good understanding and working knowledge of the African smallholder agricultural production system and also ongoing work on rice breeding and dissemination f) Excellent written and spoken English and French g) Good interpersonal and communication skills and field experience 7. Institutional arrangements: The study will be organized by SU/SSC in coordination with other parties and will work closely with WARDA and Resident Representatives in UNDP Country Offices. Although the mission is free to discuss with the relevant parties all dimensions of this assignment, it should not make any commitments on behalf of any party UNDP and WARDA. It is also agreed that WARDA and other participating Institutions will provide logistics and administrative support for the study mission. 8. Reporting Responsibilities: 1) The Team Leader will be responsible for the final report 2) The Mission will present its preliminary findings with a Draft Report. 3) The final Report will incorporate these comments, but should not exceed more than 30 pages and be submitted within one week after the presentation of the Draft Report. This final Report will contain or reflect the following: i) Evaluation analysis, results and recommendations. In addition, it will have an executive summary, a completed Project Evaluation Information sheet, a list of contacts and a copy of the TORs. ii) The Draft Report will be submitted through electronic mail in word format iii) The Final report will be provided in 10 bound hard copies and 3 electronic copies (CD) 4) UNDP will undertake to distribute the Final Reports appropriately 40

43 9. Use, Distribution and Publication of Documents: No data, reports or other materials obtained or produced during the Mission are to be distributed and published without the explicit approval of UNDP and WARDA. 10. Schedule: The evaluation study will commence on the 19 th September, 2005 and conclude on 22 nd October, All international visits will be made during this period. The work will be organized as follows: Week 1 & 2 - Desk duties to review documents produced by UNDP, WARDA, NARS and ther participating institutions. Also make a trip to Cornell University to carry out key person interviews - Prepare and submit the mission work plan to SU/SSC and WARDA - Make logistic arrangements with WARDA, NARS in various countries and a few actively participating government officials in two countries Week 3 & 4 - Trip to WARDA (Benin) to meet with key persons and lead scientists. Collect key primary data to supplement the reviewed secondary data Guinea. in Benin, Mali and Week 5 and 6 - Embark on consolidating all the information and drafting the final report as follows: - Report and present the preliminary findings of the mission at a joint meeting - Incorporate comments generated in the joint meeting in the final report - Submit the final report to SU/SSC and WARDA 41

44 8.2 ANNEX II List of Persons interviewed, Institutions and places visited A. Africa Rice Center (WARDA), Cotonou 1. Dr Shellemiah O. Keya Assistant Director General (R&D) 2. Dr Yacouba Séré Pathologist 3. Dr Howard Gridley Upland Rice Breeder (IHP) 4. Dr Francis Nwilene Entomologist 5. Dr Aliou Diagne Impact Economist 6. Dr Ousmane Youm Assistant Director of Research (Program Leader) 7. Dr Patrick Kormawa Policy Economist (Program Leader) 8. Dr Moussa Sié Lowland Rice Breeder (PVS) 9. Dr Marie-Noëlle Ndjiondjop Molecular Biologist 10. Dr Mande Semon Breeder (Drought Project / Biotechnologist 11. Dr Inoussa Akintayo ARI Coordinator 12. Dr Lawrence Narteh ROCARIZ Coordinator 13. Dr Sylvester Oikeh Agronomist/ Weed INRM 14. Dr Sitapha Diatta Soil Physiologist (Iron toxicity) 15. Aline Vidal Head, Training, Library and Publications 16. Pierre-Justin Kouka Assistant Director (Board and Donor Relations) 17. George Maina Head of Finance / Budget 18. Dr Kouame Miezan Irrigated Rice Breeder (Dakar, Senegal) 19. Dr Koichi Futakuchi Ecophysiologist (on leave during the mission, copy of draft report sent him for comments) B. UNDP Cotonou, Benin 1. Mikiko Sasaki Représentant Résident Adjoint 2. Isabelle Paraizo Zossou Assistante Principale Service logistique 3. Cécilia Djrekpo Assistance Principale aux Finances 4. Elvire Martin-Coréa Assistante Principale Ressources Humaines - Conakry, Guinea/ Bamako, Mali/Dakar, Senegal Not available - Abidjan, Ivory Coast 5. Libase Traore Assistant Program Officer C. INRAB - BENIN 1. Dr David Y. Arodokoum Director General / Entomologist 2. Paulin Assigbe NERICA/ARI Project Coordinator and Agronomist 3. Cyraque Akappo National Rice Research Program Leader FARMERS/SEED Production Fields Benin 4. Seed Farmers at DEVE 5. Farmer Groups at Glazoue, SOWE north of Bohicon 42

