Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators for Transport and Energy Sectors in Asia

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2 Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators for Transport and Energy Sectors in Asia Guidelines for their Development, Measurement, and Use Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center The World Bank DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION January 2012

3 Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators for Transport and Energy Sectors: Guidelines for their Development, Measurement, and Use 2012 Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center Inc. All rights reserved. Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center and The World Bank, Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators for Transport and Energy Sectors: Guidelines for their Development, Measurement, and Use. Pasig City, Philippines. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgment of the source is made. The CAI-Asia Center would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this CAI-Asia Center publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever, without prior permission in writing from the CAI-Asia Center. Disclaimer The views expressed in this publication are those of CAI-Asia Center staff, consultants and management, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Trustees of the CAI-Asia Center. The CAI-Asia Center does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and does not accept responsibility for consequence of their use. Acknowledgments This publication was prepared by the CAI-Asia Center led by Kaye Patdu and Gayle de Leon. Substantial contributions were made by Sophie Punte, May Ajero, Herbert Fabian, Sudhir Gota and Alvin Mejia. This work also benefited greatly from the contributions of others, including Song Su and Zhang Chu from CAI-Asia China Office, Parthaa Bosu and Sameera Kumar Anthapur from CAI-Asia India Office, Dollaris Suhadi and Mariana Sam from Swisscontact Indonesia, Anjila Manandhar from Clean Air Network Nepal (CAN-N), Ahmad Saeed, Saadullah Ayaz and Shahid Lutfi from International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Pakistan, Thusitha Sugathapala from Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority (SLSEA), Phan Quynh Nhu from Vietnam Clean Air Partnership (VCAP), Le Thi Ngoc Quynh from Electricity of Vietnam (EVN) and Le Van Dat from Transport Development and Strategy Institute (TDSI). CAI-Asia is grateful to the World Bank for its support for the work described in this report. Cover Page design by May Ajero and Isabel Bengzon. Contact CAI-Asia Center Unit 3505 Robinsons-Equitable Tower ADB Avenue, Pasig City, 1605 Metro Manila, Philippines center@cai-asia.org CAI-Asia China Office 901A, Reignwood Building No.8 YongAnDongLi Jianguomenwai Avenue Beijing China cpo@cai-asia.org CAI-Asia India Office Regus Elegance Elegance Tower, Jasola New Delhi , India India@cai-asia.org Country Networks China India Indonesia Nepal Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Vietnam DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

4 List of Abbreviations 2W 3W ADB ASEAN ASIF CAI-Asia CNG CO 2 CoP DGF DMT EEA EST GAPF GCIF GDP GHG HCV IEA IEA IPCC ITF LCV LPG MEET MEET MRV MUV NGHGI NOx OECD PM PM Portal SO 2 TERM UNECE UNFCCC UNSD VKT WHO two-wheelers three-wheelers Asian Development Bank Association of Southeast Asian Nations Activity-Structure-Intensity-Fuel Approach Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities compressed natural gas Carbon dioxide Communities of Practice Development Grant Facility Department of Motor Traffic European Environment Agency Environmentally Sustainable Transport Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Global City Indicators Facility Gross Domestic Product greenhouse gas/es Heavy commercial vehicle International Energy Agency International Energy Agency Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Transport Forum Light commercial vehicle liquefied petroleum gas Ministerial Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport measurement, reporting and verification Multi-utility vehicle National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Nitrogen oxide Organisations for Economic Co-operation and Development Particulate matter Particulate matter with diameter of 10 microns or less Clean Air Portal Sulfur dioxide Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism United National Economic Commission for Europe United National Framework Convention on Climate Change UN DESA Division for Sustainable Development vehicle-kilometers travelled World Health Organization i - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

5 List of Tables Table 1: Service Needs Survey of CAI-Asia User-Groups... 1 Table 2: List of Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators and Input Parameters for Transport... 5 Table 3: List of Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators and Input Parameters for Energy... 6 Table 4: Definitions of Transport and Energy Categories... 8 Table 5: Selection criteria for the indicators Table 6: List of Input Parameters According to Availability and Importance Table 7: Structure of the Guidelines Table 8: Vehicle types adopted for the guidelines Table 9: Summary of National Bio-fuels Mandates and Targets in Selected Asian Countries Table 10: Per Capita Trip Rate Default Values (in Number of Trips) Table 11: Default Trip Mode Share (%) Table 12: Default Values for Average Trip Length (kilometers) Table 13: Average Occupancy Table 14: Speed and Emission factors Index (assuming 0 at 50 kmph) Table 15: Fuel Consumption and Emission Factors for Different Vehicles in Asia Table 16: Construction Emission Factors Table 17: Mode Shifts towards Bike Sharing Schemes Around the World Table 18: Heating Value by Fuel Type Table 19: Carbon Emission Factor by Fuel Type Table 20: Percent of Carbon Oxidized Table 21: Calorific Value by Fuel Type Table 22: Particulate Matter Combustion Emission Factor Table 23: Ash Content by Fuel Type Table 24: Sulfur Content by Fuel Type Table 25: Sulfur Retention by Fuel Type Table 26: Net Calorific Value by Fuel Type Table 27: Data Availability of Transport Indicators Table 28: Data Availability of Transport Input Parameters Table 29: Data Availability of Energy Indicators Table 30: Data Availability of Energy Input Parameters List of Figures Figure 1. Relationship of different data levels Figure 2. Fragmented data with consultants Figure 3. Drivers of data generation/collection Figure 4: Simplified calculation flowchart to estimate emissions ii - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

6 Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators for Transport and Energy Sectors: Guidelines for their Development, Measurement, and Use Table of Contents List of Abbreviations... i List of Tables... ii List of Figures... ii 1. Introduction CitiesACT database and Clean Air Portal Scope and Limitations Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators for Transport and Energy Sectors Understanding Indicators and Input Parameters Framework for Selection of Indicators and Input Parameters Structure of the Guidelines Guidelines for Generation, Interpretation and Analysis of AP and GHG Emissions Indicators AP and GHG Emissions Indicators for Road Transport Input Parameters for Indicators for Transport Sector AP and GHG Emissions Indicators for Energy (Electricity Generation) Input Parameters for Indicators for Energy Sector Annexes Annex A Some Indicator Initiatives of International Organizations Annex B Default Values for Transport Input Parameters Annex C Default Values for Energy Input Parameters About CAI-Asia The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) promotes better air quality and livable cities by translating knowledge to policies and actions that reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from transport, energy and other sectors. CAI-Asia was established in 2001 by the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and USAID, and is part of a global initiative that includes CAI-LAC (Latin American Cities) and CAI-SSA (Sub- Saharan Africa). Since 2007, this multi-stakeholder initiative is a registered UN Type II Partnership with more than 200 organizational members and eight Country Networks (China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam). The CAI-Asia Center is its secretariat, a non-profit organization headquartered in Manila, Philippines with offices in China and India. Individuals can join CAI-Asia by registering at the Clean Air Portal: Its flagship event, the Better Air Quality conference, brings together over 500 air quality stakeholders. iii - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

7 1. Introduction Asia has the highest number of megacities with poor air quality, and it also host the world s two fastest growing economies and largest emitters of greenhouse gases (GHG) China and India. Transport and energy sectors account for a significant share in emissions. With the large portfolio of development projects in the region s transport and energy sectors, there will be implications on local air pollution and GHG emissions. To reduce air pollution and GHG emissions from these sectors, policies and management strategies need to be implemented at the national and local levels. This requires credible estimation of these emissions and how they change over time to manage them effectively. It will also require monitoring of the impacts of selected policies and strategies to help evaluate their effectiveness. It is important to be able to measure the current status of air pollution and GHG emissions and to track the progress towards emissions management and reduction. Policy and decision makers (at national and local levels) need to understand the status of air pollution and GHG emissions in the transport and energy sectors, what needs to be improved and how these improvements can be achieved. Further, policymakers will need to understand the implications of selected policies and plans, and their impacts on emissions. This is the purpose of the air pollution and GHG emissions indicators, to support in identifying priorities and track progress of actions taken for transport and energy sectors. There is an urgent need to strengthen air pollution and GHG emissions information, particularly on improving the quality of information available and its regular and timely support in decision-making. Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) s stakeholder s needs survey (2009) also supports this need of decision makers for reliable and up-to date information and analysis (Table 1). Table 1: Service Needs Survey of CAI-Asia User-Groups User group Services needed Strategic goals Policymakers and Facilitate collaboration, experience exchange, Add strategic value to their work decision makers capacity building Provide relevant data and information or to link with experts and organizations who can provide them Help them to make informed decisions Practitioners Inform and raise awareness about emerging issues, trends, latest developments Provide accurate data and data/information exchange Provide reliable and up-to-date data and data analysis Public Raise awareness Involve and mobilize Source: CAI-Asia Several international organizations and conventions have called for improved data availability and quality in the transport and energy sectors especially for Asia. The 2009 Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET) 2009 called for the improvement of the accuracy, adequacy and comparability of statistics on environment and energy for transport to support effective policy making and 1 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

8 assessment of progress as one of the elements necessary in order to achieve their shared long-term vision of realizing low-carbon and low-pollution transport systems that also ensure sustainable development. 1 In addition, in the International Energy Agency (IEA) s 2008 indicator analysis, IEA emphasized the need to improve efforts from government and other stakeholders to improve availability, timeliness, quality and comparability of energy statistics for developing policy-related indicators. 2 The need for better data in government is also expected to increase considerably as climate negotiations call for a more regular and updated national communications by developing countries and for MRV (measurement, reporting and verification) mechanism to assess progress in climate change mitigation. There are several international organizations undertaking initiative relating to indicators. A list of these organizations and their initiatives are provided below (See Annex A for more comprehensive list): Organisations for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) core set of indicators and sectoral indicators; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Sustainable Development (UN-SD) Indicators for sustainable development; CO 2 and energy indicators by the IEA; European Environment Agency (EEA) s Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM); Global City Indicators Facility (GCIF); Work on health indicators by the World Health Organization (WHO); Environmentally Sustainable Cities in Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN): key indicators for clean air, clean water and clean land; United National Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) s Environmental indicators and reporting in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia; World Bank s world development indicators; Asian Development Bank (ADB) s development indicators; and Victoria Transport Policy Institute s sustainable transportation indicators. While there are initiatives which include some of the air pollution and GHG emissions indicators, there are few indicators available for Asian countries and when available, are usually not very detailed. Indicators need to have a solid base in valid and consistent data to it to be reliable and useful. 3 However, it is observed that the range of difference between emissions indicators calculated by one source to another can be very large. Because public access to the supporting data and statistics needed to calculate these indicators (referred to as input parameters in this report) are limited (and often not available at all), there is poor understanding on the reliability of air pollution and GHG emissions indicators for transport and energy sectors in Asia. 1 Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport. (January 2009). URL: 2 IEA, Worldwide Trends in Energy Use and Efficiency: Key Insights from IEA Indicator Analysis. OECD/IEA: France. 3 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, International Energy Agency, Eurostat and European Environment Agency, Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. IAEA, Austria. 2 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

