Chapter 3 West Bengal: A Macro Study

Transcription

1 West Bengal: A Macro Study

2 CHAPTER 3 WEST BENGAL: A MACRO STUDY 3.1. A General Overview of the State The State of West Bengal is located in the Eastern part of India, bordering three countries namely Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. The periphery of the State is nestling against borders of five Indian States- namely Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim and Assam. It is known to have porous international borders, specially with Bangladesh which often makes the Census process difficult. The State covers an area of 88,752 sq. km, representing 2.2% of the geographical area of India. According to 2001 Census, the State is divided into 19 districts which numbered 17 in 1991 Census. 1 Figure 3.1: Map of West Bengal 1 The additional districts are obtained by division of Medinipur into East and West and taking Kolkata as a separate unit. 66

3 The physiographic zones of the State start from the Himalayan Mountain Flank in the North and extend to the riverine alluvial plains, to culminate in the marine delta in Bay of Bengal. The State is well known for rich natural resources as well as biological and cultural diversity Population The population of West Bengal was 80,17,61,970 by the 2001 Census. The State s density of population per square kilometer is the highest in the country. West Bengal's figure for density of population is 940 per sq.km as against 324 per sq.km for India (average for 14 major states) 2. The decadal changes in population of the State have been 23.17% over ; 24.73% over and 17.77% over It is obvious that in the last decades, reduction in birth rate has been encouraging. The State also seen a decline in the birth rate from 28.2 per 1000 to 20.7 per 1000 between 1990 and 2000 against a decline from 30.2 to 25.8 per 1000 seen in the All India average. The decline in death rate for the same period was 8.4 to 7.0 per 1000 against the All India Average of 13.6 to 9.3 per West Bengal also recorded a decline in infant mortality rate from 63 to 51 per 1000 against the All India figure of 80 to 68 for the same period. Life Expectancy at birth in West Bengal between was 69 for males and 65 for females which was marginally better than the national average of 65 for males and 64 for females. The percentage change in sex ratio in 2001 over 1991 is 1.8 for West Bengal against 0.6 for India Land Use Land use in West Bengal shows the following picture for West Bengal Development Report ( 2010). 67

4 According to the village papers, that year, the area under agriculture was ,000 hectares. Of this, % was the net area sown; 18.09% was the area not available for cultivation; area under forest was 13.62%; area under current fallows was 3.33% and other uncultivated land excluding current fallows was 1.45%. The basis of land utilization statistics in West Bengal is the nine-fold classification adopted by the Government of India. 3 Of the total area under forest cover, dense forests are in Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri where they are 45.98% and 25.34% of the districts total area. The areas of open forest with crown density of 10 to 40% occur in the Western part of the State viz., Bankura, Purulia, Medinipur where the area is 6% of the total area of the district. In addition there are 2111 km of mangroves, majorly in the 24 Parghanas (S) district. West Bengal has 50% of the total mangroves in India. 4 The data on land use is very important for the present study because delineation of the area under CPRs is only possible with proper and continuous data on land use. There are alterations in land use that are not depicted in data available, for instance, loss of tree area and grazing land; conversion of area under bushes and tiny wetlands in the village for land development and industrial use. These changes in land use have the consequence of CPRs area shrinking Agriculture The States rural bias in terms of population and poor history of industrialization, makes agriculture very important as a means of livelihood. Since 1985, the State saw a turnaround in productivity of agriculture which was caused both by technological and institutional change. Technological change was in the form of HYV seeds, mechanization and a tube well revolution that augmented sizable areas to double cropping. Institutional change, through Operation Bargha affected land ownership and also financing of agriculture substantially improved, making 1980 s highly productive for agriculture in West Bengal. Although the same trend of prosperity did not 3 4 The categories are- Forest; Area not available for cultivation(non agricultural use+ barren and unculturable waste); grazing land; miscellaneous tree crops and groves; culturable waste; other fallow land and net cropped area (Directorate of Agriculture, West Bengal). West Bengal Census (1991). 68

5 continue in the 1990 s, West Bengal continued to be the highest producer of rice among major States in India in However the growth stimulus did not encourage agricultural product diversification. Figure 3.2: Percentage share of area and production under rice, wheat and pulses in total foodgrains in West Bengal during The pie-chart above shows that there was effectively monoculture of rice in West Bengal. Both by the area under crop and estimate of food crop production, rice had more than 90% share. Taking percentage share of production of different agricultural crops, cereals had 68.87%, Pulses were produced with a small percentage share of 6%. West Bengal has 3 crops of rice in the irrigated areas following multiple cropping, namely, autumn rice (aus), winter rice (aman) and summer rice (boro). Boro cultivation is very popular but totally groundwater dependent. It showed an increase in acreage over the decade ( ) from to , 6 However, Boro cultivation is proving to be unsustainable both due to depletion of ground water and the loss of crop diversity it entails Institutional Change The two areas in which remarkable institutional change has occurred in the State are land reforms and decentralization efforts through creation and nurture of Panchayati 5 6 Between to , growth in yield rate for rice was 5.2% for Aus and 4.5% for Aman. Rate of growth per annum for rice was %.( Directorate of Agriculture, West Bengal). Directorate of Agriculture. Government of West Bengal.. 69