45 D. IRAG GUINEA 1. Minister of Agriculture 2. Sekou Beavogui Director General / Bio statistician 3. Aly Conde Director General Extension, National Coordinator NERICA project 4. El Hadj M. Sidy Diallo National Coordinator SNPRV/SG Seed technologist, CRI, Kilissi FARMER / SEED Production Fields Guinea 6. Farmer Groups at Dantiliya Village 7. Farmer Groups at Farannah 8. Farmer Groups at Camara E. IER - MALI 1. Dr Amadou B. Cisse Assistant Director General 2. Dr Abdoulaye Hamadoun Director/ Entomologist CRRA Sikasso 3. Dr Yacouba Doumbia Head Lowland rice program & National Coordinator NERICA project CRRA Sikasso 4. Amidou Sangare Head of Agriculture Extension 5. Seydou I. Keita Regional Director Agriculture Sikasso FARMER/SEED Production Fields Mali 6. PROPERM National NGO 43

46 9.0 REFERENCES Calpe, C. (2002). Medium Term Projections for The world Rice Economy: Major issues at stake. Paper presented at the Workshop on Harmonization of Policies and Co-ordination of Programs on Rice in ECOWAS sub-region, FAO, Regional Office for Africa, February FAO. (2003) Review of basic food policies. Commodities and Trade Division, FAO, UN, Rome, Italy. FAO. (2004). FAOSTAT, ( FAO, Rome, Italy. Kormawa, P., S. Keya, and A.A. Toure. (2004). Rice Research and Production in Africa. Rice Outlook Marseille, France June Rosegrant, M.W., M. Agacoili-Sombilla and N. Perez. (1995) Global Food Projections to 2020: Implications for Investments. IFPRI, Washington, D.C. (Revised). Palm A.C., S.A, Vosti, P. Sanchez and P.J., Ericksen (2005). Slash and Burn Agriculture: The search for alternatives. 44

47 Part 2 ANNEXES 45

48 ANNEX III Table 1: Farannah, Upland manual local rice system, crop budget 1 Crop budget data base Basis: Overall study descriptives Information source Ha Sample size 1 plots Date of data collection 2005 Country name Guinea (Conakry) Location w/i country Dantila Agro-ecological zone Currency unit (GFF/7. 6) = FCFA System descriptives Crop Traction system Upland Rice (land races) Manual Output (Y) Categorical indicator Precise indicator Unit Non paid Quantity Paid Price per unit Value Yield Paddy Kg Gross revenue GR FCFA Input (I) Seed 1000 Kg 80 Own Fertilizer NPK 0 Kg Urea 0 Kg Herbicide Insecticide Hired implement service FCFA CITOT Total input cost IC 0 Labor (L) Land preparation by human labour 20 day Establishment (oxen hrs) 6 day 6 12 Weeding day 0 Fertilization day 0 Bird scaring day 1 Other care day 0 Harvesting 21 day 21 5 CLPTOT Paid PL day 0 CLITOT Exchange EL day Family IL day Day CLTTOT Total labor TL ,500 Men Women Children 46