9 The CAI-Asia and the World Bank, through its Development Grant Facility (DGF), has undertaken the Knowledge Partnership for measuring Air Pollution and GHG Emissions in Asia to address these needs and limitations. 4 The objective of this initiative is to help policy makers, development agencies and other stakeholders in Asia have better access to air quality and climate change data to further enrich policy development activities and development interventions relevant to energy and transport sectors and urban development. 5 This initiative supported (1) the development of guidelines for air pollution and GHG emissions indicators for transport and energy sectors and (2) the collection and updating of data and statistics derive indicators. For more information, please visit: This report is composed of two parts: Process for development of air pollution and GHG emissions indicators for transport and energy sectors, including a proposed system for data collection and future updating of data and indicators Guidelines for each indicator and input parameter 1.1 CitiesACT database and Clean Air Portal Information and communication technology has altered the way people manage knowledge - generate data and share information, conduct data analysis, and network with others. The Internet has made human interaction easier to develop and maintain. More and more people are acquiring information online than traditional print media. CAI-Asia, with support from ADB, developed the Clean Air Portal ( to improve knowledge management of clean air, energy and transport in Asia and thereby influence relevant policy- and decision-making processes. The Clean Air Portal ( Portal ) is a website that was established to meet the needs of the three user groups described in the last chapter, thus serving as the first point of entry for policyand decision-makers, practitioners, and the public. The Portal provides a knowledgebase of information and data, as well as a platform for collaboration and exchange of information and experience through so-called Communities of Practice and profiles of registered users. The Clean Air Portal also serves as the website of CAI-Asia. While some data on air pollution and GHG emissions are available, these are usually spread across different agencies and institutions. Often this requires having to contact individual organizations and request the data, which can be in different formats. The process of data collection in this manner is time consuming and inefficient, making it difficult for researchers and policy makers to find relevant data quickly and efficiently. Often the data on air quality or GHG emissions are presented in isolation from data on population, economy, energy and transport structure. This makes it more difficult to utilize the data for effective policy making. CAI- Asia, in cooperation with the Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum (GAPF) also developed an online database called the CitiesACT to provide users with comprehensive, quantitative parameters on air quality, climate 4 World Bank provided DGF Funding for CAI-Asia under the Knowledge Partnership for measuring Air Pollution and GHG Emissions in Asia Project. For more information on CAI-Asia s work on GHG and AP indicators for transport and energy sectors, please visit: 5 Asia region described herein includes countries covered by CAI-Asia, prioritizing countries with which CAI-Asia has country networks in place, and other countries such as --- (see CAI-Asia Strategy/Business Plan) 3 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

10 change and transport ( CitiesACT was adapted to incorporate credible input parameters and derived GHG and air pollutant indicators for 13 countries and 24 cities for the transport and energy sectors Scope and Limitations For this report, the transport sector is limited to road-based transport and the energy sector is limited to electricity generation. Emissions considered as representative indicators of AP and GHG emissions in the transport and energy sectors are Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), Nitrogen oxide (NO x ), Particulate matter (PM) and Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ). Specifically, indicators for CO 2, NO 2 and PM emissions are considered relevant for road transport while indicators for CO 2, SO 2 and PM emissions are relevant for electricity generation. 6 The project initially collected information for eight countries where CAI-Asia has country networks and expanded to 5 countries. 4 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

11 2. Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators for Transport and Energy Sectors The air pollution and GHG emissions indicators for transport and energy are listed in Error! Not a valid bookmark self-reference. and Table 3. There are 45 indicators, with 24 indicators for transport sector and 21 indicators for energy. This chapter will discuss the framework used for the selection of the indicators and input parameters. Table 2: List of Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators and Input Parameters for Transport Transport Air Pollution and GHG emission Indicator for Transport T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Total CO 2 emissions from road transport Road transport CO 2 emissions per GDP Road transport CO 2 emissions per capita Road transport CO 2 emissions per passenger km Road transport CO 2 emissions per freight ton-km Road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle type Road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle-fuel type Total PM emissions from road transport Road transport PM emissions per GDP Road transport PM emissions per capita Road transport PM emissions per passenger km Road transport PM emissions per freight ton-km Input Parameters Average vehicle-kilometers traveled (VKT) Vehicle population Fuel efficiency Emission factor Fuel characteristics Total CO 2 emissions from road transport Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Total CO 2 emissions from road transport Total population Average occupancy Passenger kilometer travelled Total CO 2 emissions from road transport Average load Freight ton-kilometer travelled Total CO 2 emissions from road transport Average VKT Vehicle population per vehicle type, vehiclefuel type Fuel efficiency Emission factor Fuel characteristics Average VKT Vehicle population Fuel efficiency Emission factor Fuel characteristics Total PM emissions from road transport GDP Total PM emissions from road transport Total population Average occupancy Passenger kilometer travelled Total PM emissions from road transport Average load Freight ton-kilometer travelled 5 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

12 Transport Air Pollution and GHG emission Indicator for Transport Input Parameters Total PM emissions from road transport T13 T14 Road transport PM emissions per vehicle type Road transport PM emissions per vehicle-fuel type Average VKT Vehicle population per vehicle type, vehiclefuel type Fuel efficiency Emission factor Fuel characteristics T15 T16 T17 T18 T19 T20 T21 Total NO x emissions from road transport Road transport NO x emissions per GDP Road transport NO x emissions per capita Road transport NO x emissions per passenger km Road transport NO x emissions per freight ton-km Road transport NO x emissions per vehicle type Road transport NO x emissions per vehicle-fuel type Average VKT Vehicle population Fuel efficiency Emission factor Fuel characteristics Total NO x emissions from road transport GDP Total NO x emissions from road transport Total population Average occupancy Passenger kilometer travelled Total NO x emissions from road transport Average load Freight ton-kilometer travelled Total NO x emissions from road transport Average VKT Vehicle population per vehicle type, vehiclefuel type Fuel efficiency Emission factor Fuel characteristics T22 Road transport total fuel consumption Fuel consumption from road transport T23 T24 Road transport fuel consumption per capita Road transport fuel consumption per GDP Road transport total fuel consumption Total population Road transport total fuel consumption GDP Table 3: List of Air Pollution and GHG Emissions Indicators and Input Parameters for Energy Energy Air Pollution and GHG emission Indicator for Energy E01 Total CO 2 emissions (from electricity generation) E02 CO 2 emissions by source type (generation) E03 CO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) Input Parameters Total electricity generation by source type Emission factor (CO 2 ) Electricity generation by source type Emission factor (CO 2 ) Total electricity generation Emission factor (CO 2 ) 6 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

13 E04 E05 E05 E07 E08 E09 E10 E11 E12 E13 E14 E15 E16 E17 E18 Energy Air Pollution and GHG emission Indicator for Energy CO 2 emissions by end-use sector (consumption) CO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) CO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) Total PM emissions (from electricity generation) PM emissions by source type (generation) PM emissions per kwh (generation) PM emissions by end-use sector (consumption) PM emissions per GDP (consumption) PM emissions per capita (consumption) Total SO 2 emissions (from electricity generation) SO 2 emissions by source type (generation) SO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) SO 2 emissions by end-use sector (consumption) SO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) SO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) Input Parameters Electricity consumption by end-use sector Emission factor (CO 2 ) Total CO 2 emissions from electricity consumption GDP (Constant US$) Total CO 2 emissions from electricity consumption Total population, urban population, population with access to electricity Total electricity generation by source type Emission factor (PM) Electricity generation by source type Emission factor (PM) Total electricity generation Emission factor (PM) Electricity consumption by end-use sector Emission factor (PM) Total PM emissions from electricity consumption GDP (Constant US$) Total PM emissions from electricity consumption Total population, urban population, population with access to electricity Total electricity generation by source type Emission factor (SO 2 ) Electricity generation by source type Emission factor (SO 2 ) Total electricity generation Emission factor (SO 2 ) Electricity consumption by end-use sector Emission factor (SO 2 ) Total SO 2 emissions from electricity consumption GDP (Constant US$) Total SO 2 emissions from electricity consumption Total population, urban population, population with access to electricity E19 Total electricity consumption Total electricity consumption E20 E21 Electricity consumption per GDP Electricity consumption per capita Total electricity consumption GDP (Constant US$) Total electricity consumption Total population, urban population, population with access to electricity 7 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

14 Table 4: Definitions of Transport and Energy Categories Definitions of Categories Vehicle type two- wheelers (2W) three-wheelers (3W) Passenger car Multi-utility vehicle (MUV) Light commercial vehicle (LCV) Heavy commercial vehicle (HCV) Bus Transport Fuel type Diesel Gasoline Others o CNG o LPG o Electric Capita (Population) Urban population Population with access to electricity Energy Source type Coal Oil Natural gas (not included for SO 2 ) End-use sector Residential Commercial Industrial Transport Others Own-use and losses Notes: 1. Transport is limited to road transport while for energy, indicators are limited to electricity generation. 2. For Energy: Indicator will be calculated at the national level. 3. For Energy: The CO 2 emissions indicators described herein only refers to CO 2, and not CO 2 -eq. 4. For Energy: SO 2 emissions per source type only include coal and oil. 5. For Energy: Total electricity consumption includes transmission and distribution losses. 2.1 Understanding Indicators and Input Parameters An indicator is a variable based on measurements or derived from input parameters, representing, as accurately as possible and necessary, a phenomenon of interest. 7 While an input parameter is a property that is measured or observed that is used in the calculation/derivation of an indicator. Adapting this definition, an air pollution and GHG emissions indicator for transport and energy is a variable, derived from input parameters, which represents the emissions as a result of these sectors (or factors which may cause emissions, as accurately as possible and necessary. Indicators perform many functions. They can support better decisions-making and more effective actions by simplifying, clarifying and making aggregated information available to policy makers. 8 They are essential tools 7 Joumard, R. and Gudmundsson, H., (Eds) Indicators of environmental sustainability in transport: a interdisciplinary approach to methods. INRETS report, Recherches R282, Bron, France. 8 United Nations Development of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA), Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. 3 rd Ed. United Nations, New York. 8 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

15 for communicating issues to policymakers and to the public, and for promoting institutional dialogue. 9 Joumard, R. and Gudmundsson, H., (Eds) (2010) characterized the general policy-type functions (supporting decision-making or policy development) of indicators as: Focus function What is important? Descriptive function What is the situation? Where are we going? Assessment function How are we doing relative to previous year/standard/target/reference point? Diagnostic function What is wrong? How much is due to different factors? Prioritizing What should we do? Accountability function Who is responsible? Learning/ Improving function How can we improve? How can we do better? Communicating How can it be shown? This work focuses on indicators describing and assessing what is going on in terms of emissions in the transport and energy sectors. While indicators are useful, it is necessary to be aware of the inherent limitations of an indicator for proper use and interpretation. Several of limitations in indicators are influenced by the input parameters used its derivation. Practical issues that must be taken into consideration include the scope and quality of input parameters used to derive an indicator, the data sources and collection procedure, presentation and interpretation of indicators. 10 Each indicator should be read and interpreted in reference of a country s individual circumstances. 11 These practical issues are addressed in these guidelines and are discussed for each of the selected indicators and input parameters. 2.2 Framework for Selection of Indicators and Input Parameters Approach A theme/issue-based framework was used in identifying indicators. The indicators selected were specifically focused on describing and assessing transport- and energy-related air pollution and GHG emissions. In relation to the UN-SD Indicators for Sustainable Development, the selected indicators are categorized under the Atmosphere theme International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, International Energy Agency, Eurostat and European Environment Agency, Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. IAEA, Austria. 10 WHO, Reproductive Health Indicators: Guidelines for their generation, interpretation and analysis for global monitoring. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 11 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, International Energy Agency, Eurostat and European Environment Agency, Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. IAEA, Austria. 12 UN-DESA, Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. 3 rd Ed. United Nations, New York. 9 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