6 Raj. These are to be appreciated as pioneering attempts at focusing policies that directly impact the poor in the rural community. Land Reforms Between 1950 and 1955, abolition of the Zamindari and securing tenancy rights on land was achieved by State legislation. But open tenancy was not Common in West Bengal and the popular mode of land leasing was share cropping. Hence, there is need for a land reform policy to regulate terms of share cropping. This was done initially in early 1950 s with West Bengal Bargadari Act which fixed the share of sharecroppers at 60:40, if they provided inputs. But security of tenure was not addressed. A major amendment in the Act came about in 1970 that not only provided security of tenure but also made Barghadari inter generational. By this time the legally approved sharecropper s share had become 75% if the sharecropper provided all the inputs.. But actual implementation was far from this because the registration of Barghadars was partial. Also, contract of sharecropping and seasonal leasing was not always continuous with the same farmer. This resulted in continued eviction of tenants of different contractual types, leading to stoppage of technological improvements on Bargha land. In 1977, the Left Front won the election and for the first time, decisively formulated policy for socialistic transformation of the State via equity in land holding. By this time in rest of India, land reforms had ceased to be the instrument of providing land to the tiller and most critics placed the onus of its success on political will. The victory of the Left Front in West Bengal, truly entrenched political will in the system. Convinced of the efficacy of Land Reforms in providing a swift and sure method of reducing rural poverty, the Left Front government, implemented a unique Land Reform program that was suited to the rural needs of the State and was within the existing legal provisions. Christened Operation Bargha, it became the cornerstone of rural development of the State. Land reforms, vindicating the political will, had multiple agendas of redistribution of wealth and assets to the rural poor, creating incentives to increase agricultural productivity and social empowerment of backward castes that were majorly targeted as beneficiaries. 70

7 For security of tenure, sharecroppers, called Barghadars, needed registration over the share contract itself. But most Barghadars were not registered, making government s land reforms only partially successful. Decentralization Decentralization in West Bengal came in to being as far back as 1919 but was a powerful element of social structure only since 1973, with the constitutional backing of the West Bengal Panchayat Act. It created a three tier structure of the Panchayati Raj institutions namely, Zilla Parishad as the apex body, Panchayat samiti at the Block level and Gram Panchayat at the level of village/clusters (mouja) 7. The system became politically operative and successful since 1978 when elections took place in all levels. The Panchayat election, every 5 years, has continued uninterrupted. 8 Relevance of the information on the institutional structure is very important for the background study of the State. The coherent system of local self government allows, to some degree, planning from below. 9 By convention, all aspects of rural life, namely, provision of village facilities like roads, water supply, primary health centers, education etc. are in the purview of the Panchayat functioning. Central government projects in the areas of irrigation, employment generation and public health also, are implemented through this structure Environmental Details Agro climatic division of West Bengal. The State exhibits all major ecosystem types viz. mountain eco system (Darjeeling district); forest ecosystem (hill forests, forests of Dooars-Terai, forests in Gangetic plains, mangrove forests in Sunderbans); freshwater ecosystem (prevalent in riverine area as well as natural and manmade wetlands and lakes); coastal and marine ecosystems (covering 220 km of coastline in Medinipur, both South and North A mouja can be a single village entity or could be a cluster of small villages. This is a unique practice of West Bengal, continued even now for demarcating boundaries for Census enumeration. Land Reforms and decentralization details from West Bengal Human Development Report( 2004). A 15 member development council in each village meet twice a year to deliberate on plan proposals which are passed on to the Panchayat Samiti up to the State Planning Board. 71

8 districts of 24 Parghanas); semi-arid ecosystem (Purulia, Bankura and Birbhum districts of red laterite zone) and island ecosystem (islands of Sunderbans in the Hugli-Matla estuarine region). The state, in most parts, has a climate that is hot and humid but it has great variability between different regions. 10 There are three main Agro-climatic zones which cover the state. They are Eastern Himalaya, and Bramhaputra valley (EHM); Eastern Plateau Hills (EHG) and lower Gangetic Plain (LG). Due to great diversity in the state, identified by other ecological criteria like soil quality, water quality etc., there are six sub regions within the broad Agro-climatic zones (Fig. 3.3). Figure 3.3: Map of West Bengal showing Agro-Climatic Subregions 10 Considering factors of temperature, humidity and precipitation, there are four climate types namely humid north montane, super humid Terai, semi-humid north and south and sub-humid east and west. 72

