Assessment Report. WASH Situation in Sabha Municipality, Southern Libya July 2016

Transcription

1 Assessment Report WASH Situation in Sabha Municipality, Southern Libya July

2 Introduction During June and July 2016 the Danish Refugee Council conducted a water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) assessment in Sabha, Libya. The process was funded by UNICEF with the aim of gaining an insight into current WASH needs. The Danish Refugee Council is working through a Libyan partner organisation STACO, who facilitated the data collection within the city. The following survey will provide an overview of the situation and subsequent recommendations for current and future WASH interventions. While the current target group for intervention is internally displaced persons (IDPs) living in Sabha, the assessment was conducted in such a way that wider health and WASH trends could be assessed to inform other interventions. The results should be relevant to humanitarian actors as well as local authorities, as the overall situation of the state of the network is cross-referenced with specific areas of evaluation, in the form of household surveys. Contents: 1. Executive summary 3 2. Methodology and sampling 6 3. Health risks and waterborne diseases 6 4. Water supply 7 5. Sanitation Hygiene Solid waste management WASH in schools and places of work The cost of WASH services Conclusions and recommendations 16 Annexes: 1. Demographic data 2. Institutional level WASH information 2

3 Executive summary: This report is based on multiple assessments (focus groups, key informant interviews, household surveys and secondary data), to give an overview of the WASH needs in Sabha and inform UNICEF and the Danish Refugee Council's intervention, through their partner STACO. Overview of Sabha: Sabha is the biggest city in South Libya and a hosts a complex web of political and tribal structures. Often marginalized by the central governments on the northern coast, the city suffers from chronic underfunding and a large banking and liquidity crisis. As such many ministries and formal institutions of government are struggling to keep up with basic municipality work such as waste disposal and maintaining the water and sanitation network. In January 2014, tribal tensions over spilled and fighting erupted causing displacement both within the city and to locations outside the city. While tribal tensions remain latent in 2016 there are still instances of low level clashes in certain neighborhoods. This is not to say there is not a high crime rate, often linked to smuggling or revenge killings for various reasons. Sabha also hosts IDPs from the recent fighting in Sirte as well as from other locations in South Libya. In addition, it is a major point on the migration route from West Africa as well as home to many Tebu families. Some of these families are permanent residents the others migrate across the border to Chad in the south and their present status as Libyan citizens has been a point of contention since the Gadhafi era. The DRC survey took place in the areas highlighted on the map below. Map 1 Summary of recommendations: Institutional level: Sabha is a large urban network which is under strain, due to the crisis in Libya, funding cuts, power cuts and a general drain on resources have meant the WASH needs 3

4 of the city are unmet. Some IDPs cannot be reached as they are squatting in illegal settlements and also Sabha has areas of contamination from Explosive Remnants of War. The local authorities admit there are; constant network breakages (both sewage and water), too few desludging trucks and a lack of funding for network upgrades. The water is pumped from ground sources, but is largely saline. Water quality tests are infrequent. Health: Persistent but not critical cases of waterborne diseases are seen in the city, as of yet there is no discernible pattern of where they come from or their causality (as hygiene knowledge and access to NFIs are seemingly quite high-see detail in sections 5 and 7). WASH in Schools: These fall under another authority, but evidence suggests few have functional water of sanitation facilities. Generally, educational levels of hygiene knowledge are high. Although more can be done to improve this, especially for female hygiene. Water at the household level: Most people drink bottled water; it is assumed that this is because of the aforementioned saline water. Storage is an amalgamation of drums and tanks. Due to regular power cuts and interruptions to the supply, storage in tanks is essential for non-drinking purposes. Sanitation: A diverse but overstrained network, there is a mixture of desludging and wastewater networks. Most latrines are non-functional, it is assumed they are either full or broken, although breakages are often attributed to the network, rather than the individual household toilet. Hygiene: Level of knowledge is high and a high level of practice is also observed in several sections in the report. The key dilemma with hygiene comes in the form of the liquidity crisis and deteriorating economic situation. A lack of access to cash and increasing inflation has resulted in many people deprioritizing hygiene items. In terms of policy it is therefore recommended that both NFIs and cash be trialed, but post distribution monitoring reports are to discern which is the more appropriate intervention, for increasing access to hygiene items. As for broader recommendations please see the list in section 9 on page 14 of this document. Summary of key findings and statistics: Bottled water is the main source of drinking water in Sabha with 63% of respondents reporting it as their main source of drinking water. Water stored in tanks from the mains network is the main source of water for other household use, see graphs 5 and 6 for statistical data. Sixty percent of the city is covered by the urban sanitation network, with private septic tanks accounting for 10%, the remaining 30% is split between smaller forms of sanitation coverage. However, due to poor funding and repair of the network, up to 78% of toilets are not functioning. Over 70% of respondents reported having access to all but two of the basic hygiene items required for good practice. The two items that are less accessed by beneficiaries are baby diapers and plastic jerry cans. Of the reasons given for lack of access to none food items (hygiene items), 'cannot afford it' and 'it is not my priority now' account for 82%, showing the cost of items, in comparison to other expenses like food and rent is putting pressure on vulnerable households. 4

