Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

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1 Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne sp., are economically important plant pathogens that can be managed by cultural practices, chemical nematicides, and resistant cultivars. However, for many years the emphasis of nematode control has been on the use of synthetic nematicides and resistant varieties of crop plants. Because of health and environmental concerns, the continued availability and use of the synthetic chemical nematicides is uncertain (Thomason 1987). Jagdaleet al., (1985) applied organic amendment in the field infested with M. incognita. Highest reduction in nematode population and galls were observed in plots treated with neem cake at a rate of 1.0 t/ha followed by sawdust treatment. Incorporation of harvested crop-residues of marigold, mustard and sunflower into soil proved highly effective in suppressing the incidence of root-knot caused by Meloidogyne incognita and in reducing the population build-up of some plant-parasitic nematodes. Enhanced plant growth of susceptible chilli (Capsicum annum L.) was directly correlated with the degree of nematode control. Higher dosages resulted in better effects (Akhtar and Alam, 1992).The population of plant-parasitic nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita, Rotylenchulusreniformis, Tylenchorhynchusbrassicae, Helicotylenchusindicus, and the frequency of the pathogenic fungi were significantly

2 Part III reduced by the oil cake treatment such as neem, castor, mustard and duan (Tiyagi and Alam,1995). Amendments of oilcakes, bone and horn meals in soil increased tomato-plant growth and reduced the nematode multiplication.highest improvement in plant growth and reduced reproduction factor and root galling were recorded in neem-cake amended soil and the least effect was with sesame cake (Khan and Saxena, 1997). The integration of oil-cakes (except mahua cake), bone and horn meals with P. lilacinus, resulted in increased plant growth and reduced population build up of nematodes and root galling. The organic amendments increased the parasitism of P. lilacinus on rootknot nematodes (Khan and Saxena, 1997). Soil organic amendment with neem cake decreased nematode population in plant and soil (Mohammad et al., 1980). The biogas slurry application reduces the severity of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, attack on tomato (Jothiet al., 2003). Maheswari and Sundarababu (2001) carried a pot culture experiments to study the effect of soil and foliar application of neem leaf extract on root-knot nematode M. incognita infecting cowpea. Soil application showed higher reduction in nematode population compared to foliar application. Organic soil amendments in the form of chopped shoots of some weeds such as Solanumxanthocaroum,Calotropisprocera, Daturametel, Croton bonplandianum and Argemonemexicana gave significant reductions in the population build-up of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita and the stunt nematode Tylenchorhynchusbrassicae in eggplant (Alam,1986). Soil amendment with chopped plant parts of water hyacinth (Eichhorniacrassipes) effectively controlled root-knot and reniform nematodes attacking tomato and eggplant(siddiqui and Alam, 1989). Extracts of water hyacinth also showed nematicidal and nematostatic properties and used when as bare- root-dip treatments retarded nematode development and plant damage (Siddiquiand Alam, 1989). Oka et al., (2007) tested the efficiency of organic amendments with and without soil solarization for the control of root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica. Broiler litter, cottonseed meal, feather meal or soybean oil cakes had been effective in reducing gall formation. Nematode reproduction galls, egg mass and host damage were affected by the inoculation level (Sheifet al., 2007). Neem leaf addition in pot also reduces the nematode galling (Jain and Bhatti, 1988). Bare root treatment of tomato seedling in the leaf extract of neem caused significant reduction in the penetration of M. incognita larvae and subsequent galling (Sddiqui and Alam, 1988). 172 Studies on the Potentials of Earthworm Species as Bioremediating and Biological Control Agents