9 Northern Hilly Region covers the Northern Part of Jalpaiguri and major portion of Darjeeling District. The area has dense forest, intercepted with terrace cultivation of paddy and plantation, mainly of tea. The area has variability in both temperature and access to rain. The steep slopes in the area has shallow soil depth, poor water retention and ample scope for erosion. So in spite of good fertility of soil, the extension of agricultural area and yield are moderate. Terai Teesta Floodplain Region covers the alluvial plains of Jalpaiguri and Coochbehar, parts of Darjeeling and Uttar Dinajpur. The region has hot humid climate with good soil depth. But 20% of the area is prone to water logging and sand deposits by quick gushing rivers. This plus soil reaction being acidic, makes the region agriculturally, not very prosperous.. Undulating Laterite Region has mixed climate types viz. the hot moist sub humid one, covering parts of Malda and Dakshin Dinajpur of the Gangetic plains and hot dry sub humid type in the western parts of Bardhaman, Bankura, Birbhum, Purulia and Medinipur. The upland areas face the problem of runoff and loss of soil nutrients that make the areas low in agricultural yield and extend the areas not fit for cultivation. The low lands alternately are rich in fertility. Gangetic Floodplain Region covers Nadia, parts of Malda, Dakshin Dinajpur, Murshidabad, Bardhaman, Hugli and two districts of 24 Parghanas. The soil is non acidic and fertile with high potential for retention and recharge of ground water and the region is lush with multiple cropping of paddy, oilseeds and horticultural products. Vindhyan Floodplain Region consists of Western Murshidabad, Hugli, parts of Nadia, and Eastern parts of Birbhum and Bankura, Central parts of Bardhaman and Medinipur and North Haora. The region has hot moist sub humid type climate and high soil fertility but is highly flood prone, due to poor drainage after river outflows of Ajay, Damodar and Bhagirathi. Coastal Floodplain Region is defined by the moist sub humid climate, consisting Haora and East Medinipur districts, lower regions of 24 Parghanas(N), 24 Parghanas (S), including islands of the Sunderbans. The fertile alluvial soils are saline in character. The 73

10 Magnesium in the soil results in non-porosity, making salinity and water logging hazards of the area. Potable water is available only in very deep tube wells. The detailing of the unique ecological features is a crucial part of the study. In the Macro study contained in 3.2, reference point is the agro climatic zones. Also in the Micro study in Chapter 4, selection of villages has been based on the agro climatic sub-regions Hydrological Profile West Bengal is endowed with plentiful water resources but its unique combination of water stressed areas, regions with optimal water availability and highly flood prone regions makes the hydrology of West Bengal very interesting. 11 The complex hydrology of West Bengal can be studied in three ways: Geomorphologically by dividing West Bengal into three broad basins, namely, the Brahmaputra, Ganga-Bhagirathi and Subarnarekha. All three have sub-basins, of which the Ganga-Bhagirathi basin has the greatest influence. Together, these three riverine systems contribute nearly 90% of freshwater surface flow in the State. 12 The greatest influence on the hydrology of West Bengal is of the Ganga-Bhagirathi basin which covers, barring the North districts, the rest of West Bengal. This basin is further subdivided into-mahananda, Punarbhabha and Atrai sub basins in the North of Ganga-Padma river The technical details of the Hydrological Profile of the state is entirely from Satyajit Biswas and K.K.Bhagat (1999) Indian Journal of Earth Sciences, vol.26. The Brahmaputra basin s influence is only in North Bengal through Sankosh, Raidrak, Torsha and Jaldhaka rivers. Most of them originate from the foothills of Himalayas, flow swiftly through Northern Districts and flow into Bangladesh thereafter. Similarly, Subarnarekha river, originating from Ranchi plateau, is active only in the short distance along western boundary of Purulia and south-western Medinipur, then migrates to Orissa briefly and finally joins the Bay of Bengal. Hence its influence is limited only to the South-West of the State. Ganga first touches the southern part of District Malda and is present in the entire expanse of West Bengal in the North which in alliance with Padma, drains into Bangladesh around Murshidabad district and with Bhagirathi forms the major river basin covering most of the State with the exception of the south west region. Mahananda, a river originating from foothills of Himalayas has influence over the region of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri. It traverses Bihar after that and is back into West Bengal along the borders of the Districts Malda and Dinajpur. It then flowing through Malda district, merges into River Padma through Bangladesh. 74

11 Pagla bansloi, Brahmani-Dwarka, Mayurakshi, Silabati (Silai), Kansabati (kasai), Jalangi, Churni and Bhagirathi-Hoogli 14 meet sub-basins to the south, with Rupnarayan, Haldi, Pichabhanga, Rasulpur and Sunderban drainage distributaries sub-basin. Bhagirathi flows alongside Ganga forming the sub-basin (Ganga-Bhagirathi) till it meets the Hoogli river in 24 Parghanas (S), joins with Damodar and Rupnarayan and terminates into the Bay of Bengal with the formation of great delta mouth. The main rivers of the west of the State, starting from Chotanagpur high lands, flowing east through the districts of Birbhum, Burdwan, Purulia, Bankura are Mayurakshi; Ajoy; Damodar and Dwarakeshwar rivers (Fig. 3.4). Figure 3.4: Geomorphological Map of West Bengal 14 Basins/ sub-basins are different hydrological draining areas which regulate the occurrence and movement of surface as well as ground water. They are divided by topographic highs to demarcate different regions. 75

