Design of Rigid Pavements

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1 Traffic and Highway Engineering (ІІ) CVL 4324 Chapter 20 Design of Rigid Pavements Dr. Sari Abusharar Assistant Professor Civil Engineering Department Faculty of Applied Engineering and Urban Planning 2 nd Semester

2 Outline of Presentation Introduction Materials Used in Rigid Pavements Joints in Concrete Pavements Types of Rigid Highway Pavements Pumping of Rigid Pavements Stresses in Rigid Pavements Thickness Design of Rigid Pavements 2

3 Introduction Rigid highway pavements are normally constructed of Portland cement concrete and may or may not have a base course between the subgrade and the concrete surface. When a base course is used in rigid pavement construction, it is usually referred to as a subbase course. It is common, however, for only the concrete surface to be referred to as the rigid pavement, even where there is a base course. In this text, the terms rigid pavement and concrete pavement are synonymous. Rigid pavements have some flexural strength that permits them to sustain a beamlike action across minor irregularities in the underlying material. Thus, the minor irregularities may not be reflected in the concrete pavement. 3

4 Introduction Properly designed and constructed rigid pavements have long service lives and usually are less expensive to maintain than flexible pavements. Thickness of highway concrete pavements normally ranges from 6-13 inches. Different types of rigid pavements are described later in this chapter. These pavement types usually are constructed to carry heavy traffic loads, although they have been used for residential and local roads. 4

5 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS The Portland cement concrete commonly used for rigid pavements consists of: Portland cement coarse aggregate fine aggregate water Steel reinforcing rods may or may not be used, depending on the type of pavement being constructed. 5

6 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Portland Cement Most highway agencies use either the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) specifications (ASTM Designation C150) or the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) specifications (AASHTO Designation M85) for specifying Portland cement quality requirements used in their projects. The AASHTO specifications list five main types of Portland cement: Type I Type II Type III Types IA, IIA and IIIA Type V Type IV 6

7 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Coarse Aggregates One of the major requirements for coarse aggregates used in Portland cement concrete is the gradation of the material. The material is well graded, with the maximum size specified. Material retained in a No. 4 sieve is considered coarse aggregate. Table 20.2 shows gradation requirements for different maximum sizes as stipulated by ASTM. A special test, known as the Los Angeles Rattler Test (AASHTO Designation T96), is used to determine the abrasive quality of the aggregates. Soundness is defined as the ability of the aggregate to resist breaking up due to freezing and thawing. 7

8 8

9 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Fine Aggregates Sand is mainly used as the fine aggregate in Portland cement concrete. Specifications for this material usually include grading requirements, soundness, and cleanliness. Standard specifications for the fine aggregates for Portland cement concrete (AASHTO Designation M6) give grading requirements normally adopted by state highway agencies (see Table 20.3) The soundness requirement is usually given in terms of the maximum permitted loss in the material after five alternate cycles of wetting and drying in the soundness test. A maximum of 10 percent weight loss is usually specified. 9

10 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Cleanliness is often specified in terms of the maximum amounts of different types of deleterious materials contained in the fine aggregates. For example, a maximum amount of silt (material passing No. 200 sieve) is usually specified within a range of 2 to 5 percent of the total fine aggregates. Since the presence of large amounts of organic material in the fine aggregates may reduce the hardening properties of the cement, a standard test (AASHTO Designation T21) also usually is specified as part of the cleanliness requirements. 10

11 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Water The main water requirement stipulated is that the water used also should be suitable for drinking. This requires that the quantity of organic matter, oil, acids, and alkalis should not be greater than the allowable amount in drinking water. Reinforcing Steel Steel reinforcing may be used in concrete pavements to reduce the amount of cracking that occurs, as a load transfer mechanism at joints, or as a means of tying two slabs together. Steel reinforcement used to control cracking is usually referred to as temperature steel, whereas steel rods used as load transfer mechanisms are known as dowel bars, and those used to connect two slabs together are known as tie bars. 11

12 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Temperature Steel Temperature steel is provided in the form of a bar mat or wire mesh consisting of longitudinal and transverse steel wires welded at regular intervals. The mesh usually is placed about 3 in. below the slab surface. The cross-sectional area of the steel provided per foot width of the slab depends on the size and spacing of the steel wires forming the mesh. General guidelines for the minimum cross-sectional area of the temperature steel: 1. Cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel should be at least equal to 0.1 percent of the cross-sectional area of the slab. 2. Longitudinal wires should not be less than No. 2 gauge, spaced at a maximum distance of 6 in. 3. Transverse wires should not be less than No. 4 gauge, spaced at a maximum distance of 12 in. 12

