Consei va ti on. Biology. Sinauer Associates Inc. Puhlishe. Sunderland, Massachusetts U.S.A

Transcription

1 r y S Consei va ti on Biology ft Sinauer Associates Inc. Puhlishe. Sunderland, Massachusetts U.S.A

2 Contents Preface xiii PART I Major Issues that Define the Discipline 1 What Is Conservation Biology} 3 Concern for Biological Diversity 4 The Current Status of Conservation Biology 17 Origins of Conservation Biology 7 Statement of Ethical Principles 19 2 What Is Biological Diversity} 22 BOX 1 THE NAMES OF SPECIES AND THEIR Trophic Levels 39 CLASSIFICATION 24 Keystone Species 43 The Origin of New Species 26 BOX 3 FLYING FOXES: THE DECLINE OF KEYSTONE Genetic Diversity 31 SPECIES MAY LEAD TO MASSIVE EXTINCTIONS 44 Communities and Ecosystems 34 Measuring Biological Diversity 48 BOX 2 KELP FORESTS AND SEA OTTERS: SHAPING AN OCEAN ECOSYSTEM 36 3 Where Is Biological Diversity Found} 52 Why Are There So Many Species in the BOX 4 CONSERVING A WORLD UNKNOWN: Tropics? 57 HYDROTHERMAL VENTS 69 How Many Species Exist Worldwide? 62 The Need for More Taxonomists 70 Newly Discovered Communities 66 PART II Threats to Biological Diversity 4 Loss of Biological Diversity 75 Past Rates of Extinction 77 Island Biogeography and Modern Extinction Human-Caused Extinctions 79 Rates 86 Extinction Rates on Islands 83 Local Extinctions 90

3 5 Vulnerability to Extinction 93 Endemic Species 96 Vulnerability to Extinction 99 BOX 5 CONSERVING MADAGASCAR'S ENDEMIC T^e Le S a^ Status of Rare Species 105 FORESTS: A LAST-DITCH EFFORT? 98 6 Habitat Destruction, Fragmentation, and Degradation 111 Human Population and the Use of BOX 7 PESTICIDES AND RAPTORS: HOW CHANGING Resources 112 HUMAN HABITS CAN HELP ENDANGERED SPECIES 147 Habitat Destruction 115 BOX 8 CONSERVATION OF ENDEMIC FISH IN LAKE Habitat Fragmentation 130 VICTORIA 150 BOX 6 SONGBIRD DECLINE IN NORTH AMERICA 140 BOX 9 WHY ARE FROGS AND TOADS CROAKING? 154 Habitat Degradation and Pollution Exotic Species Introductions, Disease, and Overexploitation 167 Exotic Species 167 Increased Spread of Disease 181 BOX 10 INTRODUCED SPECIES AND EXTINCTIONS Overexploitation 185 IN ISLAND ECOSYSTEMS 170 BOX 12 SHARKS: THE WORLD'S LEAST-FAVORITE Exotic Diseases 175 ANIMAL IN DECLINE 189 BOX 11 CRISIS AFTER CRISES FOR THE BLACK-FOOTED BOX 13 ENDANGERED WHALES: MAKING A FERRET 176 COMEBACK? 191 PART III The Value of Biological Diversity 8 Direct Economic Values of Diversity 199 Valuation of Natural Resources in National Direct Values 203 Economies 201 Assigning Values to Biological Diversity 202 CONSERVATION Indirect Economic Values 216 Nonconsumptive Use Value 217 BOX 15 THE DECLINE OF FUNGI IN FORESTS: BOX 14 TRADITIONAL MEDICINES AND RAIN FOREST BOX 18 THE PACIFIC YEW: FROM WORTHLESS TO INVALUABLE A PREMONITION OF DISASTER 221 Existence Value 233 Common Property Resources and Environmental BOX 16 INDUSTRY, ECOLOGY, AND ECOTOURISM IN _. '. YELLOWSTONE PARK 224 Economics 234 > Concluding Remarks: The Economic Value of BOX 17 CONSERVATION AND ECOTOURISM ON THE.,. 1TV. -,, BELIZEANREEF 225 Biological Diversity 236 Option Value 229