49 CITOT Total input cost 0.00 CLPTOT Total paid labor cost Interest over working COINT Operating capital cost (O) OLAN Land rental COTOT Total operating cost TOC Fixed land charges Fixed water charges Depreciation implements/ Fixed cost capital FCFA/ha plot (F) Total fixed cost TFC 0 CCTOT Total cost Cost aggregates (C ) CPVA CPCM Value added Current margin VA=GR-IC GM=GR-TOC FCFA FCFA Performance measures (P) CPOR CPPC Operating ratio Production cost TOC/GR TC/Yield FCFA/kg CPGM Gross margin (= net return GR-TC to mgt) FCFA CPGR Gross ratio TC/GR 0.00 CPRL Returns to family labor & mgt (GR-TOC- TFC-ELC)/IL FCFA/day - CPRLnC Return to land, capital & mgt (GR-TOC-ELC-ILC) FCFA. 47

50 Table 2: Kanga Region, Upland mixed crop NERICA rice production system using livestock draft power, crop budget Crop budget data base Basis: Overall study descriptives ha System descriptives Information source Kadia Kolobani Crop Traction Sample size 1 plots system Date of data collection 2005 Guinea Country name (Conakry) Kinieran, Location w/i country Mandiana District Agro-ecological zone (GFF/7. 6) = Currency unit FCFA Lowland Rice (land races) Livestock Output (Y) Categorical indicator Precise indicator Unit Quantity Non paid Paid Price per unit Value Yield Paddy 5000 Kg Gross revenue GR FCFA Input (I) Seed NERICA 75 Kg 0 Own Fertilizer NPK 150 Kg Urea 141 Kg Herbicide Insecticide Hired implement service FCFA CITOT Total input cost IC 0 Labor (L) Land preparation by human labour with oxen Establishment day 9 (oxen hrs) day Weeding day 20 Fertilization day Bird scaring day 0 Other care day 0 Harvesting day 13 CLPTOT Paid PL day 0 CLITOT Exchange EL day Family IL day Day CLTTOT Total labor TL Men Women Children NB: The above gross margins are meant to illustrate the issues under discussions and highlight areas of key appropriate technology enhancement for improved dissemination and intervention 48

51 CITOT Total input cost CLPTOT Total paid labor cost Interest over working 0.00 COINT Operating cost capital (O) OLAN Land rental COTOT Total operating cost TOC Fixed land charges Fixed water charges Depreciation implements/capital FCFA/ha plot Fixed cost (F) Total fixed cost TFC 0 CCTOT Total cost Cost aggregates CPVA Value added VA=GR-IC FCFA 0.00 (C) CPCM Current margin GM=GR-TOC FCFA Performance CPOR Operating ratio TOC/GR 0.0 measures (P) CPPC Production cost Gross margin (= net TC/Yield FCFA/kg 0.00 CPGM return to mgt) GR-TC FCFA CPGR Gross ratio Returns to family labor TC/GR (GR-TOC-TFC CPRL & mgt Return to land, capital ELC)/IL (GR-TOC-ELC- FCFA/day - CPRLnC & mgt ILC) FCFA. 49

52 ANNEX IV Figure 1: Rice production area, yield and output in Mali

53 NNEX V Table 1: Sikassou, Mali, Upland animal draft NERICA rice system, crop budget 2 for NERICA 4 farmer Crop budget data base Basis: Overall study descriptives ha System descriptives Information source Yaya Bagayagou Crop Traction Sample size 1 plots system Date of data collection 2005 Country name Mali Location w/i country Sikassou Agro-ecological zone (GFF/7. 6) = Currency unit FCFA Upland NERICA 4 Animal Draft Price per Output (Y) Categorical indicator Precise indicator Unit Non Quantity unit paid Paid Value Yield Paddy 4000 Kg 250 1,000,000 Gross revenue GR FCFA 1,000,000 Input (I) Seed 80 Kg Fertilizer NPK 150 Kg Urea 100 Kg Herbicide 4 Lts 4, Insecticide Hired implement service FCFA CITOT Total input cost IC 0 Labor (L) Land preparation by human labour and livestock draft power 9 Day 0 9 Establishment (oxen hrs) 6 Day 0 6 Weeding 20 Day 0 20 Fertilization Day 0 Bird scaring Day 1 Other care Day 0 Harvesting 14 Day 14 CLPTOT Paid PL Day 0 CLITOT Exchange EL Day Family IL Day 50 - Day CLTTOT Total labor TL Men Women Children NB: The above gross margins are meant to illustrate the issues under discussions and highlight areas of key appropriate technology enhancement for improved dissemination and intervention 51