13 MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Dowel Bars Dowel bars are used mainly as load-transfer mechanisms across joints. They provide flexural, shearing, and bearing resistance. The dowel bars must be of a much larger diameter than the wires used in temperature steel. Size selection is based mainly on experience. Diameters of 1 to in. and lengths of 2 to 3 ft have been used, with the bars usually spaced at 1 ft centers across the width of the slab. At least one end of the bar should be smooth and lubricated to facilitate free expansion. Tie Bars Tie bars are used to tie two sections of the pavement together, and therefore they should be either deformed bars or should contain hooks to facilitate the bonding of the two sections of the concrete pavement with the bar. These bars are usually much smaller in diameter than the dowel bars and are spaced at larger centers. Typical diameter and spacing for these bars are 3 4 in. and 3 ft, respectively. 13

14 JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Different types of joints are placed in concrete pavements to limit the stresses induced by temperature changes and to facilitate proper bonding of two adjacent sections of pavement when there is a time lapse between their construction (for example, between the end of one day s work and the beginning of the next). These joints can be divided into four basic categories: Expansion joints Contraction joints Hinge joints Construction joints 14

15 JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Expansion Joints When concrete pavement is subjected to an increase in temperature, it will expand, resulting in an increase in length of the slab. When the temperature is sufficiently high, the slab may buckle or blow up if it is sufficiently long and if no provision is made to accommodate the increased length. Therefore, expansion joints are usually placed transversely, at regular intervals, to provide adequate space for the slab to expand. These joints are placed across the full width of the slab and are 3 4 to 1 in. wide in the longitudinal direction. They must create a distinct break throughout the depth of the slab. The joint space is filled with a compressible filler material that permits the slab to expand. Filler materials can be cork, rubber, bituminous materials, or bituminous fabrics. 15

16 JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Expansion Joints A means of transferring the load across the joint space must be provided since there are no aggregates that will develop an interlocking mechanism. The load-transfer mechanism is usually a smooth dowel bar that is lubricated on one side. An expansion cap usually also is installed, as shown in Figure 20.1, to provide a space for the dowel to occupy during expansion. Figure 20.1 Typical Expansion Joint 16

17 JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Contraction Joints When concrete pavement is subjected to a decrease in temperature, the slab will contract if it is free to move. Prevention of this contraction movement will induce tensile stresses in the concrete pavement. Contraction joints therefore are placed transversely at regular intervals across the width of the pavement to release some of the tensile stresses that are so induced. Figure 20.2 Typical Contraction Joint 17

18 JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Hinge Joints Hinge joints are used mainly to reduce cracking along the center line of highway pavements. Figure 20.3 shows a typical hinge joint (keyed joint) suitable for single-lane-at-a-time construction. Figure 20.3 Typical Hinge Joint (Keyed Joint) 18

19 JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Construction Joints Construction joints are placed transversely across the pavement width to provide suitable transition between concrete laid at different times. For example, a construction joint is usually placed at the end of a day s pour to provide suitable bonding with the start of the next day s pour. A typical butt construction joint is shown in Figure Figure 20.4 Typical Butt Joint 19

20 JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Construction Joints In some cases, as shown in Figure 20.3, a keyed construction joint may also be used in the longitudinal direction when only a single lane is constructed at a time. In this case, alternate lanes of the pavement are cast, and the key is formed by using metal formwork that has been cast with the shape of the groove or by attaching a piece of metal or wood to a wooden formwork. An expansion joint can be used in lieu of a transverse construction joint in cases where the construction joint falls at or near the same position as the expansion joint. 20

21 TYPES OF RIGID HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS Rigid highway pavements can be divided into three general types: plain concrete pavements simply reinforced concrete pavements continuously reinforced concrete pavements The definition of each pavement type is related to the amount of reinforcement used. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP) Plain concrete pavement has no temperature steel or dowels for load transfer. However, steel tie bars often are used to provide a hinge effect at longitudinal joints and to prevent the opening of these joints. Plain concrete pavements are used mainly on low-volume highways or when cement-stabilized soils are used as subbase. Joints are placed at relatively shorter distances (10 to 20 ft) than with other types of concrete pavements to reduce the amount of cracking. 21