12 Hydrogeologically, the State is divided into three major units called: Consolidated/semi-consolidated formations: These have limited groundwater potentiality in the Northern Himalayan/Sub-Himalayan regions that include districts of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri. The other areas belonging to this unit are the rugged districts of Purulia, Bankura and Birbhum. Both are characterized by high run off leading to low capacity for recharging groundwater. 15 Other areas in the same subgroup include parts of Purulia, Bankura and Medinipur, western part of Burdwan and Birbhum, which have undulating topography and a wide fluctuation in water table. These areas are classified as recharge zones that are water-stressed beyond January and are optimally recharged in the monsoon period. 16 Unconsolidated formations: here again there are two types: (a) Older alluvium comprising silt, clay, sand and kankar on the base rock. 17 These yield aquifers with limited water holding capacity. The areas with existence of pebble beds underneath compared to the other areas with kankar and sand are hydro logically better. They represents moderate recharge zones. (b) Recent alluvium - In these areas, river and floodplain deposits, comprising of clay, silts and gravel result in large, deep and high yielding aquifers. The areas with this aquifer characteristics include the Gangetic floodplain of Murshidabad, Nadia, 24 Parghanas(N) and 24 Parghanas(S). Coastal region aquifers up to 150m have saline water, affecting areas of entire 24 Parghanas(S), part of 24 Parghanas(N), Howrah and parts of Medinipur. This shoreline affliction is a characteristic of coastal saline ecological zone. The Deltaic alluvial zone at and above the estuary has high sediment deposit and the aquifer characteristics differ within the upper delta region. This area represents the greenery of West Bengal. There is rain fed agriculture as well as extensive cultivation of two or more crops with conjunctive use of surface and ground water 18 (Fig. 3.5) These areas need to be conserved for reducing run-off as well as soil erosion through intensive aforestation. Proper rainwater harvesting and watershed development have great scope here. Refer map of Agroclimatic zones. Satyajit Biswas and Bhagat K.K. (1999), Indian Journal of Earth Sciences, vol. 26,

13 Figure 3.5: Hydrogeological Map of West Bengal Geochemically, the water of West Bengal shows different levels and kinds of impurities and hence not only the quantity but the quality of water needs to be monitored. A full discussion on water quality follows in the section on environmental problems Unique Role of Wet Lands in the State From the overview of the surface and ground water profile of the State, it is clear that water is central to the economy of West Bengal as a prime driver of development and well being. The present study looks at the primacy of water resources as Common 77

14 property. Its importance to various rural users cannot be over emphasized. Diversity and endowment of different types of water resources in West Bengal is not complete without looking at the wetlands which play a vital role in providing impounded water sources. The State has nearly 3.5 lakh hectares of wetland area including 54 natural and 9 manmade wetlands of more than 100 hectares. Wetlands in West Bengal are classified into: Wetlands of Gangetic Plains; Coastal wetlands; Wetlands of semi-arid regions and Wetlands of North Bengal. The coastal wetlands are saline and mainly facilitate brackish water fisheries and shrimp culture. The others are used for freshwater fishing, irrigation, wetland vegetation and also for a variety of services. Wetlands may be swamps; large tanks called Dighi meant for commercial fishing; ox bow lakes called baors or beels in the Gangetic flood plains of North and South 24 Parghanas and Nadia All these have locational uniqueness, typifying watersheds of different kinds. The variety of wetlands in different parts of the State is associated with novel utilization of these water bodies. The wetlands in the Gangetic Plains, are surrounded by cultivation of jute. So one of the important commercial use, is retting of jute. However in such wetlands, this commercial use is known to pollute the water body (Fig. 3.6). Figure 3.6: Retting of Jute 78

15 The water body shown here is large, is among the swamps of the Gangetic flood plain. Even in small village ponds, the practice of retting is Common. In such ponds, long periods of retting can lead to eutrophication. Where water is plentiful, wetlands act as a source of livelihood through fishing.an interesting indigenous method of fishing is shown in Figure 3.7. The indigenous fishing technique using cane baskets and a pot is very Common in rural West Bengal. In small village ponds, collection of fish, shells, snails etc is by using sieves and baskets. Figure 3.7: Wetlands: Source of Livelihood Another interesting and unique example of water bodies is that of the abandoned pits of collieries in Bardhaman district. These are manmade sources of water in such dry areas. Some are used as ponds, some for drinking water purposes and some for fishing and irrigation. Figure 3.8 bears testimony to use of these water bodies which depend on rainwater. These over time, due to ingenuity of users, have become perennial water source for this partially dry zone. 79