5 Also 78% of respondents can name three critical handwashing times. With regards to WASH in schools 64% of respondents said there were no working toilets in the schools for their children. 5

6 1: Methodology and sampling The assessment comprised, household (HH) survey questionnaires, gender segregated focus group discussions, as well as key informant interviews (KII) with both local water authorities and health actors, to gain a comprehensive and triangulated view of the conditions and requirements for WASH provision in Sabha. Household questionnaires: These questionnaires were targeted at IDPs living in three locations throughout Sabha; Soukra, Abdul Kafi and a group of IDPs newly arrived from Sirte. In total 54 surveys were gathered across the sites shown in Map 1. The surveys were returned from IDP, returnee and host community households. (See annex 1 for breakdown of household demographics). Focus group discussions: Two gender segregated focus group discussions were held (one comprising 8 women and the second comprising 10 men). Key informant interview water association: A key informant interview was held with two members of the local water authority 1 in Sabha, in order to ascertain an overview of the local municipality water system and key challenges they currently face. Key informant interview health actor: A health actor 2 was interviewed to provide an overview of the local health trends, with a particular emphasis on waterborne diseases. Secondary data on waterborne diseases is provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) for weeks 1-16 of Sections 2-8 of the report show the detailed findings of the WASH assessment 2: Health and risk of waterborne diseases There is a persistent presence of Acute Watery Diarrhea (AWD), skin rashes and eye infections in Sabha, which were identified in the KII, household surveys and WHO disease surveillance. However, the severity and scale of the problem remains unclear. Results from the HH surveys show 28% reporting cases of diarrhea, 31% reporting eye infections and 11% reporting skin rashes. In contrast, a mean average taken over 7 weeks of disease surveillance from WHO 3 shows an average morbidity rate, for diarrhea, of 9 cases per week. One possible conclusion is that poor hygiene practice results in persistent of non-admitted AWD cases. This conclusion can be supported by the KII with the health actor, where it was claimed that diseases were caused by poor hygiene "to some extent". Therefore, it can be concluded that there is scope for a hygiene promotion intervention, see section 5, for further details on what sort of intervention. It is unclear as to whether there is a specific area of the city to target. The sample size of reported cases is small, but there is a split between IDPs and the host community (see graph 1). Sabha has many 1 Engineer Hamid Mohammed Hamid, an engineer in the water company and Abdualkabeer Ganana Attahir, a field expert in water and sanitation networks. 2 Dr. Mohammed Abduassalam Abualsa'ad, previous manager of Aljadeed health centre, currently a university lecturer (Public Health). 3 Numbers compiled from three clinics in Sabha 6

7 unfinished buildings for IDPs to live in, but the water association reports multiple cases of cross contamination (between waste water and piped water) as well as, electricity cuts severely interrupting the supply of water. Therefore, it has not been possible to identify one area of the city for intervention based on any evidence relating to disease trends, cases are cross cutting, both demographically and by location. Graph 1: Cases of AWD split by type of beneficiary Returnee 8% Other 15% IDP unfinished buildings 15% IDP hosted 8% Host community 54% Health conclusions: As a consequence, it is possible to see that both IDPs and the host community are exposed to health risks throughout the city. However, these risks do not currently constitute a major public health outbreak. No cases of cholera were reported and reported cases of Acute Jaundice Syndrome (AJS) are exceptionally rare and have not been flagged as a key risk by health actors. As demonstrated in the drinking water and hygiene sections of this survey (sections 3 and 5), beneficiary knowledge, attitudes and practice are reasonably high. The liquidity crisis might have caused some to cut spending on hygiene items, but this has not lead to a large public health crisis or even a geographical, or beneficiary type spike (that can be identified in this survey, with any form of strong causal correlation). 3: Water supply Drinking water: Bottled water was by far the largest source of drinking water for respondents, as is shown in graph 2. The focus group discussion for women brought up the issue of salinity in the groundwater supply, which is pumped through the mains network into storage tanks. Therefore, people do not drink the piped water due to the taste of the water. In both of the FDGs respondents also stated that they bought water and would not drink it from tanks, as the tanks were dirty. Photographic evidence of the tanks and storage containers can be seen in the photos below. 7