22 TYPES OF RIGID HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS In some cases, the transverse joints of plain concrete pavements are skewed about 4 to 5 ft in plan, such that only one wheel of a vehicle passes through the joint at a time. This helps to provide a smoother ride. Simply Reinforced Concrete Pavement Simply reinforced concrete pavements have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads across joints, with these joints spaced at larger distances, ranging from 30 to 100 ft. Temperature steel is used throughout the slab, with the amount dependent on the length of the slab. Tie bars also are used commonly at longitudinal joints. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP) Continuously reinforced concrete pavements have no transverse joints, except construction joints or expansion joints when they are necessary at specific positions, such as at bridges. These pavements have a relatively high percentage of steel, with the minimum usually at 0.6 percent of the cross section of the slab. They also contain tie bars across the longitudinal joints. 22

23 PUMPING OF RIGID PAVEMENTS Pumping is the discharge of water and subgrade (or subbase) material through joints, cracks, and along the pavement edges. It primarily is caused by the repeated deflection of the pavement slab in the presence of accumulated water beneath it. Visual manifestations of pumping include: Discharge of water from cracks and joints Spalling near the centerline of the pavement and a transverse crack or joint Mud boils at the edge of the pavement Pavement surface discoloration (caused by the subgrade soil) Breaking of pavement at the corners 23

24 PUMPING OF RIGID PAVEMENTS Design Considerations for Preventing Pumping A major design consideration for preventing pumping is the reduction or elimination of expansion joints, since pumping is usually associated with these joints. This is the main reason why current design practices limit the number of expansion joints to a minimum. Since pumping is also associated with fine-grained soils, another design consideration is either to replace soils that are susceptible to pumping with a nominal thickness of granular or sandy soils, or to improve them by stabilization. Current design practices therefore usually include the use of 3 to 6 in. layers of granular subbase material at areas along the pavement alignment where the subgrade material is susceptible to pumping or stabilizing the susceptible soil with asphalt or Portland cement. 24

25 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses are developed in rigid pavements as a result of several factors, including: the action of traffic wheel loads the expansion and contraction of the concrete due to temperature changes yielding of the subbase or subgrade supporting the concrete pavement volumetric changes Theoretical determination of stresses rather complex, requiring the following simplifying assumptions: 1. Concrete pavement slabs are considered as unreinforced concrete beams. Any contribution made to the flexural strength by the inclusion of reinforcing steel is Neglected. 25

26 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS 2. The combination of flexural and direct tensile stresses will inevitably result in transverse and longitudinal cracks. The provision of suitable crack control in the form of joints, however, controls the occurrence of these cracks, thereby maintaining the beam action of large sections of the pavement. 3. The supporting subbase and/or subgrade layer acts as an elastic material in that it deflects at the application of the traffic load and recovers at the removal of the load. There are three types of stresses: Stresses Induced by Bending Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads Stresses Due to Temperature Effects 26

27 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Induced by Bending The ability of rigid pavement to sustain a beamlike action across irregularities in the underlying materials suggests that the theory of bending is fundamental to the analysis of stresses in such pavements. The theory of a beam supported on an elastic foundation therefore can be used to analyze the stresses in the pavement when it is externally loaded. Figure 20.5 shows the deformation sustained by a beam on an elastic foundation when it is loaded externally. Figure 20.5 Deformation of a Beam on Elastic Foundation 27

28 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Induced by Bending The stresses developed in the beam may be analyzed by assuming that a reactive pressure (p), which is proportional to the deflection, is developed as a result of the applied load. This pressure is given as The modulus of subgrade reaction is the stress (lb/in 2 ) that will cause an inch deflection of the underlying soil. Equation 20.1 assumes that k (lb/in 3 ) is constant, which implies that the subgrade is elastic. However, this assumption is valid for only a limited range of different factors. The plate-bearing test is used for determining the value of k in the field. 28

29 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Induced by Bending A general relationship between the moment and the radius of curvature of a beam is given as The general differential equation relating the moment at any section of a beam with the deflection at that section is given as 29

30 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Induced by Bending whereas the basic differential equation for the deflection on an elastic foundation is given as The basic differential equation for a slab is given as 30