16 Criteria for the selection of Indicators The selection of indicators is, to a large extent, determined by the purpose of the indicator set. 13 The purpose of these indicators is to: Describe the state of air pollution and GHG emissions in the transport and energy sectors; Assess and measure their trends and tendencies, based on a reference point; and Support in identifying priorities and track progress of actions taken for transport and energy sectors. It is also important to note that indicators in isolation do not provide comprehensive insights. It is necessary to assess many indicators and linkages between different indicators to get a more comprehensive understanding of a situation. Aside from their purpose, there are other criteria taken into consideration in identifying and selecting emissions indicators for transport and energy sectors (listed in Table 5). Table 5: Selection criteria for the indicators Criterion Demand-driven Explanation/Description In identifying and selecting indicators, it is necessary to identify the primary users of the indicators and what they need to know/ need indicators to address. The proposed indicators are intended for use primarily by Policy-makers and decision-makers at national and local levels (especially useful for official national indicator sets, policy development support, international reporting mechanisms, others); International and regional strategies and indicator programmes (e.g., Bangkok 2020 Declaration); Development organizations and financial institutions (understanding trends of air pollution and GHGs emissions in the region is needed to proactively manage risk and enhance quality of their operations). An indicator must be a valid, specific, sensitive and reliable reflection of that which it purports to measure. Scientifically robust A valid indicator must actually measure the issue or factor it is supposed to measure. A specific indicator reflects only changes in the issue or factor under consideration. The sensitivity of an indicator depends on its ability to reveal important changes in the factor of interest. A reliable indicator must give the same value if its measurement were repeated in the same way on the same population and at almost the same time. Source: WHO, UN-DESA, Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. 3 rd Ed. United Nations, New York DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

17 Criterion Measurable Data availability Explanation/Description A measurable indicator should be straight-forward and relative inexpensive to measure. Source: Dale and Beyeler, Input parameters required to calculate an indicator should be available or relatively easy to acquire by feasible data collection methods that have been validated in field trials. Source: WHO, The data have to be accurate, comparable over time, complete with historical information and covering sufficient geographic area. Source: Boyle, Indicators will be easily estimated if input parameters are already regularly measured or collected by other organizations/institutions. An indicator must adequately encompass all the issues or sectors it is expected to cover. Source: WHO, Emissions considered as representative indicators of air pollution and GHG emissions in the transport and energy sectors are CO 2, NO x, PM and SO 2. Specifically, indicators for CO 2, NO 2 and PM emissions are considered relevant for road transport while indicators for CO 2, SO 2 and PM emissions are relevant for power generation. General information on these pollutants is provided below. CO 2 emissions Representative Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most important greenhouse gas as it accounts for the largest proportion of anthropogenic emissions and is currently responsible for about half of the global warming impact. CO 2 also has a longer lifetime than other greenhouse gases. The global warming potential (GWP) of CO 2 (measured as CO 2 -eq) is often considered the unit of measure of the warming effect of GHGs over a 100-year timeframe. The concentration of CO 2 is increasing mainly due to anthropogenic activities and deforestation. More extreme weather events in the form of increased storms, rainfall, and drought are predicted. Although there is no forecast on the frequency and location of these events, developing countries are expected to adapt to their effects i.e. floods, landslides, and alike. NO x emissions Nitrogen oxides (NOx) is a general set of pollutants including Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), Nitric oxide (NO), Nitrous acid (HNO 2 ) and Nitric acid (HNO 3 ). Aside from direct emission from vehicular sources, the majority of NOx emissions are in the form of Nitrogen oxide (NO), which is subsequently oxidized by ozone (O 3 ) in the atmosphere to form the secondary pollutant NO 2. It is a major source of tropospheric ozone in the presence of hydrocarbons and ultraviolet light, thus playing an important role in determining ambient O 3 concentrations. NO 2 is also a key precursor of nitrate particles which form an important fraction of ambient particulates with diameter of 2.5 microns or less (PM 2.5 ). As a strong oxidant, it causes a range of respiratory and pulmonary 11 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

18 Criterion Explanation/Description complications and adverse birth outcomes. PM emissions Particulate Matter (PM) is a complex mixture of extremely small solids and liquid droplets. PM is emitted with the combustion of fossil fuels for energy. They can also be formed by precursors chemically transformed in the atmosphere. Particle pollution is a serious environment, economic, and health problem. In 2001, the WHO estimated the total number of PM-related premature deaths to be approximately 2.5 million deaths per year worldwide, at least half of which are due to outdoor air pollution in Asia. SO 2 emissions Understandable Transparency Ethical Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) belongs to a family of sulfur oxide gases (SOx). It is formed from the combustion of sulfur-containing raw materials such as coal and metal-containing ores as well as in oil refining process. SO 2 has adverse effects on human health causing series of respiratory and pulmonary disorders. SO 2 can be transported over large distances creating sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) causing regional acid rain. Additionally, sulfate particles are known to combine with other compounds in the atmosphere, such as ammonia, to contribute to the secondary formation of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ). An indicator must be simple to define and its value must be easy to interpret. Source: WHO, A transparent indicator is one which is feasible to understand and possible to reproduce for intended users. The input parameters, assumptions, methods, models and theories must be accessible. Transparency allows the user to check the calculation and therefore to trust in the figures. Transparency is associated with but not identical to simplicity. A simple indicator may be more attractive because it easier to show how it is produced. However, complex indicators may also be transparent if the methodology is well justified, well defined and well explained. Source: Joumard, R. and Gudmundsson, H., (Eds) An indicator must be seen to comply with basic human rights and must require only data that are consistent with the morals, beliefs or values of the local population. Source: WHO, Criteria for the selection of Input Parameters As previously discussed, several limitations in indicators are influenced by the input parameters used its derivation. Availability of good quality, timely, comparable and reliable input parameters is a prerequisite for establishing and maintaining policy-relevant air pollution and GHG emissions indicators. An initial list of input parameters were derived based on known methodologies used for calculating air pollution and GHG emissions from on-road transport and from energy sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

19 Subsequently, data mapping tools were developed and implemented to understand the availability and quality of these input parameters. The mapping exercise also included the following information for each data parameter: Institutional responsibility for data collection, management and dissemination; Frequency and reliability of data collected; and Existing quality assurance mechanisms employed by institutions in data collection. Data availability, quality and relevance for deriving an indicator were the main considerations in selecting the input parameters. Data mapping activities were undertaken in 13 Asian countries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Summary results are presented in Table 6, with focus on the availability and importance for assessing air pollution and GHG emissions from transport and energy sector. The selected input parameters to be used are also specified. The information included in the table includes: Importance: The column indicates level of importance of the input parameter for deriving an indicator. 1 = High, required in order to derive indicator, 2 = Medium, also necessary to derive an indicator but can be replaced/supported with other input parameters, 3 = Low, would be nice to have, but not necessary. Availability: Denotes availability of data. 1 = High, available in most countries, 2 = Medium, available in many countries, 3 = Low, unlikely to be available or available only in few countries. Quality: Provides an indication of data quality. 1 = High, reliable and of good quality, 2 = Medium, generally usable but with caveats, 3 = Low, poor and unreliable in most instances. Remarks: Other remarks/comments specific to each input parameter. While data availability does vary from one country to another, this provides the general indication of data availability and quality for Asian countries. Auxiliary Statistics and other indicators To be able to benchmark the air pollution and GHG emissions from different countries or cities, auxiliary statistics, such as socioeconomic parameters, will be used as normalizing factors. Some of these statistics include: Population (Total, urban, population with access to electricity) Gross domestic product (GDP) For road transport, fuel type, vehicle type and vehicle-fuel type are parameters that will form basis for the disaggregation of transport indicators. For power generation, another normalizing factor is kilowatt-hours (kwh), which is a measure of electricity consumption. These statistics may serve as necessary components in deriving the indicators, or as a complement in their analysis and interpretation DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

20 By Vehicle Type By Fuel Type By Age of Vehicles By Vehicle Technology By Engine Size To be Used Table 6: List of Input Parameters According to Availability and Importance Transport Remarks ASIF 1st Level Option Second Level I A I A I A I A I A Activity Structure Average VKT of vehicles Vehicle Population Average occupancy a b a b c Average odometer readings Average Trip length Average number of trips Traffic count (in-use) Vehicle Registration Vehicle Production n/a n/a d Vehicle Sales e Vehicle Imports a Average number of Data is only available for certain years, not in time-series. Most MCs do not conduct regular national household surveys. Rarely available. May by available for some major roads for specific years (typically linked with infrastructure/ other projects) In many countries, official data is not reliable. As such, there is a need to understand the process of data collection. Data is typically disaggregated by vehicle-fuel type. Data is only available for certain years, not in time-series DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

21 By Vehicle Type By Fuel Type By Age of Vehicles By Vehicle Technology By Engine Size To be Used Remarks ASIF 1st Level Option Second Level I A I A I A I A I A (passenger vehicles) passengers/trip Average load (freight vehicles) a Average load/ trip Intensity Fuel Fuel Efficiency Emission Factor Fuel Characteristics a b a b Average fuel efficiency Average fuel efficiency at average speed Speed adjustment factor Emission factor (amount/ distance) Fuel characteristicssulfur content Fuel characteristicsbiofuel blend n/a n/a 1 1 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 1 1 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Data is only available for certain years, not in time-series. Initial information collected by Authors. Fuel characteristicscarbon content n/a n/a 1 1 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 15 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

22 Other Importance Availability To be Used Population 2 1 GDP 2 1 % Urban Population 2 1 Fuel demand 3 2 Fuel Pump Price 3 2 Pedestrian Count 3 3 Total government investment in transport infrastructure 3 2 Length of transport infrastructure 3 1 Cycling tracks 3 2 Rating of walking infrastructure 3 3 I = Importance for deriving indicators A = Availability *Indicates level of importance for deriving indicators: 1 = High, 2 = Medium, 3 = High **Indicates level of data availability: 1 = High, 2 = Medium, 3 = High Energy Focus Area Input Parameters Importance* Availability** To be Used General GDP 2 1 Electricity generation Population 2 1 Urban Population 2 1 Population with access to electricity 2 2 Total electricity generation 1 1 Electricity generation by source type 1 1 Coal 1 1 Oil 1 1 Natural gas DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

23 Focus Area Input Parameters Importance* Availability** To be Used Electricity consumption Emission Factors Total electricity consumption 1 1 Electricity consumption by end-use sector 1 1 Industry 1 1 Commercial 1 1 Residential 1 1 Transport 1 1 Others 1 1 Own Use (consumption) 2 2 Losses o Generation Losses o Transmission Losses 2 2 Heat rate 2 2 Carbon emission factor 2 2 Combustion efficiency 2 2 Calorific value 2 2 PM per kg/ton-fuel 2 2 Sulfur content of fuel 2 2 Sulfur retention in ash 2 2 Abatement efficiency 2 2 Net calorific value 2 2 *Indicates level of importance for deriving indicators: 1 = High, 2 = Medium, 3 = High **Indicates level of data availability: 1 = High, 2 = Medium, 3 = High Indicates data quality: 1 = High, 2 = Medium, 3 = High 17 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

24 Observations on transport and energy data availability and quality in Asia 14 Limitations of transport and energy data have been documented in several publications and have also been observed through the data mapping exercise. Some of these limitations are: 1. Available and accessible data are usually presented at very high levels of aggregation Data can be collected and reported at various levels of aggregation. 15 As presented in Box 1, during vehicle registration, vehicle data per vehicle make, engine type, and others is usually collected, but vehicle registration data reported are usually summary statistics total vehicles registered by vehicle type and fuel type. Often, it is aggregate data which is easily available and very seldom is disaggregated data provided. 2. Fragmented data generation The data mapping exercise also highlighted the relationship of different data levels. As illustrated in Error! Reference source not found., plenty of information is generated at the city and/or province level; however, these are usually stored at the local levels, unless required by the national government. This is also observed with data collected by consulting firms engaged by government agencies for different purposes. Only processed data is reported back to government agencies. This result in an abundance of segmented information which is usually not consolidated (Figure 2). This similar dynamic is observed with project level data and data from institutions. 3. Routine data generation/collection usually not done for activity data Often, activity data needed for estimating emissions are not routinely collected, or if they are collected, are often of limited scope or are outdated. Most are collected on an ad hoc basis for project specific purposes. When data is available, information/indication of data quality are not provided. The methodology used in data collected and/or generation is not always clear. 4. Lack of harmonized classification One of the observations from the data mapping exercise is that definitions of statistics and input parameters may vary within and between countries. In the Philippines, for instance, different government agencies use varying vehicle classifications. The vehicle classification used by the Land Transportation Office is not the same with the one used by the Department of Trade and Industry or the Bureau of Customs. The same is also observed when attempting to consolidate data across countries within the region. While there are initiatives for a harmonized classification system (e.g., ASEAN level), it is still a lengthy process. 14 This is based on Patdu, K., Availability, quality and use of transport and energy data in Asia: A regional case study. Presented at Data and Indicators for Sustainable Cities Session, Better Air Quality (BAQ) Singapore, 8 November Available online: 15 The Center for Clean Air Policy, Data & Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs. Report 1: Data Availability. Washington, D.C. Available online: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