4 10 The Ethical Value of Biological Diversity 239 Key Ethical Arguments 240 Deep Ecology 246 PART IV Conservation at the Population Level 11 The Problems of Small Populations 253 Loss of Genetic Variability 255 BOX 19 RHINO SPECIES IN ASIA AND AFRICA: GENETIC DIVERSITY AND HABITAT LOSS 261 Demographic Variation 270 Environmental Variation and Catastrophes 272 Extinction Vortices Population Biology of Endangered Species 277 The Metapopulation 277 Natural History and Autecology 279 BOX 20 CHEESE, TOURISTS, AND RED PANDAS IN THE HIMALAYAS 283 Monitoring Populations 284 Population Viability Analysis 290 Long-Term Monitoring of Species and Ecosystems 295 PART V Practical Applications 13 Establishing Protected Areas 301 Habitat Conservation 301 BOX 21 ECOLOGISTS AND REAL ESTATE EXPERTS MINGLE AT THE NATURE CONSERVANCY 302 Protected Areas 305 Establishing Priorities for Protected Areas 310 BOX 22 CONSERVATION OF AMERICAN CRANES: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SIMILAR SPECIES 311 Establishing Protected Areas with Limited Data 325 Some Conclusions Designing Protected Areas 329 Reserve Size 331 Effective Preservation of Species 335 Minimizing Edge and Fragmentation Effects 337 Coordinating New and Existing Reserves 338 Linking Nature Reserves with Habitat Corridors 338 Present and Future Human Use of Reserves Managing Protected Areas 346 Dealing with the Threats to Parks f 348 Habitat Management 351 BOX 23 HABITAT MANAGEMENT: THE KEY TO SUCCESS IN THE CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED BUTTERFLIES 352 Landscape Ecology and Park Design 357 Keystone Resources 360 Park Management and People 360 National Parks and Local People 362

5 16 Outside Protected Areas: Working with People and Restoring the Environment 370 Some North American Case Studies Managed Coniferous Forests 375 African Wildlife Outside Parks Traditional Societies and Biological Diversity 380 Restoration Ecology 389 BOX 24 RESTORATION OF THE ILLINOIS PRAIRIE Ex Situ Conservation Strategies 405 Zoos 408 BOX 25 THE CALIFORNIA CONDOR RETURNS 411 BOX 26 IS DOMESTICATION THE WAY TO SAVE THE GREEN IGUANA? 415 BOX 27 CONSERVATION OF LAND TORTOISES IN THE INDIAN OCEAN 417 BOX 28 LOVE ALONE CANNOT SAVE THE GREAT PANDA 419 Aquaria 421 Botanical Gardens and Arboreta Seed Banks Establishing New Populations 438 BOX 29 WOLVES RETURN TO A COLD WELCOME IN YELLOWSTONE 439 Social Behavior of Released Animals 441 BOX 30 REINTRODUCTION OF THE GOLDEN LION TAMARIN 442 Considerations for Successful Programs 445 Case Studies 447 Establishment of New Plant Populations 449 Reestablishment Programs and the Law 451 PART VI Conservation and Human Societies 19 How Are Species and Habitats Legally Protected} 457 Local Conservation Legislation 458 BOX 31 THE DANGERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVISM 460 National Legislation 462 The Endangered Species Act of the United States 463 BOX 32 THE SNAIL DARTER, THE TELLICO DAM, AND THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT 466 BOX 33 OWLS VERSUS JOBS International Agreements 472 Agreements for the Protection of Species 473 BOX 34 THE WAR TO SAVE THE ELEPHANT 474 Agreements for the Protection of Habitats 477 International Agreements to Control Pollution 478 The Earth Summit 479 The Value of International Agreements 482

6 21 International Funding 484 Linkages among Conservation Organizations 487 International Development Banks and Tropical Deforestation 488 Debt-For-Nature Swaps 495 BOX 35 THE DEATH OF THE ARAL SEA: UNFORESEEN DISASTER IN A PLANNED ECONOMY An Agenda for the Future 503 The Role of Conservation Biologists in Achieving the Agenda 507 APPENDIX: Selected Sources of Information and Activities 512 Bibliography 515 Index 549