31 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Induced by Bending The EI term in Eq is called the stiffness of the beam, whereas the stiffness of the slab is given by the term within the square brackets of Eq This term is usually denoted as D, where In developing expressions for the stresses in a concrete pavement, Westergaard made use of the radius of relative stiffness, which depends on the stiffness of the slab and the modulus of subgrade reaction of the soil. It is given as 31

32 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Induced by Bending It will be seen later that the radius of relative stiffness is an important parameter in the equations used to determine various stresses in the concrete pavement. 32

33 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads The basic equations for determining flexural stresses in concrete pavements due to traffic wheel loads were first developed by Westergaard. He considered three critical locations of the wheel load on the concrete pavement in developing the equations. These locations are shown in Figure 20.6 and are described as follows. Case A. Load is applied at the corner of a rectangular slab. This provides for the cases when the wheel load is applied at the intersection of the pavement edge and a transverse joint. However, this condition is not common because pavements are generally much wider. Thus, no equation is presented for this case. Case B. Load is applied at the interior of the slab at a considerable distance from its edges. Case C. Load is applied at the edge of the slab at a considerable distance away from any corner. 33

34 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads Figure 20.6 Critical Locations of Wheel Loads on Concrete Pavements The locations shown as Cases I, II, and III are the critical locations presently used for the relatively wide pavements now being constructed. 34

35 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads The equations for determining these stresses were developed taking into consideration the different day and night temperature conditions that may exist. During the day, the temperature is higher at the surface of the slab than at the bottom. This temperature gradient through the depth of the slab will create a tendency for the slab edges to curl downward. During the night, however, the temperature at the bottom of the slab is higher than at the surface, thereby reversing the temperature gradient, which results in the tendency for the slab edges to curl upward. The equations for stresses due to traffic load reflect this phenomenon of concrete pavements. 35

36 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads The original equations developed by Westergaard were modified, using the results of full-scale tests conducted by the Bureau of Public Roads. These modified equations for the different loading conditions are as follows. 1. Edge loading when the edges of the slab are warped upward at night 2. Edge loading when the slab is unwarped or when the edge of the slab is curled downward during the day 36

37 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads 3. Interior loading 37

38 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads Revised equations for edge loadings have been developed by Ioannides, et al., and are given as Eqs and For a circular loaded area, For a semicircular loaded area, It should be noted that the above equations assume a value of 0.15 for the Poisson ratio of the concrete pavement. 38

39 39

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41 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Temperature Effects The tendency of the slab edges to curl downward during the day and upward during the night as a result of temperature gradients is resisted by the weight of the slab itself. This resistance tends to keep the slab in its original position, resulting in stresses being induced in the pavement. Compressive and tensile stresses therefore are induced at the top and bottom of the slab, respectively, during the day, whereas tensile stresses are induced at the top and compressive stresses at the bottom during the night. These curling stresses can be determined from Eqs and Note, however, that curling stresses are not normally taken into consideration in pavement thickness design, since joints and steel reinforcement are normally used to reduce the effect of such stresses. 41

42 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Temperature Effects 42

43 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Temperature Effects Figure 20.7 Values of C x and C y for Use in Formulas for Curling Stresses 43

44 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Temperature Effects Temperature changes in the slab will also result in expansion (for increased temperature) and contraction (for reduced temperature). The provision of suitable expansion/contraction joints in the slab reduces the magnitude of these stresses but does not entirely eliminate them, since considerable resistance to the free horizontal movement of the pavement still will be offered by the subgrade, due to friction action between the bottom of the slab and the top of the subgrade. The magnitude of these stresses depends on the length of the slab, the type of concrete pavement, the magnitude of the temperature changes, and the coefficient of friction between the pavement and the subgrade. 44

45 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Temperature Effects Considering a unit width of the pavement, the frictional force (F) developed due to a uniform drop in temperature is The force (P) developed in the concrete due to stress pc is given as 45

46 STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS Stresses Due to Temperature Effects Equating these two forces gives The effects of temperature changes also can be reduced by including reinforcing steel in the concrete pavement. The additional force developed by the steel may also be taken into consideration in determining L. If As is the total cross-sectional area of steel per foot width of slab, Eq becomes 46

47 THICKNESS DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS The main objective in rigid pavement design is to determine the thickness of the concrete slab that will be adequate to carry the projected traffic load for the design period. Several design methods have been developed over the years, some of which are based on the results of full-scale road tests, others on theoretical development of stresses on layered systems, and others on the combination of the results of tests and theoretical development. 47