16 Figure 3.8: Drinking Water Supply from Abandoned Coal Pit Figure 3.9 is of the abandoned coal pit being used as a multipurpose village pond. They are used for irrigation, washing of livestock, other commercial purposes and also are crucial sources of water for domestic use. 19 In most of rural areas of the State, irrespective of the different agro climatic conditions, ponds are widely used as multipurpose water sources. Figure 3.9: Abandoned Coal Pit became Common Pond 19 All the pictures are from the same district Bardhaman (earlier Burdwan), showing creative and diverse use of water bodies. 80

17 Small water bodies in villages called ponds, form a very strong basis for CPWRs in West Bengal. Many ponds are privately owned but in most villages, the ponds are treated de-facto as CPWRs by usage. Looking at the importance of wetlands in the rural life of West Bengal, the West Bengal Inland Fisheries (Amendment) Act 1993 was passed which makes destruction of water bodies, including filling up, a cognizable offence. Typically, wetlands perform the multiple roles of acting as a source of collection of edibles, small inland fishing, household enterprise and mixed household use. Most are stagnant pools of water that are clean with conservation, undertaken by the owners or the community and polluted otherwise. If they are clean like the pukur (pond) (Fig. 3.10), they provide many edibles, within and around the water body and also provide water for mixed domestic use. 20 Figure 3.10: Clean Pond in Mallikpur 24 Parghana(S) Wetlands that are polluted have lesser well being generating possibilities in terms of production of edible items for collectors and also may prove to be cause of health ill being. 20 This is private pond in Mallikpur in 24 Parghanas (S) in which owners allowed villagers to take bath and carry water. 81

18 Most of the wetlands with defined ownership, do better in terms of water quality but in case of open access, the quality gets to be very poor. The Common symptom of degradation can be seen in this large water body in Figure Wetlands normally lose depth by siltation in this manner. Figure 3.11: Siltation in a Common Pond showing Loss of Depth Siltation leads to loss of depth, lower fish catch and potential danger of recurrent floods during rains. Another Common problem that ails water bodies, is growth of water hyacinth. Figure 3.12 shows the complete destruction of the large pond. 21 Figure 3.12: Pollution caused by Water Hyacinth 21 Both these pictures are from Nitai Kundu et al. (1997). 82

19 Use of these larger wetlands give rise to conflicts between users and pollution e.g. the fishermen may prefer the cover of water hyacinth on fishes in very hot weather but farmers who make indigenous fertilizer by drying and burning of the same, will prefer removal of water hyacinth. All over rural Bengal, small ponds on which most poor families depend heavily get polluted due to unrestricted mixed use. Bacterial infestation is very common. So incidence of diarrhea is high, particularly when water levels are low in summer. Then again in heavy monsoon accumulated waste of the village is washed into the water as most poor villages have no system of garbage collection and have open drainage and severe lack of toilets Major Environmental Problems Faced by the State There are at least 3 major areas where environmental problems are serious for the State. Land Degradation A detailed study by the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning 23, on soils of West Bengal found that nearly 63.3% of land was affected by some kind of degradation. The type of degradation was found to be: a. Soil texture limitation (19.57%). b. Surface flooding problem (18.3%) c. Soil erosion problem (12.77%) d. Drainage limitation (4.67%) e. Soil depth limitation (4.44%) f. Soil salinity problem (3.55%) There has not been significant updating of this kind of soil research for the whole State. But land degradation is reported to be only 28.77% by the West Bengal Human Development Report (2004) The inter district picture of village facilities in the Macro study in Chapter 3.2, based on NSS 54 th Round points to this reality. Part of the Micro study analyzes this facet of health well being. National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (1992) Soils of West Bengal: their kinds, distribution, characterization and optimizing land use. West Bengal Human Development Report (2004). 83

20 There are also unique problems that are area specific e.g. landslides in Darjeeling, caused by fast increase in vehicular traffic in a fragile hill environment, deforestation of hill slopes and open violation of land use. Also river erosion specially in the two districts of Malda (where between 1994 and 2004 as many as 22 villages have disappeared) and Murshidabad (which lost nearly 360km. of land). It is feared that the two rivers viz. Padma (belonging to Bangladesh) and Ganga (on the Indian side) may merge with the breaking of a particular embankment. The gnawing of the river creates a new kind of CPR land known as the riparian areas, called Chars in Bengal 25. Same kind of activity of two other river channels of Ajay and Bhagirathi is seen in Bardhaman district where at least 7-8 chars are noticed. The importance of this development lies in the fact that riparian areas are also CPRs where the location of the CPRs shifts over time. Degradation of Water Quality There is extensive degradation of water quality both for surface and groundwater. Apart from salinity in the coastal region, iron and fluoride contamination in many areas are prevalent. This infestation causes deformity in bones, fluorosis, dental caries etc. 26 Proliferation of piped water is very limited in West Bengal, safety of drinking water is crucial. The coverage of piped water in rural West Bengal was just about 1.62% of the rural population. This increased to 8.65% in 1990 and 21.85% in the year The status of coverage in 2010 has improved to 36.66% of the rural population. Therefore, in spite of fast extension in coverage, even at present, coverage is marginally higher than 1/3 of the population. This means, majority of rural population is ground water dependent. Hence safety of drinking water is of utmost importance to the health status of rural people The char may be in a different State altogether e.g. chars in Jharkhand populated by land oustees due to riverine vagaries, depend on Malda in Bengal. They become no man s land with untold misery to inhabitants. High flouride content of mg/1 was first reported in Birbhum district, the safe limit is 1.0 mg/1litre of water. 84