25 The government s response time to classify emerging vehicle types usually takes a long time, as in the case of electric vehicles. This may result to vehicle types which are unaccounted for in national vehicle fleet counts but are already being used. Box 1. Vehicle registration data flow in Sri Lanka. During registration for new vehicles, the Department of Motor Traffic (DMT) collects several information including vehicle make and model, engine number, purpose of use and others. In-use vehicles pay the annual revenue license wherein vehicle class, fuel use, vehicle weight are collected. However, data reported by Department of Census and Statistics is very limited and aggregated. In this case, only vehicle registrations by vehicle class and fuel used are available. This is usually the most easily accessible information to data users. Data quality checks usually also decrease as moving up from the data generator/source (DMT) to those disseminating the information; thus increasing potential for errors and uncertainties. Source: CAI-Asia, Figure 1. Relationship of different data levels Figure 2. Fragmented data with consultants Source: CAI-Asia, Source: CAI-Asia, DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

26 Some considerations in understanding data availability and quality in Asia 16 There are a lot of data issues for estimating emissions in Asia. To move towards addressing these issues, it is necessary to gain understanding of the data sources and factors influencing availability of data for emissions estimates in transport and energy sectors. It is important to take note that the type of data generated is influenced by their specific purpose, on its intended use which may not always be for estimating emissions. This is why data for emissions measurements is often lacking. The type of data generated and/or collected by a source is influenced by their specific need/purpose. In the Philippines, for instance, the Land Transportation Office collects vehicle registration data for regulation and enforcement purposes. Road accidents data is collected by the Department of Public Works and Highways for identification of accident black spots. Figure 3. Drivers of data generation/collection This purpose directly influences the data that will be available. If not needed, the data simply gets stored in databases or lost in paperwork. Traditionally, policy, planning, enforcement and regulation have been the main drivers in data collection. Often, data needed for these purposes are routinely collected or by demand (policy and planning need). While data collection/generation for estimating emissions have become an emerging driver, but it is still just one of many data generation drivers. Usually data for estimating emissions are still collected on an ad hoc basis. With estimating emissions emerging as a driver for data collection, there should be a way to match data available with the data requirements for estimating emissions. 16 This is based on Patdu, K., Availability, quality and use of transport and energy data in Asia: A regional case study. Presented at Data and Indicators for Sustainable Cities Session, Better Air Quality (BAQ) Singapore, 8 November Available online: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

27 2.3 Structure of the Guidelines Separate guidelines is provided for indicators and input parameters. Table 7 presents the general structure used for each of the indicators and input parameters. Table 7: Structure of the Guidelines Indicator Indicator name Indicator code Brief definition Unit of measurement Policy relevance (purpose; international conventions and agreements; international targets/recommended standards) Methodology (measurement methods; sub- and associated indicators; limitations of the indicator) Other agencies/organizations using this indicator References Input Parameter Input parameter name Brief definition Unit of measurement Data sources (source, description and limitations) Periodicity of data collection Disaggregation For which indicators is this needed for calculation References 21 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

28 3. Guidelines for Generation, Interpretation and Analysis of AP and GHG Emissions Indicators 3.1 AP and GHG Emissions Indicators for Road Transport T1 TOTAL Carbon dioxide (CO2) EMISSIONS FROM ROAD TRANSPORT Indicator Code T1 Brief Definition Road transport emissions of Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Unit of Measurement: Million metric tons of CO 2 POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose According to the 2008 IEA estimates, the transport sector accounts for 23% of the overall CO 2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion globally. Road sector emissions dominate transport emissions with light-duty vehicles accounting for the bulk of emissions globally. Road transport demand has dominated the demand for energy in the transport sector and is expected to continue to do so. This is especially significant for Asia where increasing motorization and urbanization trends, among others, are observed. This indicator can be used to measure the trends of CO 2 emissions from road transport and aid in evaluating the effectiveness policies and measures. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

29 Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. The protocol was adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on February 2005, sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol is set to end in (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. There are a number of countries which set emission reduction targets in the transport sector as part of their national targets. This includes transport-specific GHG reduction targets set by Japan 17 and the Netherlands 18 and the proposed EU mandatory targets for non emissions trading system sectors which de facto include a large transport component (ITF, 2010). Nonetheless, there are several local, national, regional policies, strategies and declarations for aimed at reducing emissions from transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods Estimating total CO 2 emissions from road transport can be done using either a top-down or a bottom-up approach. Top-down Approach Tier 1 or 2 Approach as specified in Chap3.2, Vol 2 of 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories Total CO 2 emissions from road transport can be calculated based on the aggregate amount of fuels combusted for transport and type of fuel combusted (taken to be equal to the fuel sold for road transport) and its carbon content. This calculates CO 2 emissions by multiplying estimated fuel sold with a CO 2 emission factor: Emission =Σ[Fuel a EF a ] a Where: Emission = Emissions of CO 2 (kg) Fuel a = fuel sold (L) EF a = emission factor (kg/l). This is equal to the carbon content of the fuel multiplied by 44/12. a = type of fuel (e.g. petrol, diesel, natural gas, LPG etc) 17 Absolute target of 250 Mt CO2 from transport in 2010 from a baseline of 260 Mt in 2002 (compare to 217 Mt in 1990) which represents 24 Mt below the 2010 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010). 18 Transport GHG emissions to be cut by Mt below the 2020 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

30 Convert kg to million metric tons using conversion factors below: 1 kg = 1000 grams 1 gram = 1.0 x 10-6 metric tons If local emission factors are not available, default emission factors will be used. A list of default values are provided in 24 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

31 Annex B. Bottom-up Approach ASIF Approach, adapted from Schipper and Marie 1999; Schipper, Gorham, and Marie, The transport sector consists of a diverse set of activities, connected by their common purpose of moving people and goods. Broadly speaking, emissions (G) in the transport sector are dependent on the level of travel activity (A) in passenger kilometers (or ton-km for freight), across all modes; the mode structure (S); the fuel intensity of each mode (I), in liters per passenger-km; and the carbon content of the fuel or emission factor (F), in grams of carbon or pollutant per liter of fuel consumed. The relationship between these parameters is represented mathematically by the ASIF equation. G =A * S * I * F Where: G = CO 2 emissions A = Activity (total transport activity) S = Structure (travel shares by mode and vehicle type) I = Intensity (modal energy intensity) F = Fuel (carbon content of fuels) Figure 4 illustrates a simplified calculation flowchart to be used in estimating emissions from road transport using ASIF approach. Further guidance on these input parameters are provided in the succeeding succeeding chapters. Selection of these input parameters was based on the results of the data mapping exercise. If local values (emission factors, occupancy, average occupancy and others) are not available, default values will be used. A list of default values are provided in 25 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

32 Annex B. Figure 4: Simplified calculation flowchart to estimate emissions While the IPCC has also defined a bottom-up approach (details provided below), the ASIF approach will be used as it allows estimation of the impact of changing parts of the complex transport system that affect CO 2 emissions, whether transport activity, fuels, or vehicles. This approach allows planning of technical and policy research on how to affect emissions from transport. The same approach allows estimation of how specific investments in new transport systems (e.g., metros or BRT) or technology (e.g., hybrid vehicles or signal timing systems) would affect emissions. Since CO 2 emissions depend on 26 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

33 emissions per vehicle km or emissions intensity and distance travelled, relating the impact of transport policies to CO 2 emissions requires good knowledge of these activity parameters. More information available in Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Bottom-up approach as defined in IPCC Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories The bottom-up approach estimates emissions in two steps. The first step is to estimate fuel consumed by vehicle type i and fuel type j. Fuel Consumption ij = n ij k ij e ij Where: i = vehicle type j = fuel type n = number of vehicles k = annual kilometres travelled per vehicle e = average litres consumed per kilometre travelled Next, estimate total CO 2 emissions by multiplying fuel consumption by an appropriate emission factor for the fuel type and vehicle type. Where: i = vehicle type j = fuel type Emissions =ΣiΣj [Emission Factor ij Fuel consumption ij ] (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by vehicle type, vehicle-fuel type, passenger km and freight ton-km. This indicator is also frequently assessed on the per capita or per GDP basis. Road transport CO 2 emissions per GDP Road transport CO 2 emissions per capita Road transport CO 2 emissions per passenger km Road transport CO 2 emissions per freight ton-km Road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle type Road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle-fuel type (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. For instance, fuel use statistics are also not always collected/reported based on data mapping exercise, it is usually fuel demand statistics that is reported. Another limitation is the use of transport fuel for non DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

34 road purposes. Another limitation is that this indicator only provides total amount of emissions without describing neither the intensity of various modes or the efficiency of the system. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Global o International Energy Agency o International Transport Forum Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: IPCC, Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. URL: International Transport Forum, Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas EmissionsL Trends and Data. OECD. URL: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation. ADB Sustainable Development Working Paper Series No. 9. ADB, Philippines. URL: Transport-CO2-Emissions.pdf Schipper, L., Marie-Lilliu, C., and Gorham, R., Flexing the link between transport and greenhouse gases: a path for the World Bank. International Energy Agency, Paris. Schipper, L. and Marie-Lilliu, C., Carbon Emissions from Transport in IEA Countries: Recent Lessons and Long-Term Challenges. Swedish Board for Communications and Transportation Research, Stockholm. IEA, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. OECD/IEA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

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36 T2 ROAD TRANSPORT CO 2 EMISSIONS PER GDP Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T2 The average amount of CO 2 emitted from road transport per unit of income (Gross Domestic Product) generated by a country s economy. (Adapted from IEA) Kilograms CO 2 per US dollar at constant 2000 prices POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator provides a measure of the carbon intensity of the economy in the road transport sector. Relatively high values for this indicator suggest a potential for decoupling CO 2 emissions in road transport sector from economic growth. This also allows a common benchmark for comparing national and historical emissions (ITF, 2010). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. The protocol was adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on February 2005, sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol is set to end in DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

37 (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. There are a number of countries which set emission reduction targets in the transport sector as part of their national targets. This includes transport-specific GHG reduction targets set by Japan 19 and the Netherlands 20 and the proposed EU mandatory targets for non emissions trading system sectors which de facto include a large transport component (ITF, 2010). Nonetheless, there are several local, national, regional policies, strategies and declarations for aimed at reducing emissions from transport sector. While not specific for transport sector, PR China and India have announced their commitments for total emission reduction with GDP (NDRC, 2011). METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of total CO 2 emissions from road transport to economic output. Where: T1 = Total CO 2 emissions from road transport (refer to T1 Guideline for its measurement method) T2 = Road transport CO 2 emissions per GDP GDP = Gross Domestic Product measured in US dollars at constant 2000 prices (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to indicators for fuel consumption and air pollution (PM and NO x ) emissions. (c) Limitations of the Indicator Road transport emissions are frequently assessed against socio-economic indicators, such as GDP and population. This indicator does not provide intensity of each mode but of the entire system. It is useful as countries, such as India and PR China, are suggesting that they would reduce the intensity of CO 2 emissions. However, it must be noted that these indicators only provide an indication of the CO 2 emissions performance of the road transport sector of the country and must not be deemed as complete assessments (IEA, 2010). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o International Transport Forum Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency T2 = T1 x GDP 19 Absolute target of 250 Mt CO2 from transport in 2010 from a baseline of 260 Mt in 2002 (compare to 217 Mt in 1990) which represents 24 Mt below the 2010 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010). 20 Transport GHG emissions to be cut by Mt below the 2020 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