3 Chapter 2 Review ofliterature The protective and curative soil application of neem leaves, neem cakes and a refined product Aza significantly reduced the number of egg mass and eggs per egg mass on tomato roots (Javedet al., 2007a, b). Aqueous extracts of crude neem formulations used as a seedling dip treatment significantly reduced the number of females and egg masses in roots whereas the refined one did not and the application in the root portion is effective. A split- root technique was used to demonstrate the translocation of active compounds within a plant and their subsequent effect on the development of nematodes (Javedet al.,2007b ). When applied to the root portion all formulations significantly reduced the number of egg masses and eggs per egg mass. Whereas on the un-treated root portion, neem cake at 3% w/w and Aza at 0.1% w/w significantly reduced the number of egg masses as compared with neem leaves at 3% w/w, Aza at 0.05% and control. Dried neem cakes and leaves at 3 and 2% w/w when applied in pots reduced Meloidogynejavanica population in Tomato.When it is applied in combination with Pasteuriapenetrans(10 4 spore/g) reduces Meloidogyne population (Javedet al., 2007 ). Ilieva-Makulec and Makulec (2001) studied different densities of Lumbricusrubellus on the nematode community in the field. 30 days after the introduction of worms, the total number of nematodes in all trial with worms was reduced and the nematode numbers decreased with increase in L. rubellus density. But after 120 days there is no significant reduction in total number of nematodes. Dominguez et al., (2002) studied the effect of earthworm Eiseniaandrei on the nematode community and microbial activity during the vermicomposting of organic waste cow manure and sewage sludge. In both substrates the number of nematodes decreased in the presence of earthworms. Fungivorous nematodes were observed after 6 weeks in cowdung manure and in contrast to bacterial feeders their numbers continuously increased in the treatment with earthworms. Aranconet al., (2002) studied the effect of vermicompost on plant parasitic, fungivorous and bacterivorous nematode population in grape and strawberries. Paper and food waste vermicompost were applied in this field 2.5t/ha to 10t/ha. Soil from all vermicompost treated plots contained smaller population of plant parasitic nematodes when compared with inorganic fertilizer treated plots. The population of fungivorous and bacterivorous nematodes increased in vermicompost treated plots. Aranconet al., (2002) used vermicompost produced from cattle manure, food waste and recycled paper at rates of 5t/ha, 10 t/ha and 20 t/ha in field planted with tomato in Studies on the Potentials of Earthworm Species as Bioremediating and Biological Control Agents 173

4 Part III field. Populations of plant parasitic nematodes depressed significantly by the application of vermicompost. The combined application of vegetable, fruit and garden waste (VFG) and slurry resulted in reduction of plant parasitic nematode Pratylenchus species and Tylenchidae (Leroy et al., 2007). Everts (2005) studied the effect of cover crops and amendments of poultry litter and poultry compost on root-knot nematode population in potato. The use of cover crops and poultry compost is effective in reducing the nematode population. Incorporation of harvested crop-residues of marigold, mustard and sunflower into soil proved highly effective in suppressing the incidence of root-knot caused by Meloidogyne incognita and in reducing the population build-up of some plant-parasitic nematodes(akhtar and Alam, 1989). Oil seed cakes of neem/margosa ( Aza dirachtaindica), castor (Ricinumcommunis), mustard (Brassica ompestris), rocket salad/duan (Eruca sativa) were found to be highly effective in reducing the multiplication of nematodes in pigeonpea. Damage caused by the nematodes was further reduced when Paecilomyceslilacinus was added along with oil-cakes and the combination of P. lilacinus was with neem cake was most effective (Anver, 2003). Cold aqueous extracts (20% w/v, 100 ml aliquots) of pre- and post-flowering whole plants, root and stem portions of Tageteserecta reduced M. incognita infection in Lycopersiconesculentum(Natarajanet al., 2006). Treatment with Cina 30c and Santonin 30c as foliar spray reduced nematode infestation of plants significantly in terms of root -gall number, root -protein content and nematode population in Hibiscus esculentus (Sukulet al., 2006). The protective and curative soil application of these crude and refined neem formulations (neem leaves, neem cakes and Aza ) significantly reduced the number of egg masses and eggs per egg mass on tomato roots (Javedet al., 2007). Monfort et al (2007) used Brassica species as a cover crops and as green manure for the management of root-knot populations in vegetable plants. Incorporation of Brassica species reduced root-knot populations and root damage caused by root-knot infection comparable to non-brassica species cover crops. Elbadri et al (2008) tested various plant components (leaves, fruits, and stems) of 21 plant species for their nematicidal activity against second-stage juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita in the laboratory. The juveniles were exposed to 500 ppm of each plant extract for 24, 48 and 72 h. Plant extracts from Dinberaretroflexa (leaves), Cucumismelo var. agrestis (fruits), Eucalyptus microtheca (leaves), Acacia nilotica 174 Studies on the Potentials of Earthworm Species as Bioremediating and Biological Control Agents