54 CITOT Total input cost CLPTOT Total paid labor cost Interest over working Operating COINT capital cost (O) OLAN Land rental COTOT Total operating cost TOC Fixed land charges Fixed water charges Depreciation implements/ FCFA/ha Fixed cost capital plot (F) Total fixed cost TFC 0 CCTOT Total cost Cost aggregates CPVA Value added VA=GR-IC FCFA (C) CPCM Current margin GM=GR-TOC FCFA CPOR Performance Operating ratio TOC/GR 0.0 measures (P) CPPC Production cost TC/Yield Gross margin (= net return FCFA/kg 0.00 CPGM to mgt) GR-TC FCFA - CPGR Gross ratio Returns to family labor & TC/GR (GR-TOC-TFC CPRL mgt Return to land, capital & ELC)/IL (GR-TOC-ELC- FCFA/day - CPRLnC mgt ILC) FCFA. 52

55 Table 2: Sikassou, Upland animal draft NERICA rice system, crop budget 3 for seed multiplication farmer Crop budget data base Basis: Overall study descriptives ha System descriptives Information source Group Crop Traction system Sample size 1 plots Date of data collection 2005 Country name Sikassou Location w/i country Sikassou Agro-ecological zone (GFF/7. 6) = Currency unit FCFA Upland Rice (land races) Output (Y) Categorical indicator Precise indicator Unit Non Quantity Price per unit paid Paid Yield Paddy 3780 Kg Gross revenue GR FCFA non Value Input (I) Seed 100 Kg Fertilizer NPK 100 Kg Urea 80 Kg Herbicide 5 Lt Insecticide Hired implement service FCFA CITOT Total input cost IC 0 Labor (L) Land preparation by human labour and livestock draft power 6 Day 0 6 Establishment (oxen hrs) Day 0 12 Weeding 20 Day 0 20 Fertilization Day 0 Bird scaring Day 1 Other care Day 0 CLP- Harvesting 25 Day 25 TOT Paid PL Day 0 CLITOT Exchange EL Day Family IL Day Day - CLTTOT Total labor TL 63 31,500 Men Women Children NB: The above gross margins are meant to illustrate the issues under discussions and highlight areas of key appropriate technology enhancement for improved dissemination and intervention 53

56 CITOT CLP- Total input cost TOT Total paid labor cost 31,500 Interest over working capital Operating COINT cost (O) OLAN Land rental COTOT Total operating cost TOC Fixed land charges Fixed water charges Depreciation implements/ Fixed cost capital FCFA/ha plot (F) Total fixed cost TFC 0 CCTOT Total cost Cost aggregates CPVA Value added VA=GR-IC FCFA (C) CPCM Current margin GM=GR-TOC FCFA CPOR Performance Operating ratio TOC/GR 0.0 measures (P) CPPC Production cost TC/Yield Gross margin (= net return FCFA/kg 0.00 CPGM to mgt) GR-TC FCFA - CPGR Gross ratio Returns to family labor & TC/GR (GR-TOC-TFC CPRL mgt ELC)/IL FCFA/day - Return to land, capital & mgt CPRLnC (GR-TOC-ELC- ILC) FCFA. 54

57 ANNEX VI Rice production area, yield and output in Benin