Mendel and the Gene Idea

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Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp

1 Chapter 4 Mendel and the Gene Idea PowerPoint Lecture Presentations for Biology Eighth Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

2 Gregor Mendel the "father of modern genetics Identified two LAWS of inheritance

TECHNIQUE Parental generation (P) RESULTS First filial generation offspring (F ) 2 Stamens Carpel 3 4 5 There are many varieties with distinct heritable characters (such as flower color); character

3 TECHNIQUE Parental generation (P) RESULTS First filial generation offspring (F ) 2 Stamens Carpel There are many varieties with distinct heritable characters (such as flower color); character variants (such as purple or white flowers) are called traits Mating of plants can be controlled Each pea plant has spermproducing organs (stamens) and egg-producing organs (carpels) Cross-pollination (fertilization between different plants) can be achieved by dusting one plant with pollen from another

4 EXPERIMENT P Generation (true-breeding parents) F Generation (hybrids) Purple flowers White flowers Mendel developed a hypothesis to explain the 3: inheritance pattern he observed in F2 offspring F 2 Generation All plants had purple flowers Four related concepts make up this model 705 purple-flowered plants 224 white-flowered plants Fig

5 Table 4-

The first concept is that alternative versions of genes (alleles) account for variations in inherited characters Each of the color genes (purple and white) resides

6 The first concept is that alternative versions of genes (alleles) account for variations in inherited characters Each of the color genes (purple and white) resides at a specific locus on a specific chromosome Allele for purple flowers Locus for flower-color gene Homologous pair of chromosomes Fig. 4-4 Allele for white flowers

7 The second concept is that for each character an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent Mendel made this deduction without knowing about the role of chromosomes

The third concept is that if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism s appearance, and the other (the recessive allele)

8 The third concept is that if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism s appearance, and the other (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance In the flower-color example, the F plants had purple flowers because the allele for that trait is dominant Drosophila melanogaster

9 The fourth concept is the law of segregation. It states that the two alleles for a heritable character separate during gamete formation (meiosis) and end up in different gametes. Thus, an egg or a sperm gets only one of the two alleles that are present in the somatic cells of an organism

10 P Generation Appearance: Purple flowers White flowers Genetic makeup: PP pp Gametes: F Generation Appearance: Genetic makeup: Gametes: F 2 Generation P Purple flowers Pp / 2 P / 2 P Sperm p p p Mendel s segregation model accounts for the 3: ratio he observed in the F2 generation of his numerous crosses The possible combinations of sperm and egg can be shown using a Punnett square, Eggs P p PP Pp 3 Pp pp A capital letter represents a dominant allele, and a lowercase letter represents a recessive allele

11 The Law of Independent Assortment Mendel identified his second law of inheritance by following two characters at the same time Crossing two true-breeding parents differing in two characters produces dihybrids in the F generation, heterozygous for both characters A dihybrid cross, a cross between F dihybrids, can determine whether two characters are transmitted to offspring as a package or independently Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

12 Fig. 4-8 EXPERIMENT P Generation YYRR yyrr Gametes YR yr F Generation Predictions Hypothesis of dependent assortment YyRr Hypothesis of independent assortment Predicted offspring of F 2 generation Eggs / 2 / 2 YR yr Sperm / 2 YR / 2 yr YYRR YyRr YyRr yyrr or Eggs / 4 / 4 / 4 YR Yr yr Sperm / 4 YR / 4 Yr / 4 yr / 4 yr YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr YyRR YyRr yyrr yyrr 3 / 4 / 4 Phenotypic ratio 3: / 4 yr YyRr Yyrr yyrr yyrr 9 / 6 3 / 6 3 / 6 / 6 RESULTS Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3: Phenotypic ratio approximately 9:3:3:

13 Using a dihybrid cross, Mendel developed the law of independent assortment The law of independent assortment states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation Strictly speaking, this law applies only to genes on different, nonhomologous chromosomes Genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

14 Concept 4.3: Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics The relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely as simple as in the pea plant characters Mendel studied Many heritable characters are not determined by only one gene with two alleles However, the basic principles of segregation and independent assortment apply even to more complex patterns of inheritance Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

15 Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene Inheritance of characters by a single gene may deviate from simple Mendelian patterns in the following situations: When alleles are not completely dominant or recessive When a gene has more than two alleles When a gene produces multiple phenotypes Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

16 Degrees of Dominance Complete dominance occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical In incomplete dominance, the phenotype of F hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties In codominance, two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

17 Fig P Generation Red C R C R White C W C W Gametes incomplete dominance C R C W F Generation Pink C R C W C R Gametes / 2 / 2 C W F 2 Generation Eggs / 2 C R C R Sperm / 2 / 2 C W C R C R C R C W / 2 C W C R C W C W C W

18 Fig. 4- codominance Allele I A I B i Carbohydrate A B none (a) The three alleles for the ABO blood groups and their associated carbohydrates Genotype Red blood cell appearance Phenotype (blood group) I A I A or I A i A I B I B or I B i B I A I B AB ii O (b) Blood group genotypes and phenotypes

