Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
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1 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation Fuente: Center for Biodiversity and Conservation What is: Habitat Fragmentation? The end result of human settlement and resource extraction in a landscape is a patchwork of small, isolated natural areas in a sea of developed land Gascon et al Created by John Rozum, NEMO National Coordinator Habitat fragmentation can also be thought of as a disruption of continuity Example: Forest Fragmentation Source: Department of Landscape Architecture & Environmental Planning Utah State University 1
2 Example: Wetland Fragmentation Source: New York State GIS Clearinghouse Example: Prairie Fragmentation Short-grass prairie has been reduced to < 0.1% of its former extent Source: J.S. Aber What is a landscape? Landscapes An area that is heterogeneous A mosaic where a mix of local ecosystems and land uses is repeated over space 2
3 3 basic landscape elements Patch recognizable area that contrasts with adjacent areas and has definable boundaries Corridor connects two or more patches Matrix the background or dominate cover type upon which patches and corridors occur Corridor Patch Matrix How large is a landscape? Landscape for an ant Small bird Does it apply to habitat fragmentation? What started us thinking about certain landscape elements, like patch size? 3
4 fragmentation reduces area and increases isolation Island biogeography applied to habitat fragmentation Wildlife communities in small woodlots are less diverse less abundant Island biogeography and habitat fragmentation Wildlife communities in large forested areas: more diverse more abundant Habitat loss vs. fragmentation Habitat loss results in less habitat for focal species or group Fragmentation technically, the breaking apart of habitat (not always with net loss) Habitat loss but they both usually occur together Habitat fragmentation 4
5 The Fragmentation Process Landscapes are fragmented in a fairly predictable fashion Source: Gibbs et al Technical Terms for the Fragmentation Process Perforation - Holes punched in a habitat Dissection - Initial subdivision of continuous landscape Fragmentation - Breaking up into smaller parts Shrinkage - Reduction in size of patches Attrition - Loss of patches Image source: Mark C. Wallace Created by John Rozum, NEMO National Coordinator 5
6 Example of the Forest Fragmentation Process Another Example Moist Forest, Rondonia, Brazil Source: Temperate Hardwood Forest, Cadiz Township, Wisconsin, USA Forests, Warwickshire, England, Last 2000 yrs Left: South-east Asian Tropical Deforestation is particularly severe, despite the region being the second only to the Amazon for biological diversity: (a) India, Sri Lanka Almost all primary rainforest destroyed. (b) Thailand 45% loss between 1961 and Will lose 60% by (c) Malaysia Forest resources exhausted by (d) Indonesia 620,000 hectares / year. (e) Philippines 55% forest loss (f) Bangladesh All primary rainforest destroyed (Lean 67). Right: Sumatra deforestation. (Groombridge) Differences between Natural and Anthropogenic Habitat Fragmentation But are natural environments not already fragmented? 6
7 What then are the differences between human-caused fragmentation and natural patchiness? (1) A naturally patchy landscape has a complex patch structure, whereas one fragmented by humans has simplified patches. Missouri's Big Oak State Park (2) Many (but not all) of the patch types in human modified landscapes are not suitable for wild life. Faunal data from Amazon Birds: 123 species 31 use matrix 92 that use forest edge or interior (none restricted to the forest interior) Frogs; 62 species 16 use only the matrix 1 only in forest interior 51 in forest edge and interior. Mammals: 15 species 4 use the matrix only, 15 forest interior only 10 use the forest edge Ant species, 127 species 32 use matrix only 104 use the primary forest 44 use the forest edge (3) Because of (1) & (2) there is less contrast between adjacent patches in naturally patchy landscapes and therefore potentially less intense edge effects. (4) Certain features of fragmented landscapes, such as roads, are completely novel and pose specific threats to wild species versus
8 Changes in the landscape Biological Dimensions of the Fragmentation Process The total area of available habitat decreases, The area of remaining habitat patches decreases, The number of remaining habitat patches increases, and The connectedness of remaining habitat decreases (farther apart, more hostile habitat in-between). Examples of area-sensitive species: Neotropical migrant songbirds of deciduous forests of the eastern United States Source: C. S. Robbins Species with large area requirements Ivory-billed woodpeckers: ca. 7 km 2 per breeding pair male mountain lion (puma): home range of 400 km 2 Cerulean Warbler: 1000 ha (a circle about 3.5km in diameter) Isolation affects Metapopulation Viability the Connectivity Issue 8