8 (Photos of household water storage from Sabha) Finally, there is no correlation between beneficiary type and drinking water behaviour, other than IDPs in broken down buildings all buy bottled water. In normal times it might be inferred that this is because they need access to the water network, however, as the cross beneficiary consensus is that the water from the network is poor quality and or undrinkable due to salinity, adding connectivity or increasing the network coverage should not be recommended for these groups. Water trucking 0% Communal tap >500m 13% Graph 2: Main source of drinking water Communal tap<500m 12% Other 0% Tap in house 12% Bottled water 63% Water quality: The HH survey also showed the water quality (although not accounting for taste and salinity) to be broadly acceptable with 'cloudy' the main observation made about the water quality (see graph 3). The KII with the water association stated that while the water is not treated on a regular basis all new boreholes are tested for turbidity and when a complaint is raised. It is unclear if there is a reporting mechanism for this, and what repair and maintenance methods are used once turbidity is reported. 8

9 Graph 3: Perecptions of water quality Cloudy Smelly Dirty None of the above Is the water you drink any of the following? Water use and quantity: 4 In terms of the quantity the KII revealed that in theory the water network has the capacity to provide people with 15lts of water per day without a problem. However, electricity cuts, salinity, cross contamination are all challenges. As a consequence, there is only a small majority of respondents to the HH survey stating satisfaction with the water supply. don't know 9% Graph 4: Is the supply of water sufficient to meet your needs? no 35% yes 56% Water storage: In order to combat irregular supply most people store water. As graph 5 shows most drinking water is stored in the bottles (see photos below), whereas other water is stored in private/household water tanks, which are fed from the main network. Focus group discussions also confirm how these tanks are normally unclean. 4 The water association in Sabha has the following work planned. "There is in complete project proposal, has been submitted by the Water Company to provide pure water and drinkable water in Sabha, which is as follow: 1) Implementing the water field proposed in Gudwa road (an area toward Murzuq) to supply pure water, it consists of 15 water wells with 400m depth. 2) Implementing transmitting lines for water and tanks from outside the city (Gudwa) into the city. 3)Maintain the main network and subnet in the city. Note/ Project has started, where two wells have been dug in the water field but works stopped because of the current situation in Libya." (water association KII 2016) 9

10 Cooking Showering/bathing Washing cooking pots/pans Cleaning toilet Washing your hands Bottled water from shop Plastic jerry can or bucket Private water tank (for one/your house) Communal water tank (group of houses) None of the above I do not store water (Photo of bottled water and jerry cans used for storage) Graph 5: Storage of drinking water and none drinking water Drinking water Non-drinking water How do you store water Beneficiaries knowledge and practice of improved hygiene process can be seen by the fact that there is a separation of cooking and drinking water from other water use. However, there is also still scope for an intervention to either provide the assets to store clean water or teach the importance of storing water in a clean way. Graph 6 shows how water is used for various household activities Graph 6: What other activities do you use drinking water for? Don't know No Yes Is the water you use for drinking also used for the following? 10