5 Chapter 2 Review ofliterature (pods), and Chenopodium album (leaves) exhibited highly mortality rates of 95 99% after 72 h of exposure. Six extracts derived from the leaves of Solenostemmaargel, Aristolochia bracteolate, and Ziziphusspina-christi and the seeds of Aregimonemexicana, Daturastramonium, and Aza dirachtaindica reported relatively high mortality rates of 94 80% after 72 h of exposure. Zhang and Zhang (2009) tested the potentials of two chinaberry residue compost (CBRC), CBRC incorporated with Trichodermaviride (CBRC T ), sand cypress residue compost (SCRC), and SCRC incorporated with T. viride (SCRC T ) on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, infesting the balloonflower (Platycodongrandiflorum). Supplementing potting mixtures with these four composts reduced the severity of root galling and increased the proportion of marketable roots. The CBR and SCR extracts caused very low inhibition of eggs and larvae. The severity of root galling decreased and the average weight of the marketable roots increased with an increase in all the composts when supplemented at rates from 5 to 30%. Tabarant et al(2011) tested the effects of four organic amendments with different biochemical compositions sugarcane bagasse, sugarcane sludge, plant residues and sewage sludge on soil nematode communities. All amendments except sewage sludge decreased the root abundances of plant parasitic nematodes, by 96% in the case of sugarcane bagasse. For this treatment, soil densities of carnivorous nematodes were six times higher than the treatments without organic amendment. Plant residues and bagasse were mainly composed of materials that are difficult to decompose, namely cellulose and lignins. These organic materials favored a fungal decomposition pathway and permitted development of carnivorous nematode populations. Dong et al (2012) have conducted a screening test for resistant plants as intercrop with cucumber or tomato plants for potential nematode control in a greenhouse experiment. The results showed that the castor-oil plant, hot pepper or crown daisy intercropped with cucumber reduced infection by Meloidogyne incognita by 71.54%, 25.90% and 40.42%, respectively. But they reported that intercropping with castor-oil plant or hot pepper inhibited the root growth of cucumber. In addition, tobacco residues management decreased the nematode populations in the soil by 29.38%, but increased the nematode infection load of tomato. Studies on the Potentials of Earthworm Species as Bioremediating and Biological Control Agents 175

6 Part III Cavoski et al (2012) reported the effect of crushed fruit extract of Meliaazedarach on the root-knot nematode on cucumber. Crushed fruits of M. azedarach, tested in the soil at the rates of 30 and 60 g kg 1. hey exhibited nematicidal activity similar to the one of chemical, fenamiphos (0.02 g (a.i)kg 1 ) in terms of nematode population in roots and soil as well as reproduction rate. M. azedarach water extracts, rich in aldehydes, alcohols and carboxylic acids, also showed nematicidal activity against M. incognita. They concluded that soil application of M. azedarach fruits could be favourably considered in the control of M. incognita on cucumber in a sustainable agriculture because of their nematicidal activity. As a summary, the there are large no of works on the management of plant parasitic nematodes by using different types of organic amendments. Very less work has been reported on the use of vermicompost on the plant parasitic nematode control. Most studies on plant parasitic nematodes control was by using different neem formulations such as neem cake and neem leaf extracts etc. Use of neem and lemon grass derived vermicompost in the were also scare in literature. Studies pertaining to the use of vermitea (an extract of vermicasts using water) on the nematode control were also scarce in literature. Hence the present experiments were designed to study the impact of different vermicompost on the plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne incognita affecting vegetable crops. Use of chemical nematicides for the management of plant parasitic nematodes is being restricted due to environmental and human health concerns. So there is a need to develop alternative, environmental friendly management strategies for root-knot nematodes, including use of biocontrol agents and organic amendments. In this content, a few experiments was conducted in the present study in order to explore the possibility of using vermicompost, vermitea (an extract of vermicompost) for the management of M. incognita infecting vegetables. 176 Studies on the Potentials of Earthworm Species as Bioremediating and Biological Control Agents