38 REFERENCES National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): Natural Resources Defense Council (NDRC), From Copenhagen Accord to Climate Action: Tracking National Commitments to Curb Global Warming. URL: Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation. ADB Sustainable Development Working Paper Series No. 9. ADB, Philippines. URL: Transport-CO2-Emissions.pdf International Transport Forum, Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas EmissionsL Trends and Data. OECD. URL: IEA, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. OECD/IEA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

39 T3 ROAD TRANSPORT CO 2 EMISSIONS PER CAPITA Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T3 Total amount of CO 2 emitted from road transport, on average, for each person in a country. (Adapted from IEA) Metric tons CO 2 per capita POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the road transport CO 2 emissions on a per capita basis and reflects the patterns in road transport CO 2 emissions and carbon intensity of a society. This also allows a common benchmark for comparing national and historical emissions (ITF, 2010). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. The protocol was adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on February 2005, sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol is set to end in DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

40 (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. There are a number of countries which set emission reduction targets in the transport sector as part of their national targets. This includes transport-specific GHG reduction targets set by Japan 21 and the Netherlands 22 and the proposed EU mandatory targets for non emissions trading system sectors which de facto include a large transport component (ITF, 2010). Nonetheless, there are several local, national, regional policies, strategies and declarations for aimed at reducing emissions from transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of total CO 2 emissions from road transport to population. Where: T1 = Total CO 2 emissions from road transport (refer to T1 Guideline for its measurement method) T3 = Road transport CO 2 emissions per capita (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to indicators for fuel consumption and air pollution (PM and NO x ) emissions. (c) Limitations of the Indicator Road transport emissions are frequently assessed against socio-economic indicators, such as GDP and population. However, it must be noted that these indicators only provide an indication of the CO 2 emissions performance of the road transport sector of the country and must not be deemed as complete assessments (IEA, 2010). ORGANIZATIONS T3 = T1 x Population (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o International Transport Forum Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. 21 Absolute target of 250 Mt CO2 from transport in 2010 from a baseline of 260 Mt in 2002 (compare to 217 Mt in 1990) which represents 24 Mt below the 2010 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010). 22 Transport GHG emissions to be cut by Mt below the 2020 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

41 REFERENCES ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): International Transport Forum, Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas EmissionsL Trends and Data. OECD. URL: Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation. ADB Sustainable Development Working Paper Series No. 9. ADB, Philippines. URL: Transport-CO2-Emissions.pdf IEA, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. OECD/IEA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

42 T4 ROAD TRANSPORT CO 2 EMISSIONS PER PASSENGER KM Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T4 CO 2 emissions per transport unit (passenger-km) by road transport (Adapted from EEA TERM). Grams CO 2 per passenger-kilometer POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose Energy efficiency improvements in road transport can result in considerable reduction in energy consumption and CO 2 emissions. Since specific CO 2 emissions are expressed per transport unit, occupancy rates have a considerable effect on specific emissions produced from passenger transport. Reduction of specific emissions can be achieved by increasing occupancy rates and load factors and/or by decreasing the emissions per vehicle-km. This indicator provides a measure of the CO 2 emissions of passenger transport for road (EEA, 2011). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. The protocol was adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on February 2005, sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol is set to end in DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

43 (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. There are a number of countries which set emission reduction targets in the transport sector as part of their national targets. This includes transport-specific GHG reduction targets set by Japan 23 and the Netherlands 24 and the proposed EU mandatory targets for non emissions trading system sectors which de facto include a large transport component (ITF, 2010). Nonetheless, there are several local, national, regional policies, strategies and declarations for aimed at reducing emissions from transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated by dividing the passenger transport divided by passenger-km travelled (PKM). (1) PKM = Σ[(Ave VKT a * Vehicle Population a ) * Ave occupancy a ] (2) T4 = T1 x PKM Where: PKM = Passenger kilometers travelled Ave VKT = Average vehicle kilometer travelled a = type of passenger vehicle T1 = Total CO 2 emissions from road transport (refer to T1 Guideline for its measurement method) T4 = Road transport CO 2 emissions per passenger km Average occupancy = average vehicle occupancy (this is calculated as person-kilometers per vehiclekilometers or simply as the number of people travelling divided by the number of vehicles). Average occupancy can be easy calculated using field occupancy surveys. In case no data is available, default values are provided in 23 Absolute target of 250 Mt CO2 from transport in 2010 from a baseline of 260 Mt in 2002 (compare to 217 Mt in 1990) which represents 24 Mt below the 2010 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010). 24 Transport GHG emissions to be cut by Mt below the 2020 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

44 Annex B. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to air pollution (PM and NO x ) emissions from road transport per transport unit (passenger-km or ton-km). (c) Limitations of the Indicator Statistics for passenger-km are rarely available from Asian countries. Another challenge in vehicle occupancy statistics in developing countries is that there are many vehicle types, including informal vehicle types that seat more than the capacity of the vehicle. 25 Derived values are to be treated as estimates. ORGANIZATIONS (b) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Global o International Energy Agency o International Transport Forum Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): International Transport Forum, Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas EmissionsL Trends and Data. OECD. URL: Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation. ADB Sustainable Development Working Paper Series No. 9. ADB, Philippines. URL: Transport-CO2-Emissions.pdf EEA TERM. Energy efficiency and specific CO 2 emissions (TERM 027) - Assessment published Jan URL: 25 Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP) and Cambridge Systematics, Data and Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. Washington, DC. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

45 IEA, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. OECD/IEA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

46 T5 ROAD TRANSPORT CO 2 EMISSIONS PER FREIGHT TON-KM Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T5 CO 2 emissions per transport unit (ton-km) by road transport (Adapted from EEA TERM). Grams CO 2 per ton-kilometer POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose Energy efficiency improvements in road transport can result in considerable reduction in energy consumption and CO 2 emissions. Since specific CO 2 emissions are expressed per transport unit, load factors have a considerable effect on specific emissions produced from freight transport. Reduction of specific emissions can be achieved by increasing occupancy rates and load factors and/or by decreasing the emissions per vehicle-km. This indicator provides a measure of the CO 2 emissions of freight transport for road (EEA, 2011). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. The protocol was adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on February 2005, sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol is set to end in DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

47 (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. There are a number of countries which set emission reduction targets in the transport sector as part of their national targets. This includes transport-specific GHG reduction targets set by Japan 26 and the Netherlands 27 and the proposed EU mandatory targets for non emissions trading system sectors which de facto include a large transport component (ITF, 2010). Nonetheless, there are several local, national, regional policies, strategies and declarations for aimed at reducing emissions from transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated by dividing the total CO 2 emissions from freight transport by ton-km. (1) TKM = Σ[(Ave VKT a * Vehicle Population a ) * Load factor a ] (2) T4 = T1 x TKM Where: TKM = Total freight ton-km Ave VKT = Average vehicle kilometer travelled a = type of freight vehicle T1 = Total CO 2 emissions from road transport (refer to T1 Guideline for its measurement method) T5 = Road transport CO 2 emissions per ton-km Load factor = load factors is the ratio of the average load to total vehicle freight capacity, in tons. In case no data is available, default values are provided in 26 Absolute target of 250 Mt CO2 from transport in 2010 from a baseline of 260 Mt in 2002 (compare to 217 Mt in 1990) which represents 24 Mt below the 2010 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010). 27 Transport GHG emissions to be cut by Mt below the 2020 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

48 Annex B. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to air pollution (PM and NO x ) emissions from road transport per transport unit (passenger-km or ton-km). (c) Limitations of the Indicator Statistics for freight ton-km are rarely available from Asian countries. Derived values are to be treated as estimates. ORGANIZATIONS (c) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Global o International Energy Agency o International Transport Forum Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation. ADB Sustainable Development Working Paper Series No. 9. ADB, Philippines. URL: Transport-CO2-Emissions.pdf International Transport Forum, Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas EmissionsL Trends and Data. OECD. URL: EEA TERM. Energy efficiency and specific CO 2 emissions (TERM 027) - Assessment published Jan URL: IEA, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. OECD/IEA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

49 43 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

50 T6 ROAD TRANSPORT CO 2 EMISSIONS PER VEHICLE TYPE Indicator Code T6 Brief Definition Road transport CO 2 emissions disaggregated into vehicle types. Unit of Measurement: Million metric tons of CO 2 POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle type. This can provide guidance to policymakers and decision makers in focusing emissions management policies and measures on vehicle types estimated to generate the most emissions. Table 8 lists the vehicle types adopted for these guidelines with their corresponding definitions. Table 8: Vehicle types adopted for the guidelines Two-wheeler (2W) Two-wheeled road motor vehicle. Photo 1: Two-wheelers in Colombo (2011) Photo 2: Two-wheelers in Ho Chi Minh (2011) Three-wheeler (3W) Three-wheeled road motor vehicle. Photo 3: Tricycles in Philippines Photo 4: Auto rickshaws in Hyderabad (2009) 44 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

51 Passenger car Photo 5:Tuk-tuk in Bangkok (2010) Photo 6: Auto rickshaws in Quetta (2010) Road motor vehicle, other than a moped or a motorcycle, intended for the carriage of passengers and designed to seat no more than nine persons (including the driver). This includes: Passenger cars, Vans designed and used primarily for transport of passengers, Taxis, Hire cars, Ambulances, Motor homes Photo 7: Taxi in Beijing (2010) Multi-utility vehicle (MUV) Road motor vehicle designed to carry passengers or goods ULW kg (six passengers x 75 kg). Photo 8: Jeepney in the Philippines Photo 9: Angkot in Padang (2010) Photo 10: Mini- bus Photo 11: Passenger FX (shuttle service) in Philippines 45 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

52 Bus Passenger road motor vehicle designed to carry up to 60 passengers. The vehicles may be constructed with areas for standing passengers, to allow frequent passenger movement, or designed to allow the carriage of standing passengers in the gangway. Photo 12: Buses in Xiamen (2009) Photo 13: Bus in Colombo (2011) Light commercial vehicle (LCV) Goods road vehicle with a gross vehicle weight of not more than 3,500 kg, designed, exclusively or primarily, to carry goods. Included are vans designed for and used primarily for transport of goods, pick-ups and small lorries with a gross vehicle weight of not more than 3,500 kg. Heavy commercial vehicle (HCV) (i.e., trucks) Photo 14: LCV Goods road vehicle with a gross vehicle weight above 3,500 kg, designed, exclusively or primarily, to carry goods. Photo 15: HCV Photo Credits: Photo 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13: CAI-Asia. Photo 3: Photo 5: Photo 8: Photo 9: Photo 10: Photo 11: Photo 14: Photo 15: Source: Adapted from ITF, Eurostat and Economic Commission for Europe, Illustrated Glossary for Transport Statistics, 4 th Edition and Automotive Research Association of India (ARIA), Emission factor development for Indian vehicles as part of the ambient air quality monitoring and emission sources apportionment studies, air quality monitoring project-indian clean air programme (ICAP). (b) International Conventions and Agreements 46 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