19 Tay-Sachs disease is fatal; a dysfunctional enzyme causes an accumulation of lipids in the brain At the organismal level, the allele is recessive At the biochemical level, the phenotype (i.e., the enzyme activity level) is incompletely dominant At the molecular level, the alleles are codominant Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

States is born with extra fingers or toes The allele for the 6 finger (polydactyly)

20 Frequency of Dominant Alleles Dominant alleles are not necessarily more common in populations than recessive alleles For example, one baby out of 400 in the United States is born with extra fingers or toes The allele for the 6 finger (polydactyly) trait is dominant to the allele for the more common trait of five digits per appendage

21 Multiple Alleles Most genes exist in populations in more than two allelic forms For example, the four phenotypes of the ABO blood group in humans are determined by three alleles for the enzyme (I) that attaches A or B carbohydrates to red blood cells: I A, I B, and i. Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

symptoms of certain hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and

22 Pleiotropy Most genes have multiple phenotypic effects, a property called pleiotropy For example, pleiotropic alleles are responsible for the multiple symptoms of certain hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell disease Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

23 Epistasis Some traits may be determined by two or more genes In epistasis, a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus For example, in mice and many other mammals, coat color depends on two genes One gene determines the pigment color (with alleles B for black and b for brown) The other gene (with alleles C for color and c for no color) determines whether the pigment will be deposited in the hair Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

24 Fig. 4-2 BbCc BbCc Eggs Sperm / 4 / 4 / 4 / 4 BC bc Bc bc / 4 BC BBCC BbCC BBCc BbCc / 4 bc BbCC bbcc BbCc bbcc / 4 Bc BBCc BbCc BBcc Bbcc / 4 bc BbCc bbcc Bbcc bbcc 9 : 3 : 4

However, cataracts also can be promoted by diabetes and environmental factors such as

25 The Cataract gene produces varying degrees of vision impairment depending on the presence of a specific allele for a companion modifying gene. However, cataracts also can be promoted by diabetes and environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation, and alcoholism. Nearly half of all people in North America over 65 years of age eventually develop them.

26 Polygenic Inheritance Quantitative characters are those that vary in the population along a continuum Quantitative variation usually indicates polygenic inheritance, an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype Skin color in humans is an example of polygenic inheritance Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

27 Fig. 4-3 AaBbCc AaBbCc Sperm / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 Eggs / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 / 8 Phenotypes: Number of / 64 6 / 64 5 / / 64 5 / 64 6 / 64 / 64 dark-skin alleles:

28 Sex-linked characteristics

29 Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype Another departure from Mendelian genetics arises when the phenotype for a character depends on environment as well as genotype

30 Norms breadth of reaction are generally broadest for polygenic characters Phenotypic characters that are influenced my multiple genetic and environmental factors are called multifactorial Multifactorial diseases, such as coronary artery disease, can be as complex as their name suggests.

31 The Behavior of Recessive Alleles Many genetic disorders are inherited in a recessive manner Recessively inherited disorders show up only in individuals homozygous for the allele Carriers are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal (i.e., pigmented) Albinism is a recessive condition characterized by a lack of pigmentation in skin and hair Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

32 Fig. 4-6 Parents Normal Normal Aa Aa Eggs A a Sperm A AA Normal Aa Normal (carrier) a Aa Normal (carrier) aa Albino

33 If a recessive allele that causes a disease is rare, then the chance of two carriers meeting and mating is low Consanguineous matings (i.e., matings between close relatives) increase the chance of mating between two carriers of the same rare allele Most societies and cultures have laws or taboos against marriages between close relatives

34 Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is the most common lethal genetic disease in the United States,striking one out of every 2,500 people of European descent The cystic fibrosis allele results in defective or absent chloride transport channels in plasma membranes Symptoms include mucus buildup in some internal organs and abnormal absorption of nutrients in the small intestine Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

35 Sickle-Cell Disease Sickle-cell disease affects one out of 400 African-Americans The disease is caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells Symptoms include physical weakness, pain, organ damage, and even paralysis Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

36 Dominantly Inherited Disorders Some human disorders are caused by dominant alleles Dominant alleles that cause a lethal disease are rare and arise by mutation Achondroplasia is a form of dwarfism caused by a rare dominant allele Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

37 Fig. 4-7 Parents Dwarf Normal Dd dd Sperm Eggs d D Dd Dwarf d dd Normal d Dd Dwarf dd Normal

Fetal Testing In amniocentesis, the liquid that bathes the fetus is removed and tested In chorionic villus sampling (CVS), a sample of the placenta is removed and tested Other techniques, such

38 Fetal Testing In amniocentesis, the liquid that bathes the fetus is removed and tested In chorionic villus sampling (CVS), a sample of the placenta is removed and tested Other techniques, such as ultrasound and fetoscopy, allow fetal health to be assessed visually in utero Video: Ultrasound of Human Fetus I Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

39 Fig. 4-UN4

Overview: Drawing from the Deck of Genes

Chapter 4 Mendel and the Gene Idea Overview: Drawing from the Deck of Genes What genetic principles account for the passing of traits from parents to offspring? The blending hypothesis is the idea that