21 Hydrogeologically, the areas underlain by basalt, granite and older alluvium have possibilities of high fluoride. About 6.34m people spread over 63 blocks and 1 municipality were at risk as Ground water show metal toxicity in Kolkata and Howrah like cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel and arsenic. In the industrial belt in Durgapur, there is concentration of zinc and manganese and in some adjoining areas, chloride, sulphate and nitrate. However, the groundwater till now does not show much of bacterial pollution. So, evidence of groundwater pollution is highly probabilistic on illness. A very important source of ground water quality is arsenic infestation of shallow aquifers between 18-80m generally, on the eastern flank of the major Bhagirathi- Hoogly river. In greater or lesser measure, 12 out of 19 districts of West Bengal, over 111 rural blocks were affected by arsenic by 2006 (Fig. 3.13). There are various organizations in the non government sector trying to mitigate the arsenic menace by spreading awareness among villagers about arsenic and teaching cost effective methods for arsenic purification. There are arsenic filters in use in most of the affected areas. The alternative would have been to wean the people away from ground water to piped water but progress in that is very slow and effort is insufficient. In the beginning of IXth Plan, (1997) coverage of rural population for water supply was 71.36% of which piped water was 17.24% and was expected to be 25..3% by Going by the figures of the State Planning Board, achievement in year was 21.85% and in the coverage of rural population of piped water is 36.66%.So the claim of safe water is highly unsubstantiated for rural West Bengal, in the face of contamination of ground water. Figure 3.13 is the Arsenic map of West Bengal.clearly showing the extent of spread of arsenic up to The removal techniques advocated by the NGOs working for this cause are simple which the villagers can operate themselves. But there are areas 27 PHED (2204), the Public Health Engineering Department, Government of West Bengal. 85

22 of uncertainty like whether the disposal of separated arsenic on village land will affect agriculture or if the cured water is indeed safe. However, the fear of arsenic has increased the awareness of water quality even in interiors of the State. Figure 3.13: Groundwater Arsenic Contamination Status in West Bengal (Till September 2006) Loss of Biodiversity In the 20 year period , the State has lost 7 species of mammals, 14 species of birds and 13 species of fish. Apart from the loss of biodiversity in terms of indigenous flora and fauna there has also been loss of genetic diversity in agriculture in West Bengal, particularly in rice varieties A.K.Ghosh (2010) West Bengal Development Report. 86

23 Biodiversity rules for the state have been framed in order to conserve bio-diversity. Creation of Bio-diversity registers for villages has started in West Bengal is the second state after Karnataka to have created them Profile of the State by Village Facilities and Common Property Resources, using NSS Survey Results for West Bengal An Overview of the Findings of the NSS 54 th Round for West Bengal In this section, there is an attempt to look at the NSS survey results for West Bengal, in terms of CPRs availability with respect to land resources and assessing the importance of collections from CPRs of items both for consumption and sale by the rural households. In this all India survey West Bengal s position vis a vis other States of India was observable. In this Macro study of West Bengal, the National Sample Survey (NSS) 54 th Round (1998) primary data has been used. This is the only available All India Survey on Common Property Resources. Other than availability of CPRs, the survey covered village facilities, sanitation and hygiene, water availability as CPWRs and pattern of water use by households. The CPWRs covered in the survey include- Community tube wells; wells for potable water; other sources of potable water; other tanks, ponds by village panchayat and water drawn from river and spring. The data used is only for rural West Bengal. Estimation of CPRs collections by rural households is reported by products. The information on collections is exhaustive in coverage for the following items: Timber; fuel wood; bamboo/ cane/ reeds; kendu leaves; other leaves; thatching material; fodder; edible oilseeds; fruits and other edible food products; lac; gums and resins; non- edible oilseeds; fibers and flosses; tans and dyes; honey; bee-wax; birds and animals; kathha and fish. The collections are separately estimated from each source of CPRs. But sources of collection do not include CPWRs. 87