48 AASHTO Design Method The AASHTO method for rigid pavement design is mainly based on the results obtained from the AASHTO road test. The design procedure was initially published in the early 1960s but was revised in the 1970s and 1980s. A further revision has been carried out since then, incorporating new developments. The design procedure provides for the determination of the pavement thickness and the amount of steel reinforcement when used, as well as the design of joints. It is suitable for plain concrete, simply reinforced concrete, and continuously reinforced concrete pavements. 48

49 Design Considerations AASHTO Design Method The factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design of rigid pavements as presented in the 1993 guide are: Pavement performance Subgrade strength Subbase strength Traffic Concrete properties Drainage Reliability 49

50 AASHTO Design Method Pavement Performance Pavement performance is considered in the same way as for flexible pavement, as presented in Chapter 19. The initial serviceability index (P i ) may be taken as 4.5, and the terminal serviceability index may also be selected by the designer. Subbase Strength The guide allows the use of either graded granular materials or suitably stabilized materials for the subbase layer. Table 20.4 gives recommended specifications for six types of subbase materials. AASHTO suggests that the first five types A through E can be used within the upper 4 in. layer of the subbase, whereas type F can be used below the uppermost 4 in. layer. Special precautions should be taken when certain conditions exist. For example, when A, B, and F materials are used in areas where the pavement may be subjected to frost action, the percentage of fines should be reduced to a minimum. Subbase thickness is usually not less than 6 in. and should be extended 1 to 3 ft outside the edge of the 50 pavement structure

51 51

52 Subgrade Strength AASHTO Design Method The strength of the subgrade is given in terms of the Westergaard modulus of subgrade reaction k, which is defined as the load in lb/in2 on a loaded area, divided by the deformation in inches. Values of k can be obtained by conducting a plate-bearing test in accordance with the AASHTO Test Designation T222 using a 30 in. diameter plate. Estimates of k values can also be made either from experience or by correlating with other tests. Figure 20.8 shows an approximate interrelationship of soil classification and bearing values obtained from different types of tests. 52

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55 Subgrade Strength AASHTO Design Method The guide also provides for the determination of an effective modulus of subgrade reaction, which depends on: (1) the seasonal effect on the resilient modulus of the subgrade (2) the type and thickness of the subbase material used, (3) the effect of potential erosion of the subbase, and (4) whether bedrock lies within 10 ft of the subgrade surface. The seasonal effect on the resilient modulus of the subgrade was discussed in Chapter 19, and a procedure similar to that used in flexible pavement design is used here to take into consideration the variation of the resilient modulus during a 12-month period. 55

56 Subgrade Strength AASHTO Design Method Since different types of subbase materials have different strengths, the type of material used is an important input in the determination of the effective modulus of subgrade reaction. In estimating the composite modulus of subgrade reaction, the subbase material is defined in terms of its elastic modulus E SB. It is also necessary to consider the combination of material types and the required thicknesses because this serves as a basis for determining the cost-effectiveness of the pavement. The chart in Figure 20.9 is used to estimate the composite modulus of subgrade reaction (k ) assuming an infinite depth for the type of subbase material, based on its elastic modulus, its resilient modulus, and the thickness of the subbase. 56

57 Figure 20.9 Chart for Estimating Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, K, Assuming a Semi-Infinite Subgrade Depth* 57

58 Subgrade Strength AASHTO Design Method The effective k value also depends on the potential erosion of the subbase material. This effect is included by the use of a factor (see Table 20.5 on page 1098) for the loss of support (LS) in determining the effective k value. This factor is used to reduce the effective modulus of subgrade reaction, as shown in Figure on page The presence of bedrock, within a depth of 10 ft of the subgrade surface and extending over a significant length along the highway alignment, may result in an increase of the overall modulus of subgrade reaction. This effect is taken into consideration by adjusting the effective modulus subgrade using the chart in Figure on page The procedure is demonstrated in the solution of Example

59 AASHTO Design Method Figure Correction of Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Potential Loss of Subbase Support 59

60 AASHTO Design Method Figure Chart to Modify Modulus of Subgrade Reaction to Consider Effects of Rigid Foundation Near Surface (within 10 ft) 60

61 61

62 HW # 6 Problems

63 End of Chapter 20 63

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