Modern Coconut Management

Transcription

1 Modern Coconut Management Palm cultivation and products Edited by JOHAN G. OHLER INTERMEDIATE TECHNOLOGY PUBLICATIONS THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITEIT LEIDEN 1999

2 Contents Page no. CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PREFACE FOREWORD v ix x xi xiv xv INTRODUCTION 1 PART I - THE COCONUT PALM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 1. Historical Background by J.G. Ohler 3 Origin and Distribution 3 World Production 4 2. The Coconut Palm by J.G. Ohler 11 Botany 11 Morphology 11 Growth, Development and Yielding Capacity Climate and Soils by J.G. Ohler 35 Climate 35 Soils Disorders by J.G. Ohler 55 Mineral Nutrient Deficiencies 55 Mineral Toxicities 64 Drought Effects 66 Stem Tapering 67 Lightning Damage 67 Premature Button and Nut Shedding Diseases by J.G. Ohler 69 Diseases caused by Nematodes 69 Diseases caused by Fungi 72 Diseases caused by Bacteria 81 Diseases caused by Flagellates 81 Diseases caused by Viruses or Viroids 83 Diseases caused by Mycoplasma-like Organisms 87 Diseases of Unknown Etiology 94

3 vi Modern Coconut Management 6. Vertebrate Pests by J.G. Ohler 101 Rodents The Insect Pests of Coconut by D. Mariau 103 Introduction 103 Orthoptera 103 Phasmida 104 Isoptera 104 Heteroptera 105 Homoptera 106 Fulgoroidea 107 Lepidoptera 107 Coleoptera ' 110 Acarina 114 Conclusion 114 PART II - PLANTING MATERIAL AND PLANTATION MANAGEMENT 8. Selection and Breeding by R. Bourdeix 117 Introduction 117 Genetic Diversification 119 Genetic Improvement Methods 145 Conclusion 181 ANNEX I: International Cultivar List 185 ANNEX II: Measures of Stems, Leaves and Inflorescences of the Ecotypes at the Marc Delorme Station Collection Cultural Practices by J.G. Ohler 197 Plantation Lay-out 197 Clearing 197 The Nursery 199 Planting 206 Weeding 214 Cover Crops 216 Moisture Conservation 220 Irrigation 220 Fertilizing 225 Harvesting 241 Toddy and Sugar Production 243 Part III - COCONUT-BASED FARMING SYSTEMS 10. General Aspects by J.G. Ohler 247 Mixed Cropping 249 Intercropping The Smallholder and Coconut-based Farming Systems by S.G. Reynolds 257 Economics of the Smallholder Coconut Operation 257

4 Contents vii 12. Coconut-based Farming Systems in the Pacific by F. Opio 261 Introduction 261 Morphological Characteristics of Coconut 261 Land-use Intensification 261 Economic Aspects. 262 Coconut Husbandry 263 Coconut-based Farming Systems with Animals 264 Coconut-based Farming Systems with Perennials 267 Coconut-based Multi-storey Cropping System 268 Relay cropping Systems 270 Coconut and Livestock Systems 272 Socio-Economic Aspects of Coconut-based Farming Systems 275 Conclusions Coconut-based Cropping Systems in India and Sri Lanka by P.K. Das 277 Introduction 277 Root and Tuber Crops 277 Grain Crops 280 Grain Legumes 281 Annual Oilseeds 282 Vegetables 283 Fruits 284 Tree Spices 285 High-density Multi-species Cropping System 286 Conclusion Pastures and Livestock under Coconut by S.G. Reynolds 289 Introduction 289 Systems 289 General Factors 290 Pasture Species 298 Pasture Establishment and Improvement 305 Pasture Management 307 Animal Production from Pastures under Coconut 312 Forage Production Seasonality and Supplementary Feed Sources 316 Effects of Pasture on Coconut Yields 317 The Economics of Livestock under Coconuts 318 PART IV POST-HARVEST TREATMENT, PROCESSING, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 15. Post-harvest Treatment by J.G. Ohler 339 Nut Storage 339 Dehusking 339 Nut Transportation Coconut Processing by T.K.G. Ranasinghe 343 Introduction 343 World Copra Production 343 World Coconut Oil Trade 343

5 viii Modern Coconut Management Coconut Preparation 343 Copra Manufacture and Storage 344 Coconut Oil Desiccated Coconut 360 Coconut Milk or Cream 365 Instant Coconut Milk Powder 366 Coconut Sap and Products 366 Minor Food Products from Coconut 368 Coconut Husk and Coir Products 373 Coconut Shells and Products 375 Coconut Wood 377 Energy and Minor Uses of Coconut Palm Research and Development by J.G. Ohler 389 Research 389 Development 396 APPENDIX I: Institutions and experimental stations involved with coconut research and development; International organizations; and National institutes and research stations 401 BIBLIOGRAPHY 409 INDEX 449