24 The data available on water using households related to: Principal source of drinking water, distance from the principal source; right of use; sufficiency of water available etc. In addition information on quality of drinking water, including modes of water purification was also observed. Water sources data by use was available for all domestic and commercial purposes. The survey results are presented according to the Agro-climatic regions of the State. The result of the NSS survey of West Bengal gives an insight into the low level of Common property access by rural households. A few tables are presented here: Table 3.1: Per 1000 distribution of Household by availability of CPR land and forest for each climatic zone in West Bengal Zones Forest within reach No Forest but with CPR Land (per hectare) less than or more No. of Household estd. (00) EHm LG EHg All Source: NSS 54 th Round Primary data (1998) All Table 3.1 shows that in all agro-climatic zones of the state, the availability of CPR land is mostly less than 0.4 hectares and large majority of households access to CPR is less than 0.1 hectares. Only around 20% of households have access to forest within the village. Table 3.2: Per 1000 distribution of Households by access to forests within or outside the village in West Bengal Zones Forest within village Forest outside village only Reserved Only Others Reserved Only Others No Forest within or outside the village EHm LG EHg All Source: NSS 54 th Round Primary data (1998) All 88

25 Table 3.2 shows that that 77.7% of households had no access to forests either within or outside the village. However this is an aggregative description that is not looking at areas of forest cover and habitation together. Otherwise, both the Himalayan region and the semi-arid region would not show low access. Table 3.3: Average quantity and value of collection and sale of fuel wood collected from CPRs during last 365 days by category of Households in West Bengal Category of Household Quantity (Qty.) Collection Sale Number of Households Value (Rs) Quantity (Qty.) Value (Rs) Estd. (00) Samples Rural Labour Other with land Less than or more Others: All All Households Source: NSS 54 th Round Primary data (1998) Table 3.3 shows by 365 days recall, the collection of fuel wood both by quantity and value. Collections shown by categories of landless laborers is the highest compared to other categories, but the value of fuel wood collected over one year was at most Rs.286 at 1991 prices. These figures are abysmally low to be used for any meaningful study of income generation by the collecting households. It is very clear that collection is for households own use and not for sale. Table 3.4 shows, in comparison to all States surveyed, West Bengal households collections are of meager value for all products. The high values of collection are only for fish and to some extent leaves, grass etc. 89

26 Table 3.4: Per 1000 distribution of value of collections of selected material from CPRs during last 365 days by type of material for each state State Per 1000 distribution of Value of materials collected All Value of Honey Medicinal collections herbs (Rs. Mil) Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Fruit, roots, tubers etc. Gums & resins Fish Leaves Weeds, grass, bamboo etc Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Andaman Nicobar Islands India Source: NSS 54 th Round Primary data (1998) 90

27 Table 3.5: Number (per 000) of Households residing in villages with Common potable water resources (CPWR) for each climatic zone in West Bengal Zones Community tube wells Number (per 000) of Households living in villages with Community wells Other than tube wells and wells Any CPWR EHm LG EHg All Source: NSS 54 th Round Primary data (1998) Table 3.5 makes it amply clear that Common potable water resources are accessible to more than 97% of rural households. This is encouraging but it also reveals that there is very small dependence on piped water Table 3.6: Number (per 1000) of Households reporting use of other community resources by purpose of use for each climatic zone in West Bengal Zones Community or Government water resources used for Households Irrigation Livestock rearing Household enterprises Fishing Estd. (000) Samples EHm LG EHg All Source: NSS 54 th Round Primary data (1998) Table 3.6 shows use of water resources for a variety of commercial uses. Predominance is noticed in the use of irrigation and livestock rearing. Fishing as a commercial purpose is highest in EHM whereas fishing as an occupation is not that important as compared to the areas of LG. This bewildering result may be explained by the aggregate picture given by diverse areas. The disaggregated look at the pattern is hence useful. The other observation is that the category of government and community water sources is not segregated. So dependence on Common water resources is not clearly visible. 91

28 The details of the data set are very crucial for the present study. Methodology of the NSS for this round served as benchmark for the Micro study of 7 villages (Chapters 4, 5 and 6). The delineation of CPRs, pattern of sampling and Questionnaire design are guided by this Round Inter District Comparison of West Bengal on CPRs and CPWRs This part of the study is based on the original NSS survey but differs mainly in the primary data used. The study uses the NSS 54 th Round data in a disaggregated version, where there are 17 districts of the state. The tabulated results of the original survey points to very low availability as well as very low value of collections from CPR land resources. Hence, the main emphasis in this study is on the CPWRs. The study focuses on following questions: 1. What is the state of access to safe drinking water? 2. Are CPWR important sources of water for domestic use? 3. What kind of deprivation in terms of village facilities exists in these districts? Objectives 1. To get a district wise picture of basic facilities of life in rural West Bengal. 2. To analyze drinking water availability from different sources and see which source dominates. Data Source A disaggregated version of the primary data from NSS survey, 54 th Round (1998) for West Bengal has been used in this part of the study. The total number of districts is 17 (according to census 1991) but the tabulation is for 16 districts as Calcutta, 10 th district is all urban and therefore, not a part of the rural data set. The data is only for rural West Bengal. 92