11 4: Sanitation Institutional level: As with the water system, the sanitation system for Sabha is largely an underground network. The KII provided the following information (table 1) as to the coverage of the network throughout the city. Table 1 Type of sanitation Underground sewage network 60% Septic tanks (private) 10% Septic tanks (Communal) 5% Basic latrines in need of desludging 3% Other 2% 5 Coverage (of the network that exists, NOT the city) The results provide show the current coverage of the existing network, however, the KII elicited the information that the city has too few desludging trucks and that the entire city is not covered by the network. As with the water situation, poor quality pumps, electricity cuts and a general lack of maintenance are to blame for poor sanitation results in the city. The focus group discussion for women also highlighted the leakage of sewage onto the streets. The bad smell this causes was commented upon. The male focus group mentioned the low frequency and also cost (see section 7) of desludging and how many septic tanks are full. Household toilets: Graph 7 (below) shows the breakdown of the types of toilet listed by the beneficiaries. As with most of the responses there is no discernible pattern linking type of beneficiary (IDP/ HC) to a particular type of toilet. The only evidence is that according to the data no returnees have a flushing toilet and all use squat latrines, but this is assumed to be indicative of the type of housing constructed in the area and thus not considered an indicator for the need for an intervention. 30 Graph 7: Type of toilet at household level Flushing toilet in house Shared flushing toilet Squat latrine Shared squat latrine Other In total 85% of respondents stated that men and women shared the toilet, meaning that it is common practice for the IDPs and host community to share toilets in Sabha. The 9 respondents who reported 5 "There are sanitation systems which are away from the main network, which is considered no legal, which is being connected with salty wells 25m depth because of the high cost of desludging trucks" (KII 2016) There are a number of IDPs living in unfinished buildings, but local authorities consider them squatters and as such access to work there was not granted. 11

12 A working light A working lock Toilet paper or water for anal cleansing Soap Water for handwashing Excreta on the slab/toilet Is the toilet clean? that toilets were not shared were all IDPs, some were hosted and some were living in unfinished buildings. Once again it is not possible to draw a conclusive demographic causality behind the survey data. Household toilet function and quality: In total 78% of respondents reported that the toilet was broken, it is inferred that this is either because of the aforementioned network problems or poor quality desludging services (with only 30% of households reporting latrines emptied on time). The HH survey also had an observation section to show the actual 'practice' carried out by beneficiaries (see graph 8 overleaf) Graph 8: Observtions of the toilets in Sabha No Yes Observations of beneficiary toilets As can be seen the results are largely positive. The presence of soap and water for handwashing is high, showing a good practice of hygiene. In fact, every respondent who mentioned a critical handwashing time (in the following section of the survey) mentioned after using the toilet as a key handwashing time. From a protection point of view, the presence of lights and locks in a high percentage of toilets shows a good standard of practice. However, 30% of respondents (both male and female) reported not feeling safe while going to the toilet at night. With regards to cleanliness the low level of visible excreta is encouraging, but as the photos show, the overall state of the toilets is often not clean. Again, there is no correlation between beneficiary demographics and results of the survey. In terms of vulnerability, there were some comments made in the focus group discussions. One suggestion was to provide adult diapers for the disabled. When the lack of disabled toilets (see graph 9) is considered, there may be an intervention logic to select beneficiaries with disabilities for help. 12

13 Graph 9: Elderly and disabled people's access to toilets Does the elderly or disabled person have difficulty using the toilet? Has the toilet been modified to suit the elderly or disabled persons needs? No Yes 5: Hygiene practice Bathing/ Showering: The graph below explains that most people shower either in a bucket or they have a shower in their home. The weak correlation shows that it is mostly returnees that shower in buckets and a mixture of others who have access to showers in the home. Graph 10:How do you wash yourself Shared bucket 2% Other 0% Use a bucket 44% Shower in house 52% Shower is shared 2% Throughout the water and sanitation sections, it has been remarked upon how, knowledge and practice of personal hygiene is comparatively high. The separation of drinking water from that stored in dirty tanks, the presence of soap and water in toilets, is also important. It is also seen that 78% of respondents know at least three critical handwashing times. The DRC cash feasibility assessment shows the presence of all key hygiene items in the market; as such access to hygiene items is not a critical concern. However, section 7 on cost will confirm people's attitudes towards hygiene items as it compares to the cost of them. 6: Solid waste management 13

14 Both anecdotally and through the focus group discussions, a lack of solid waste management is a critical concern for the population. To confirm this observation, the HH survey shows that only 52% of households have a bin and 60% have rubbish visible in communal areas within 50m from the house. In addition, 72% of respondents stated that they dispose of their rubbish themselves. (Below are two photos showing rubbish in compounds and poor solid waste management) 7: Schools and places of work Respondents to the HH survey showed that 64% said there were no functional toilet facilities in their child's school. In addition, 43% of respondents said they did not have access to a functional toilet at work. The focus groups also confirmed that there were poor levels of sanitation facilities in schools and that this was a failure, as they saw it, on the part of the school authorities. The male focus group also indicated most schools had no clean drinking water for children. The water association provided a list of schools in need of renovation; these must be verified before any work can take place in them. 1. Othman Ibn Affan school (Aljadeed area) 2. Almanshiya school (Almanshiya area) 3. Alhurriya school (Aljadeed area) 4. Naseeba Bin Ka'ab (Algurda area) 5. Arrazi secondary school (city center) 6. Kurtoba secondary school (Almahdiya area) 7. Sabha secondary school (Almahdiya area) 8. Fatima Azzahra'a (city center) 9. Sukara school (Sukara area) 10. Alkarama school (Alkarama area) 14