53 Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. The protocol was adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on February 2005, sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol is set to end in (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. There are a number of countries which set emission reduction targets in the transport sector as part of their national targets. This includes transport-specific GHG reduction targets set by Japan 28 and the Netherlands 29 and the proposed EU mandatory targets for non emissions trading system sectors which de facto include a large transport component (ITF, 2010). Nonetheless, there are several local, national, regional policies, strategies and declarations for aimed at reducing emissions from transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the ASIF approach defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators 28 Absolute target of 250 Mt CO2 from transport in 2010 from a baseline of 260 Mt in 2002 (compare to 217 Mt in 1990) which represents 24 Mt below the 2010 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010). 29 Transport GHG emissions to be cut by Mt below the 2020 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

54 This indicator can be aggregated to estimate T1- Total CO 2 emissions from road transport. Depending on availability of data, this can be disaggregated to T7-Road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle-fuel type (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. This indicator does not include efficiency (economy or movement). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Global o International Energy Agency o International Transport Forum Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): International Transport Forum, Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas EmissionsL Trends and Data. OECD. URL: Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation. ADB Sustainable Development Working Paper Series No. 9. ADB, Philippines. URL: Transport-CO2-Emissions.pdf IEA, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. OECD/IEA. URL: EEA TERM. Energy efficiency and specific CO 2 emissions (TERM 027) - Assessment published Jan URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

55 T7 ROAD TRANSPORT CO 2 EMISSIONS PER VEHICLE-FUEL TYPE Indicator Code Brief Definition T7 Road transport CO 2 emissions disaggregated into vehicle-fuel types. Unit of Measurement: Million metric tons of CO 2 POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle-fuel type. This can provide guidance to policymakers and decision makers in focusing emissions management policies and measures on vehicle as well as vehicle-fuel types estimated to generate the most emissions. Table 8 lists the vehicle types adopted for these guidelines with their corresponding definitions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. The protocol was adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on February 2005, sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol is set to end in DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

56 (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. There are a number of countries which set emission reduction targets in the transport sector as part of their national targets. This includes transport-specific GHG reduction targets set by Japan 30 and the Netherlands 31 and the proposed EU mandatory targets for non emissions trading system sectors which de facto include a large transport component (ITF, 2010). Nonetheless, there are several local, national, regional policies, strategies and declarations for aimed at reducing emissions from transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the ASIF approach defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be aggregated to estimate T1- Total CO 2 emissions from road transport and T6-Road transport CO 2 emissions per vehicle type. (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o International Transport Forum Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency REFERENCES ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: 30 Absolute target of 250 Mt CO2 from transport in 2010 from a baseline of 260 Mt in 2002 (compare to 217 Mt in 1990) which represents 24 Mt below the 2010 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010). 31 Transport GHG emissions to be cut by Mt below the 2020 business-as-usual projection. (ITF, 2010) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

57 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): International Transport Forum, Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas EmissionsL Trends and Data. OECD. URL: Schipper, L., Fabian, H., and Leather, J., Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation. ADB Sustainable Development Working Paper Series No. 9. ADB, Philippines. URL: Transport-CO2-Emissions.pdf IEA, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights. OECD/IEA. URL: EEA TERM. Energy efficiency and specific CO 2 emissions (TERM 027) - Assessment published Jan URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

58 T8 TOTAL PM EMISSIONS FROM ROAD TRANSPORT Indicator Code T8 Brief Definition Road transport PM emissions arising from fuel use in road vehicles. Unit of Measurement: Thousand metric tons PM POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose The road transport sector is a major contributor of air pollution emissions. This indicator can be used to measure the trends of PM emissions from road transport and aid in evaluating the effectiveness policies and measures. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

59 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the methodologies defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline, except that CO 2 emission factors are substituted with air pollutant emission factors. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by vehicle type, vehicle-fuel type, passenger km and freight ton-km. This indicator is also frequently assessed on the per capita or per GDP basis. Road transport PM emissions per GDP Road transport PM emissions per capita Road transport PM emissions per passenger km Road transport PM emissions per freight ton-km Road transport PM emissions per vehicle type Road transport PM emissions per vehicle-fuel type (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their emissions inventories. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

60 T9 ROAD TRANSPORT PM EMISSIONS PER GDP Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T9 The average amount of PM emitted from road transport per unit of income (Gross Domestic Product) generated by a country s economy. (Adapted from IEA) Grams PM per US dollar at constant 2000 prices POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator provides a measure of the emission intensity of the economy in the road transport sector. Relatively high values for this indicator suggest a potential for decoupling PM emissions in road transport sector from economic growth. This also allows a common benchmark for comparing national and historical emissions (ITF, 2010). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

61 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of total PM emissions from road transport to economic output. Where: T8 = Total PM emissions from road transport (refer to T8 Guideline for its measurement method) T9 = Road transport PM emissions per GDP GDP = Gross Domestic Product measured in US dollars at constant 2000 prices (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to indicators for fuel consumption and emissions indicators. (c) Limitations of the Indicator Road transport emissions are frequently assessed against socio-economic indicators, such as GDP and population. However, it must be noted that these indicators only provide an indication of the emissions performance of the road transport sector of the country and must not be deemed as complete assessments (IEA, 2010). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES T9 = T8 x GDP Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their emissions inventories. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

62 T10 ROAD TRANSPORT PM EMISSIONS PER CAPITA Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T10 Total amount of PM emitted from road transport, on average, for each person in a country. (Adapted from IEA) Kilograms PM per capita POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the road transport PM emissions on a per capita basis and reflects the patterns in road transport PM emissions and emission intensity of a society. This also allows a common benchmark for comparing national and historical emissions (ITF, 2010). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

63 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of total PM emissions from road transport to population. Where: T8 = Total PM emissions from road transport (refer to T8 Guideline for its measurement method) T10 = Road transport PM emissions per capita (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to indicators for fuel consumption and emissions indicators. (c) Limitations of the Indicator Road transport emissions are frequently assessed against socio-economic indicators, such as GDP and population. However, it must be noted that these indicators only provide an indication of the PM emissions performance of the road transport sector of the country and must not be deemed as complete assessments (IEA, 2010). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES T10 = T8 x Population Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

64 T11 ROAD TRANSPORT PM EMISSIONS PER PASSENGER KM Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T11 PM emissions per transport unit (passenger-km) by road transport (Adapted from EEA TERM). Grams PM per passenger-kilometer POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose Energy efficiency improvements in road transport can result in considerable reduction in energy consumption and PM emissions. Since specific PM emissions are expressed per transport unit, occupancy rates have a considerable effect on specific emissions produced from passenger transport. Reduction of specific emissions can be achieved by increasing occupancy rates and load factors and/or by decreasing the emissions per vehicle-km. This indicator provides a measure of the PM emissions of passenger transport for road (EEA, 2011). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

65 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated by dividing the passenger transport divided by passenger-km travelled (PKM). (1) PKM = Σ[(Ave VKT a * Vehicle Population a ) * Ave occupancy a ] (2) T11 = T8 x PKM Where: PKM = Passenger kilometers travelled Ave VKT = Average vehicle kilometer travelled a = type of passenger vehicle T8 = Total PM emissions from road transport (refer to T8 Guideline for its measurement method) T11 = Road transport PM emissions per passenger km Average occupancy = average vehicle occupancy (this is calculated as person-kilometers per vehiclekilometers or simply as the number of people travelling divided by the number of vehicles). Average occupancy can be easy calculated using field occupancy surveys. In case no data is available, default values are provided in 59 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

66 Annex B. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to NO x and CO 2 emissions from road transport per transport unit (passenger-km or ton-km). (c) Limitations of the Indicator Statistics for passenger-km are rarely available from Asian countries. Another challenge in vehicle occupancy statistics in developing countries is that there are many vehicle types, including informal vehicle types that seat more than the capacity of the vehicle. 32 Derived values are to be treated as estimates. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport: EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: 32 Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP) and Cambridge Systematics, Data and Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. Washington, DC. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

67 T12 ROAD TRANSPORT PM EMISSIONS PER FREIGHT TON-KM Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T12 PM emissions per transport unit (ton-km) by road transport (Adapted from EEA TERM). Grams PM per ton-kilometer POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose Energy efficiency improvements in road transport can result in considerable reduction in energy consumption and PM emissions. Since specific PM emissions are expressed per transport unit, load factors have a considerable effect on specific emissions produced from freight transport. Reduction of specific emissions can be achieved by increasing occupancy rates and load factors and/or by decreasing the emissions per vehicle-km. This indicator provides a measure of the PM emissions of freight transport for road (EEA, 2011). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

68 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated by dividing freight transport by ton-km. (1) TKM = Σ[(Ave VKT a * Vehicle Population a ) * Load factor a ] (2) T12 = T8 x TKM Where: TKM = Freight ton-km Ave VKT = Average vehicle kilometer travelled a = type of freight vehicle T8 = Total PM emissions from road transport (refer to T8 Guideline for its measurement method) T12 = Road transport PM emissions per ton-km Load factor = load factors is the ratio of the average load to total vehicle freight capacity, in tons. In case no data is available, default values are provided in 62 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

69 Annex B. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to CO 2 and NO x emissions from road transport per transport unit (passenger-km or ton-km). (c) Limitations of the Indicator Statistics for freight ton-km are rarely available from Asian countries. Derived values are to be treated as estimates. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport: EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

70 T13 ROAD TRANSPORT PM EMISSIONS PER VEHICLE TYPE Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T13 Road transport PM emissions disaggregated into vehicle types. Thousand metric tons of PM POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures road transport PM emissions per vehicle type. This can provide guidance to policymakers and decision makers in focusing emissions management policies and measures on vehicle types estimated to generate the most emissions. Table 8 lists the vehicle types adopted for these guidelines with their corresponding definitions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

71 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the ASIF approach defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline, except that CO 2 emission factors are substituted with PM emission factors. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be aggregated to estimate T8- Total PM emissions from road transport. Depending on availability of data, this can be disaggregated to T14-Road transport PM emissions per vehicle-fuel type. (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

72 T14 ROAD TRANSPORT PM EMISSIONS PER VEHICLE-FUEL TYPE Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T14 Road transport PM emissions disaggregated into vehicle-fuel types. Thousand metric tons of PM POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures road transport PM emissions per vehicle-fuel type. This can provide guidance to policymakers and decision makers in focusing emissions management policies and measures on vehicle as well as vehicle-fuel types estimated to generate the most emissions. Table 8 lists the vehicle types adopted for these guidelines with their corresponding definitions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

73 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the ASIF approach defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline, except that CO 2 emission factors are substituted with PM emission factors. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be aggregated to estimate T8- Total PM emissions from road transport and T13-Road transport PM emissions per vehicle type. (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

74 T15 TOTAL NO x EMISSIONS FROM ROAD TRANSPORT Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T15 Road transport NO x emissions arising from fuel use in road vehicles. Thousand metric tons NO x POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose The road transport sector is a major contributor of air pollution emissions. This indicator can be used to measure the trends of NO x emissions from road transport and aid in evaluating the effectiveness policies and measures. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

75 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the methodologies defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline, except that CO 2 emission factors are substituted with air pollutant emission factors. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by vehicle type, vehicle-fuel type, passenger km and freight ton-km. This indicator is also frequently assessed on the per capita or per GDP basis. Road transport NO x emissions per GDP Road transport NO x emissions per capita Road transport NO x emissions per passenger km Road transport NO x emissions per freight ton-km Road transport NO x emissions per vehicle type Road transport NO x emissions per vehicle-fuel type (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their emissions inventories. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

76 T16 ROAD TRANSPORT NO x EMISSIONS PER GDP Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T16 The average amount of NO x emitted from road transport per unit of income (Gross Domestic Product) generated by a country s economy. (Adapted from IEA) Grams NO x per US dollar at constant 2000 prices POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator provides a measure of the emission intensity of the economy in the road transport sector. Relatively high values for this indicator suggest a potential for decoupling NO x emissions in road transport sector from economic growth. This also allows a common benchmark for comparing national and historical emissions (ITF, 2010). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