29 Like in the original survey, the total number of sample households is 5321 covering 340 first stage units chosen from all agro-climatic zones. Methodology Following the NSS structure and noticing the insufficient data on collection from Commons, the methodology followed in this study, is tabulation by districts. Since the data is available on all socio-economic variables, access to CPRs and CPWRs, the tabulation helps one to understand inter-district disparities in many spheres. A major difference between the two studies is in the presentation of results. While the NSS survey presents its results as per agro climatic zones, the results of this study are tabulated by districts. The district wise presentation brings forth the diversity across districts within different agro climatic zones. The data also compares various facets of village facilities to give a comprehensive comparative picture of basic facilities of life across districts of rural West Bengal. Tables are constructed on socio economic details, collection from Commons, water use, water quality and basic facilities in rural West Bengal. Table 3.7: Mean Household size and Standard deviation (by district) Districts Mean Std. Dev. Freq. Coochbehar Jalpaiguri Darjeeling Dinajpur Malda Murshidabad Nadia Parghanas(N) Parghanas(S) Howrah Hoogli Medinipur Bankura Purulia Bardhaman Birbhum West Bengal

30 Taking from the description of households, Table 3.7 shows the average household size is highest in District Malda and the least is in Coochbehar district of North Bengal. Considering the large population and the high population density in West Bengal, the average household size between 5 and 6 is remarkable in the rural setting. Table 3.8: Percentage of Household on the basis of the source of income (by districts) Districts Self Emp in Nonagricultural Agricultural labour Other labour Self Emp in agriculture Others Total Coochbehar Jalpaiguri Darjeeling Dinajpur Malda Murshidabad Nadia Parghanas(N) Parghanas(S) Howrah Hoogli Medinipur Bankura Purulia Bardhaman Birbhum West Bengal In Table 3.8 it is clear that as source of income, the category of agricultural labor dominates, followed by self-employment in non-agriculture. Other employment in terms of rural jobs is insignificant. The maximum percentage of agricultural laborers is in Bankura district followed by Coochbehar and Malda. This is indicative of landlessness and very poor alternatives for employment. 94

31 Table 3.9: Percentage of different Social Groups (by district) Districts Schedule tribe Schedule cast Other backward cast Others Total Coochbehar Jalpaiguri Darjeeling Dinajpur Malda Murshidabad Nadia Parghanas(N) Parghanas(S) Howrah Hoogli Medinipur Bankura Purulia Bardhaman Birbhum West Bengal Table 3.9 is on categories of social groups in which scheduled castes (SC) is the most dominant segment followed by others meaning here the general caste. The highest concentration of general castes is in Howrah; that of SC is in Coochbehar. Jalpaiguri has the highest concentration of the scheduled tribe (ST). Other backward castes are most dominant in Purulia. It is the poorer districts that have lesser concentration of the general caste. In the present work, however, caste difference does not show as a significant deterrent to social cohesion (in the Micro study). 95

32 Table 3.10: Availability and use of CPRs, by district (values in hectares) Districts Village grazing land de facto Village grazing land de jure Village forest de facto Village forest de jure Village site de facto Village site de jure Other barren land de facto Other barren land de jure Coochbehar Jalpaiguri Darjeeling Dinajpur Malda Murshidabad Nadia Parghanas(N) Parghanas(S) Howrah Hoogli Medinipur Bankura Purulia Bardhaman Birbhum West Bengal The NSS Report tabulated data separately for each CPR type. Table 3.10 gives a comprehensive picture across districts on the availability and use of all types of CPRs. The important observation in this table is a definitional distinction between de facto and de jure CPRs The de jure CPRs area will be demarcated on Record of Rights in the village. But people may either usurp rights or have sharing rights of use with consent. In the latter case, the de facto definition is appropriate. In the Micro study, there is an important inclusion in defining CPRs as a source of collection called private property made Common by usage. Particularly in West Bengal, CPWRs use in most villages, are de facto rather than de jure. 96

33 In this table, one can see wide discrepancies between the categories, the most important being Malda and Bardhaman for grazing land and Mednipur for forest. The discrepancy is also large for other barren land, indicating village Common land here. The most drastic difference in this category is in district Medinipur. Mostly the table reveals shrinkage of Common lands. For West Bengal as a whole, the shrinkage in forest is, in particular, very large. The two tables 3.11 and 3.12 are on sources of drinking water and percentage of households using each source across different districts. Other than the areas with a concentration of tea gardens and areas bordering Calcutta in 24 Parghanas (S) and Nadia coverage of piped water is poor. Tube wells are observed as the most dominant drinking water source across West Bengal. In the North Bengal hilly tracks, wells are the most commonly used drinking water source. Table 3.11: Households access to drinking water, according to principal sources (percentage) Districts None Tap Tube well/ hand pump Well Tank/ Ponds Other tank/ ponds River/ canal/ lake Coochbehar Jalpaiguri Spring Darjeeling Dinajpur Malda Murshidabad Nadia Parghanas(N) Parghanas(S) Howrah Hoogli Medinipur Bankura Purulia Bardhaman Birbhum West Bengal