9 Migration rates between patches as a function of distances between patches Probability of dispersing between wetlands Amphibians Reptiles Inter-wetland distance (m) Mechanisms by which habitat fragmentation reduces metapopulation viability Fragmentation reduces patch sizes and population sizes, thereby increasing extinction rates Fragmentation increases inter-patch distance and reduces migration rates between patches, thereby reducing the likelihood of local populations sustaining one another The Rescue Effect Immigration from a large, productive subpopulation can keep a declining subpopulation from going extinct Long-term effects of reduced patch area and isolation on extinction rates From: Newmark. W.D Edge Effects 9
10 Edge Effects: Depend on Patch Shape and the Types of Adjacent Patches Area: 259 hectares Edge: 11,771 meters Area: 259 hectares Edge: 6,748 meters Edge Effects Microclimate changes in light/temperature Wind Exotics Fire Hunting pressure by humans and other predators Source: Department of Landscape Architecture & Environmental Planning Utah State University Fig. 2. Predation rates on artificial nests decline with distance from a forest edge. Edgerelated predation extends 300_600 m into the forest (from Wilcove 1985). Fragmentation and Ecosystem Function 10
11 Fragmentation and Ecosystem Change Plots deepest in the interior of the remaining fragments showed no change in biomass. Those closest to the edge lost as much as 5 tons of biomass per hectare per year, a rate of about 1.3% per year. Edge Effects: Extent Preserving Biodiversity in Fragmented Landscapes Analysis and Planning 1. Conduct a landscape analysis - where are the big blocks and connections? 2. Evaluate the landscape in a regional context 3. Can planning avoid further fragmentation, e.g., via corridors? 11
12 Identifying Core Regions at the Regional Scale Evaluating fragment isolation and scoping out potential corridors 102 km 91 km 89 km 43 km Source: Ersts, Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Source: Ersts, Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Considering Edge and Patch Area Issues for Reserve Design Minimize negative edge effects Source: Blair and Ballard 1996 Do not ignore small fragments! Corridors? Invertebrates, seed sources, nuclei for restoration 12
13 Butterfly Movements Through Corridors Seed Dispersal Through Corridors Potential Advantages of Corridors Increased immigration rate to fragments could: increase effective population sizes of particular species and decrease probability of extinction (provide a "rescue effect") permit re-establishment of extinct local populations Reduce inbreeding depression and maintain genetic variation within populations More advantages Provide increased foraging area for wideranging species Provide predator-escape cover for movements between patches Provide alternative refugia from large disturbances (a "fire escape") Disadvantages Facilitate the spread of epidemic diseases, insect pests, exotic species, weeds, fire and other abiotic disturbances ("contagious catastrophes") Increase exposure of wildlife to hunters, poachers, and other predators 13
14 Example: The Effect of Implementing a Prohibition on Riparian Zone Clearing (Source: Department of Landscape Architecture & Environmental Planning Utah State University) Evaluating Corridors and Connectivity at the Regional Scale: The Proposed Paseo Pantera Evaluating Corridors and Connectivity at the Regional Scale: Central Appalachian Mountains Source: The Wildlands Project Source: The Wildlife Conservation Society Specific Recommendations for Minimizing Fragmentation of Tropical Wet Forests Recent corridor experimentation Guideline Avoid forest clearing within 150 m of water courses Avoid clearing on steep (>30 degree) slopes Avoid clearing rare vegetation types Keep clearings to < 20 ha, Restrict clearing of primary forest to < 50% of property ownership Prohibit clearing or hunting within 1 km of protected areas Impact on Landscape Enhances landscape connectivity, protects water quality Retain forest remnants in sensitive areas, reduce flooding and erosion Protect rare communities and seed sources Reduces loss and fragmentation Reduces edge effects (Source: Laurance & Gascon 1997) Damschen et al Corridors increase plant species richness at large scales. Science 313:
15 Recent corridor experimentation Habitat Fragmentation (End) Damschen et al Corridors increase plant species richness at large scales. Science 313:
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