77 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of total NO x emissions from road transport to economic output. Where: T15 = Total NO x emissions from road transport (refer to T15 Guideline for its measurement method) T16 = Road transport NO x emissions per GDP GDP = Gross Domestic Product measured in US dollars at constant 2000 prices (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to indicators for fuel consumption and emissions indicators. (c) Limitations of the Indicator Road transport emissions are frequently assessed against socio-economic indicators, such as GDP and population. However, it must be noted that these indicators only provide an indication of the emissions performance of the road transport sector of the country and must not be deemed as complete assessments (IEA, 2010). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES T16 = T15 x GDP Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their emissions inventories. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

78 T17 ROAD TRANSPORT NO x EMISSIONS PER CAPITA Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T17 Total amount of NO x emitted from road transport, on average, for each person in a country. (Adapted from IEA) Kilograms NO x per capita POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the road transport NO x emissions on a per capita basis and reflects the patterns in road transport NO x emissions and emission intensity of a society. This also allows a common benchmark for comparing national and historical emissions (ITF, 2010). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

79 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of total PM emissions from road transport to population. Where: T15 = Total PM emissions from road transport (refer to T8 Guideline for its measurement method) T17 = Road transport PM emissions per capita (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to indicators for fuel consumption and emissions indicators. (c) Limitations of the Indicator Road transport emissions are frequently assessed against socio-economic indicators, such as GDP and population. However, it must be noted that these indicators only provide an indication of the NO x emissions performance of the road transport sector of the country and must not be deemed as complete assessments (IEA, 2010). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES T17 = T15 x Population Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

80 T18 ROAD TRANSPORT NO x EMISSIONS PER PASSENGER KM Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T18 NO x emissions per transport unit (passenger-km) by road transport (Adapted from EEA TERM). Grams NO x per passenger-kilometer POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose Energy efficiency improvements in road transport can result in considerable reduction in energy consumption and NO x emissions. Since specific NO x emissions are expressed per transport unit, occupancy rates have a considerable effect on specific emissions produced from passenger transport. Reduction of specific emissions can be achieved by increasing occupancy rates and load factors and/or by decreasing the emissions per vehicle-km. This indicator provides a measure of the NO x emissions of passenger transport for road (EEA, 2011). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

81 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated by dividing the total NO x emissions from road transport by passenger-km travelled. (1) PKM = Σ[(Ave VKT a * Vehicle Population a ) * Ave occupancy a ] (2) T18 = T15 x PKM Where: PKM = Passenger kilometers travelled Ave VKT = Average vehicle kilometer travelled a = type of passenger vehicle T15 = Total NO x emissions from road transport (refer to T15 Guideline for its measurement method) T18 = Road transport NO x emissions per passenger km Average occupancy = average vehicle occupancy (this is calculated as person-kilometers per vehiclekilometers or simply as the number of people travelling divided by the number of vehicles). Average occupancy can be easy calculated using field occupancy surveys. In case no data is available, default values are provided in 75 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

82 Annex B. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to PM and CO 2 emissions from road transport per transport unit (passenger-km or ton-km). (c) Limitations of the Indicator Statistics for passenger-km are rarely available from Asian countries. Another challenge in vehicle occupancy statistics in developing countries is that there are many vehicle types, including informal vehicle types that seat more than the capacity of the vehicle. 33 Derived values are to be treated as estimates. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport: EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: 33 Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP) and Cambridge Systematics, Data and Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. Washington, DC. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

83 T19 ROAD TRANSPORT NO x EMISSIONS PER FREIGHT TON-KM Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T19 NO x emissions per transport unit (ton-km) by road transport (Adapted from EEA TERM). Grams NO x per ton-kilometer POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose Energy efficiency improvements in road transport can result in considerable reduction in energy consumption and NO x emissions. Since specific NO x emissions are expressed per transport unit, load factors have a considerable effect on specific emissions produced from freight transport. Reduction of specific emissions can be achieved by increasing occupancy rates and load factors and/or by decreasing the emissions per vehicle-km. This indicator provides a measure of the PM emissions of freight transport for road (EEA, 2011). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

84 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated by dividing the total NO x emissions from road transport by ton-km. (1) TKM = Σ[(Ave VKT a * Vehicle Population a ) * Load factor a ] (2) T19 = T15 x TKM Where: TKM = Freight ton-km Ave VKT = Average vehicle kilometer travelled a = type of freight vehicle T15 = Total NO x emissions from road transport (refer to T15 Guideline for its measurement method) T19 = Road transport NO x emissions per ton-km Load factor = load factors is the ratio of the average load to total vehicle freight capacity, in tons. In case no data is available, default values are provided in 78 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

85 Annex B. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator is linked to CO 2 and PM emissions from road transport per transport unit (passenger-km or ton-km). (c) Limitations of the Indicator Statistics for freight ton-km are rarely available from Asian countries. Derived values are to be treated as estimates. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport: EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

86 T20 ROAD TRANSPORT NO x EMISSIONS PER VEHICLE TYPE Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T20 Road transport NO x emissions disaggregated into vehicle types. Thousand metric tons of NO x POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures road transport NO x emissions per vehicle type. This can provide guidance to policymakers and decision makers in focusing emissions management policies and measures on vehicle types estimated to generate the most emissions. Table 8 lists the vehicle types adopted for these guidelines with their corresponding definitions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

87 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the ASIF approach defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline, except that CO 2 emission factors are substituted with NO x emission factors. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be aggregated to estimate T15- Total NO x emissions from road transport. Depending on availability of data, this can be disaggregated to T121-Road transport NO x emissions per vehicle-fuel type. (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET): EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

88 T21 ROAD TRANSPORT NO x EMISSIONS PER VEHICLE-FUEL TYPE Indicator Code T21 Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: Road transport NO x emissions disaggregated into vehicle-fuel types. Thousand metric tons of NO x POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures road transport NO x emissions per vehicle-fuel type. This can provide guidance to policymakers and decision makers in focusing emissions management policies and measures on vehicle as well as vehicle-fuel types estimated to generate the most emissions. Table 8 lists the vehicle types adopted for these guidelines with their corresponding definitions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Fifth Regional Environmentally- Sustainable Transport [EST] Forum, Aug 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand (23 participating countries) Outlined the Bangkok 2020 Declaration which expressed the intent to voluntarily develop and realize integrated and sustainable transport policy options, programmes, and projects to achieve 20 Sustainable Transport Goals by 2020 in the Asian Region. A list of performance indicators was provided which may be adopted by participating countries. Brunei Action Plan (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan ) ASEAN-Japan Action Plan on Environmental Improvement in Transport Sector (AJ-APEIT) Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport (MEET), Jan 2009 in Tokyo, Japan (21 participating countries) One of the strategic goals for land transport is: LTG-7 - establish a sustainable, energy efficient and environment friendly transport system. The plan (for implementation from 2010 to 2014) will serve as a basic framework for ASEAN Member States and Japan to implement environment measures in the transport sector in a systematic and strategic manner to realize low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems for achieving sustainable social and economic development. Adoption of the ministerial declaration which emphasized the shared global long-term vision for realizing low-carbon and lowpollution transport systems. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards To date, there is no international agreement on specific emission reduction targets for the transport sector. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies, strategies and declarations for reducing emissions from transport sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

89 METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated using the ASIF approach defined in T1-Total CO 2 emissions from road transport guideline, except that CO 2 emission factors are substituted with NO x emission factors. (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be aggregated to estimate T15- Total NO x emissions from road transport and T20-Road transport NO x emissions per vehicle type. (c) Limitations of the Indicator The reliability of this indicator is heavily influenced by the quality and availability of the input parameters used for its calculation. Existing data challenges in Asia especially for activity data, must be taken into consideration when using this indicator. Users of this indicator must take note of the assumptions taken, especially for the input parameters used. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency ASEAN, Brunei Action Plan (BAP): (ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan: ). ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bangkok 2020 Declaration: Sustainable Transport Goals for (outlined during the Fifth Regional EST Forum in August 2010) URL: Regional EST Forum: Ministerial Declaration on Global Environment and Energy in Transport, Ministerial Conference on Global Environment and Energy in Transport: EEA TERM. Specific air pollutant emissions (TERM 028) - Assessment published Jan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

90 T22 ROAD TRANSPORT TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION Indicator Code T22 Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: This measures the amount of primary energy from all sources consumed for road transportation in each country in the year specified. It includes all fuels used in road vehicles as well as agricultural and industrial highway use. The sector excludes military consumption as well as motor gasoline used in stationary engines and diesel oil used in tractors. (Adapted from IEA). Thousand tons of oil equivalent on a net calorific value basis (ktoe) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose Almost 20% of the world's total delivered energy is used in the transportation sector, where liquid fuels are the dominant source. Transportation alone accounts for more than 50% of world consumption of liquid fuels, and its share increases over the projection period (EIA, 2010). Road transport total fuel consumption measures the amount of primary energy from all sources consumed for road transport. (b) International Conventions and Agreements (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards No specific reduction targets have been set. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies and strategies on energy efficiency and fuel saving in the transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods These basic energy statistics will be collected from IEA, national energy ministries and national statistics departments. This indicator is calculated by the following formula: Consumption = indigenous production + imports - exports - energy delivered to international marine bunkers +/- stock changes (but excluding non-energy uses) (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be assessed on a per capita and per GDP basis. (c) Limitations of the Indicator While energy balances data are primarily based on well-established and institutionalized accounting methodologies, data mapping exercise show that road transport fuel use statistics are not always collected/reported. It is usually fuel demand statistics that is reported. Another limitation is the use of transport fuel for non-road purposes DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

91 In addition, these statistics are expressed in terms of "net" calorific value, so the values reported here may be slightly lower than those in other statistical compendia which report energy in terms of "gross" calorific value. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Global o International Energy Agency o US Energy Information Administration o World Resources Institute Earthtrends Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National governments also collect this data through the energy ministries. International Energy Agency (IEA) Statistics Division Energy Balances of OECD Countries (2008 edition) and Energy Balances of Non-OECD Countries (2007 edition). Paris: IEA. Available athttp://data.iea.org/ieastore/default.asp. WRI earthtrends : US Energy Information Administration (EIA): International Energy Outlook 2010 (IEO2010) URL: World Bank (open data), Road sector energy consumption (kt of oil equivalent). URL: EEA TERM. Transport final energy consumption by mode (TERM 001) - Assessment published Jan URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

92 T23 ROAD TRANSPORT FUEL CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA Indicator Code T23 Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: Fuel consumed for road transport per person in a country. Thousand tons of oil equivalent (on a net calorific value basis) per capita (ktoe/capita) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the road transport fuel consumption on a per capita basis and reflects the patterns in road transport fuel consumption of a society.. (b) International Conventions and Agreements (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards No specific reduction targets have been set. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies and strategies on energy efficiency and fuel saving in the transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of road transport total fuel consumption to population. T23 = T22 x Population Where: T22 = Road transport total fuel consumption (refer to T22 Guideline for its measurement method) T23 = Road transport fuel consumption per capita (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be linked with road transport fuel consumption per capita. (c) Limitations of the Indicator While energy balances data are primarily based on well-established and institutionalized accounting methodologies, data mapping exercise show that road transport fuel use statistics are not always collected/reported. It is usually fuel demand statistics that is reported. Another limitation is the use of transport fuel for non-road purposes. In addition, these statistics are expressed in terms of "net" calorific value, so the values reported here may be slightly lower than those in other statistical compendia which report energy in terms of "gross" calorific value DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