15 8: The cost of WASH services in Sabha Water: The liquidity crisis was blamed by the female focus group discussion on the increasing cost of water and hygiene items 6. Respondents in the HH survey could identify no clear rate for water. Sanitation: The most common cost for the emptying of a septic tank was 40LYD 7, according to the HH survey. The male focus group discussion mentioned that this cost was too high for people and the government should help. As such, limited state capacity and the cost of emptying septic tanks is a problem for many households. However, the authorities also stated they had too few desludging trucks to keep up with demand. Solid waste disposal: No costs were associated with this from the household survey with only one respondent saying they paid. However, solid waste management is seen as a critical area for public health and is currently not functioning well. Hygiene: The beneficiaries have access to items, as all of them are available in the market. The cash feasibility work DRC has conducted showed that the market in Sabha is functional. Graph 11 (overleaf) shows the extent of the beneficiary access to hygiene items. Detergent powder Graph 11: Do you have access to the following hygiene items % Plastic jerry can Baby daipers Shampoo Towel Soap Sanitary pads Toothbrush Toothpaste Given that beneficiaries have a reasonably high awareness of hygiene and there are goods in the market for them to access, why are 6 out of 9 items below 80% in terms of access? The answer is related to both the cost and attitude. Graph 12 shows that for some beneficiaries these items are too expensive. However, some show that these items are not a priority right now. Graph 13 (overleaf) shows the same data but disaggregated by product. The focus group discussions reflected this conclusion, with repeated references to the liquidity crisis, the rising cost of living and other competing priorities for money. The main conclusion is that both NFIs and cash could be valid methods of intervention, it will be down to the targeting as to which beneficiary should receive cash or NFIs. 6 The liquidity crisis is not directly related to the cost of items as it is about the ability to withdraw cash. However, macroeconomic trends, such as inflation and an increasing divergence in black market exchange rates from official ones, will prohibitively impact households purchasing power in the South as there is a documented lack of hard currency. 7 Eestimates ranged from LYD 15

16 Graph 12: Reasons for lack of hygiene items Not available in the market 0% Other 17% I do not know what it is 1% Not my priority now 30% Cannot afford it 52% Graph 13: Reasons for lack of access to hygiene items, by product Other Not available in the market I do not know what it is Not my priority now Cannot afford it 9: Conclusions and Recommendations Based on the available data, the following recommendations have been drawn up. These are broad ranging in relation to WASH programming in Sabha. For the DRC project funded by UNICEF a separate management response will be submitted with an updated work plan and list of proposed interventions. Any longer term WASH intervention will need to consider working with the local authorities, for two reasons, a) there is an existing network, which is in place, and run by the water authorities, b) access to vulnerable sites may need to be granted by other local administrations. 16

17 While there is no public health outbreak there are persistent WASH related disease issues. However, knowledge, attitudes and practice are relatively high, the liquidity crisis and a growing number of beneficiaries are 'not prioritising' hygiene. Therefore, continued targeted NFIs and cash would be recommended as a stopgap, but learning about which of these methods is more appropriate for the context will need to be drawn up. NOTE: this survey does not cover detention centres. Surveillance for diseases, water quality, network breaks and school hygiene facilities, would be recommended. Creating a reporting mechanism for the local authority, whilst assessing their capacity to respond to these issues will be critical. Targeted interventions for the disabled would be recommended and the upgrading of toilets and showers would be preferable to the provision of adult diapers. The main issue is the overstretched and underfunded urban network. As a consequence, the optimal intervention would include aiding the local authorities to keep the urban network operational. The key component is wastewater management, as both salinity of the existing primary source and availability of bottled water has resulted in a widespread consumption of bottled water. Engagement with the authorities should only be pursued if there is added value. Without a large-scale investment in resources by the local authorities, there will be little INGOs or local NGOs can do that will have real impact. Solid waste management is a significant challenge, which, like the water and sewage networks, needs a large-scale solution in an urban environment. Institutional support to the local authorities should be prioritised over sporadic small scale projects by NGOs. WASH in schools, working with the school and water authorities would be recommended for a longer-term intervention. This can be achieved at a low level, but as most schools do not have functional toilets or water points, larger scale projects might be required to integrate schools in to the network, or to gain permission for the installation of drop latrines, as long as desludging can be guaranteed. The Danish Refugee Council extends thanks to all those involved in contributing to this survey. 17

18 Annex 1: Demographics Type of beneficiary (Graph 15) IDP unfinsihed The graph below (Graph 14), gives the breakdown of households by age. The distribution is typical, and works Other out at an average household buildings size of 5.2 and a gender ratio of 46% male to 54% female. 18% 21% Graph #Men >60 years Beneficiary age/gender (Graph 14) #Women >60 years #Men years # Women years #Boys<17 years old #Girls <17 years old Returnees 25% Host community 22% IDP hosted 14% Does anyone in the house have a physical disability (Graph 16) Graph 14: Here the distribution of age and gender is broken down. In addition to the date visible on the graph the gender split is 46%male to 54% female, and the average household size is 5.2, based on the household survey. Graph 15: Here the type of beneficiaries is separated to show the makeup of the survey data, taken from the three chosen areas of intervention. Yes 16% No 84% Graph 16: Very few (4/31 in the household survey) toilets or showers have been modified for disabled or elderly use. Given that 16% of families report a disabled member, this could be one area of intervention. 18

19 Annex: 2 Institutional level WASH information- Sabha Overview of Sabha: Sabha is the largest city in South Libya and a hosts a complex web of political and tribal structures. Often marginalized by the central governments on the northern coast, the city suffers from chronic underfunding and a large banking and liquidity crisis. As such many ministries and formal institutions of government are struggling to keep up with basic municipality work such as waste disposal and maintaining the water and sanitation network. In January 2014, tribal tensions over spilled and fighting erupted causing displacement both within the city and to locations outside the city. While tribal tensions remain latent in 2016 there are still instances of low level clashes in certain neighborhoods. This is not to say there is not a high crime rate, often linked to smuggling or revenge killings for various reasons. Sabha also hosts IDPs from the recent fighting in Sirte as well as from other locations in South Libya. In addition, it is a major point on the migration route from West Africa as well as home to many Tebu families. Some of these families are permanent residents the others migrate across the border to Chad in the south and their present status as Libyan citizens has been a point of contention since the Gadhafi era. The DRC survey took place in the areas highlighted on the map below. Map 1 Institutional level: Sabha is a large urban network which is under strain, due to the crisis in Libya, funding cuts, power cuts and a general drain on resources have meant the WASH needs of the city are unmet. Some IDPs cannot be reached as they are squatting in illegal settlements and also Sabha has areas of contamination from Explosive Remnants of War. The local authorities admit there are; constant network breakages (both sewage and water), too few desludging trucks and a 19

20 lack of funding for network upgrades. The water is pumped from ground sources, but is largely saline. Water quality tests are infrequent. Water supply: The water association in Sabha has the following work planned. "There is in complete project proposal, has been submitted by the Water Company to provide pure water and drinkable water in Sabha, which is as follow: 1) Implementing the water field proposed in Gudwa road (an area toward Murzuq) to supply pure water, it consists of 15 water wells with 400m depth. 2) Implementing transmitting lines for water and tanks from outside the city (Gudwa) into the city. 3)Maintain the main network and subnet in the city. Note/ Project has started, where two wells have been dug in the water field but works stopped because of the current situation in Libya." (water association KII 2016) Sanitation: As with the water system, the sanitation system for Sabha is largely an underground network. The KII provided the following information (table 1) as to the coverage of the network throughout the city. Table 1 Type of sanitation Underground sewage network 60% Septic tanks (private) 10% Septic tanks (Communal) 5% Basic latrines in need of desludging 3% Other 2% 8 Coverage (of the network that exists, NOT the city) WASH in Schools: These fall under another authority, but evidence suggests few have functional water of sanitation facilities. Generally, educational levels of hygiene knowledge are high. Although more can be done to improve this, especially for female hygiene. 8 "There are sanitation systems which are away from the main network, which is considered no legal, which is being connected with salty wells 25m depth because of the high cost of desludging trucks" (KII 2016) There are a number of IDPs living in unfinished buildings, but local authorities consider them squatters and as such access to work there was not granted. 20