93 ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Global o International Energy Agency o US Energy Information Administration o World Resources Institute Earthtrends Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National governments also collect this data through the energy ministries. International Energy Agency (IEA) Statistics Division Energy Balances of OECD Countries (2008 edition) and Energy Balances of Non-OECD Countries (2007 edition). Paris: IEA. Available athttp://data.iea.org/ieastore/default.asp. WRI earthtrends : US Energy Information Administration (EIA): International Energy Outlook 2010 (IEO2010) URL: World Bank (open data), Road sector energy consumption (kt of oil equivalent). URL: EEA TERM. Transport final energy consumption by mode (TERM 001) - Assessment published Jan URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

94 T24 ROAD TRANSPORT FUEL CONSUMPTION PER GDP Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: T24 Ratio of the fuel consumption on road transport sector to economic output (Gross Domestic Product) Thousand tons of oil equivalent (on a net calorific value basis) per US dollar at constant 2000 prices (ktoe/usd [at constant 2000 prices]) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator provides a measure of the energy intensity of the economy in the road transport sector. (b) International Conventions and Agreements (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards No specific reduction targets have been set. Nonetheless, there are several local, national and regional policies and strategies on energy efficiency and fuel saving in the transport sector. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods This indicator is calculated as the ratio of road transport total fuel consumption to economic output. T24 = T22 x GDP Where: T22 = Road transport total fuel consumption (refer to T22 Guideline for its measurement method) T24 = Road transport fuel consumption per GDP GDP = Gross Domestic Product measured in US dollars at constant 2000 prices (b) Sub- and Associated Indicators This indicator can be linked with road transport fuel consumption per capita. (c) Limitations of the Indicator While energy balances data are primarily based on well-established and institutionalized accounting methodologies, data mapping exercise show that road transport fuel use statistics are not always collected/reported. It is usually fuel demand statistics that is reported. Another limitation is the use of transport fuel for non-road purposes. In addition, these statistics are expressed in terms of "net" calorific value, so the values reported here may be slightly lower than those in other statistical compendia which report energy in terms of "gross" calorific value DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

95 ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator REFERENCES Global o International Energy Agency o US Energy Information Administration o World Resources Institute Earthtrends Regional o Europe: European Environment Agency National governments also collect this data through the energy ministries. International Energy Agency (IEA) Statistics Division Energy Balances of OECD Countries (2008 edition) and Energy Balances of Non-OECD Countries (2007 edition). Paris: IEA. Available athttp://data.iea.org/ieastore/default.asp. WRI earthtrends : US Energy Information Administration (EIA): International Energy Outlook 2010 (IEO2010) URL: World Bank (open data), Road sector energy consumption (kt of oil equivalent). URL: EEA TERM. Transport final energy consumption by mode (TERM 001) - Assessment published Jan URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

96 3.2 Input Parameters for Indicators for Transport Sector Vehicle Population Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: Total number of two-wheelers, three-wheelers, passenger cars, multi-utility vehicles, light commercial vehicles, heavy commercial vehicles and buses in use. Number in millions METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources 1. Surveys: Vehicle inventory and use, household travel and national travel surveys Availability + Data Quality +++ Surveys such as national and household travel surveys, vehicle inventory and use surveys are good sources of information on physical and operational characteristics of the vehicle population and provides insight on national and/or local travel patterns. In-use vehicle population data can be derived these surveys. For instance, the US Census Bureau s Vehicle Inventory and Use Surveys (VIUS) is one of the primary data sources for the US EPA s MOVES (Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator) Highway Vehicle Population and Activity Data. The VIUS was conducted for private and commercial trucks every five years. They collected information on physical characteristics (including purchase date, weight, number of axles, type of engine) and operational characteristics (including type of use, base of operation, gas mileage, annual and lifetime miles driven, weeks operated, commodities hauled by type). 34 Unfortunately, the VIUS was discontinued after 2002, posing a challenge in updating the vehicle fleet data for emissions estimations. The VIUS questionnaire is available online at Continuity of these surveys is important for updating vehicle fleet data, among others. Unfortunately, very few developing Asian countries conduct and/or update these surveys. For more information on travel survey methods, please visit: 2. Vehicle Registration Availability +++ Data Quality + Vehicle registration data is generally available in Asia. It is an easily accessible source for vehicle population information. Statistics departments are one of the major sources of vehicle registration data, usually providing free and online data. Vehicle registration statistics reported in statistical yearbooks are typically disaggregated into type of vehicle, type of ownership, type of registration. Vehicle weight and fuel used are also included for some countries. 34 US Census Bureau, [undated]. Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (discontinued after 2002). Last accessed: 26 May URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

97 Other information collected during vehicle registration, such as vehicle make, manufacture year, model, gross vehicle weight, purpose of use, cylinder capacity, seating capacity, is usually not publicly available and may be requested from Transport Ministries and Research Institutions, sometimes, for a fee. While vehicle registration data are fairly available, there are several data quality issues including, Irregular updating In Sri Lanka, for instance, vehicle registration is only conducted once (for new vehicles). The Department of Motor Traffic does not require annual registration of vehicles. As such, reported vehicle population is the cumulative new vehicle registration statistics. Inability to reflect and purge vehicles no longer fit to operate (because of age, etc.) and scrapped vehicles In Thailand, when in-use vehicle population was estimated using the Department of Land Transport s unpublished data sets, it was found that in-use vehicle numbers were about half the cumulative vehicle registration figures usually published. 35 Inability to take into account vehicles registered in city/district/zone but is plying in other cities and vice versa 3. Vehicle Production, Sales and Imports Availability ++ Data Quality ++ Vehicle production, sales and import statistics may be used to counter-check/ proper accounting of vehicle population data. Aside from Statistics departments, typical sources of this data include Industry and Trade ministries, industry associations (such as Automobile Manufacturers Associations), Customs departments, individual car manufacturers. In Asia, publicly available data is usually disaggregated by manufacturer, type of vehicle, type of make, type of fuel, engine capacity, type of model and use. However, level of data disaggregation of publicly available data differs greatly per country. Request for more detailed production, sales and import data may require fees. 4. Vehicle mortality equation Availability ++ Data Quality ++ With limited availability of vehicle inventory and use survey, household travel surveys and national travel surveys for developing Asian countries, the vehicle mortality equation may be used to estimate in-use vehicle population. Using this equation, the in-use vehicle population at the end of any year is equal to the vehicle population at the beginning of that year, less those vehicles removed from active service plus vehicles added to the active fleet. 36 The proportion of surviving vehicles of age X (defined as 1-mortality) usually follows a bell-shaped curve (retirements will start slowly, accelerate to some modal retirement age and decelerate thereafter until they are all gone). These bell-shaped functions are used to simulate the retirement of vehicles. The Winfrey S3 survival curve is often used because it has been directly tested 35 Pollution Control Department (PCD), Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land Transport: DIESEL Program, Status Report. Last Accessed: 26 May URL: 36 CTF/TFC.3/8, Clean Technology Fund Results Measurement System. Last accessed: 26 May URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

98 against empirical evidence on asset retirements and its parameters allow for various degrees of skewness and peakedness. Further information on the Winfrey mortality functions is available in OECD, Second Meeting of the Canberra Group on Capital Stock Statistics. Statistics Directorate: National Accounts Division. URL: Segment Y Automotive Intelligence Pvt. Ltd provides vehicle parc data for Asia, taking into consideration vehicle scrappage, age, among others. (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Data is usually available on an annual basis. (c) Disaggregation Disaggregation depends on data availability. At a minimum, this parameter will be disaggregated into By vehicle type By vehicle type and type of fuel used By technology type (Pre-Euro, Euro I, Euro II, Euro III, Euro IV, Euro V) (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for all emissions indicators for transport, except for road transport fuel consumption (e) References Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey: National Household Travel Survey (NHTS): Travel Survey Methods: Vehicle mortality equation: Clean Technology Fund (CTF)/ Trust Fund Committee (TFC).3/8, Clean Technology Fund Results Measurement System. Last accessed: 26 May URL: OECD, Second Meeting of the Canberra Group on Capital Stock Statistics. Statistics Directorate: National Accounts Division. OECD, Paris. Last Accessed: 14 June URL: OECD, Mortality and Survival Functions. Capital Stock Conference, Agenda Item V. Last Accessed: 14 June URL: Segment Y Automotive Intelligence Pvt. Ltd: Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Data & Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. The Center for Clean Air Policy in collaboration with Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Washington, D.C DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

99 Statistics Offices: Bangladesh: Bureau of Statistics: China: National Statistics Bureau: India: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation: Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik: Malaysia: Department of Statistics: Mongolia: National Statistics Office: Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistics: Pakistan: Statistics Division: Philippines: National Statistics Office: Singapore: Department of Statistics: Sri Lanka: Department of Census and Statistics: Thailand: National Statistics Office: Vietnam: General Statistics Office: Transport Ministries and Research Institutions: Bangladesh: Ministry of Communications: China: Ministry of Transportation: China Academy of Transportation Sciences China Urban Sustainable Transport Research Center: India: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways: Indonesia: Department of Transportation: Malaysia: Ministry of Transport: Mongolia: Ministry of Road, Transportation, Construction and Urban Development : Nepal: Ministry of Labor and Transport Management: Pakistan: Ministry of Communication: National Transport Research Centre: Philippines: Department of Transportation and Communication: National Center for Transportation Studies: Singapore: Ministry of Transport: Sri Lanka: Ministry of Transport: Thailand: Ministry of Transport: MOT/ Vietnam: Ministry of Transport: Transport Development and Strategy Institute: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

100 Automotive Manufacturers Associations China: China Association of Automobile Manufacturers: India: Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers: Indonesia: Gabungan Industri Kendaraan Bermotor Indonesia - Gaikindo (Association of Indonesian Automotive Industries): Asosiasi Industri Sepeda Motor Indonesia - AISI (Indonesian Motorcycles Industry Association): Pakistan: Pakistan Automotive Manufacturers Association: Philippines: Car Manufacturers Association of the Philippines: Vietnam: Vietnam Automobile Manufacturers Association: ASEAN: From Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc. (JAMA): DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

101 Average Vehicle Kilometer Travelled (VKT) Brief Definition Annual vehicle kilometers travelled is defined as the total distance travelled by motor vehicles in a defined location within a year. This is calculated by multiplying daily VKT with a daily-to-annual conversion factor for each year. Unit of Measurement: VKT per year METHODOLOGY For more information, please visit: (a) Data Sources 1. Estimated from Average Trip Length and Average Number of Trips A common method used to estimate average VKT is by multiplying the average trip length by the average number of trips. Average Trip Length is the average distance travelled during a trip, i.e., one-way between an origin and destination. It is often represented in kilometers. Average trip length is generally estimated as the ratio of total passenger-kilometers to the total number of trips and by using origin destination (O-D) surveys. Average Number of Trips by motorized transport modes refer to the average daily one-way trips between an origin and destination. In cases where no local studies are available, default values (provided in Annex B) may be used. 2. Surveys Origin and Destination (O-D) surveys are a prerequisite in determining the travel patterns and average trip length, which is used to estimate VKT. The O-D survey can be carried out through road side interview method, where about 20-25% of the vehicle users are interviewed to find out their travel details. It asks questions about each trip that is made on a specific day such as where the trip begins and ends, the purpose of the trip, the time of day, frequency and the transport mode involved. 37 It may include questions about the person making the trip, such as age, sex, income, and others. In Asia, O-D surveys are conducted as part of city traffic, transit and mobility plans or feasibility plans for new transport infrastructure investments. Data sources are transport ministries and departments, consultants and private sector engaged by Government and research institutes. Another method used to estimate VKT is the Number Plate survey, where the vehicle registration number and time is noted at major entry and exit points of the designated areas or a major corridor. These numbers are then compared to determine the trip length the movement patters of vehicles. 37 Garber, N., and Hoel, L., Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4 th Edition. Cengage Learning: USA DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

102 In the US, the Federal Highway Administration regularly releases Highway Statistics which contains vehicle miles of travel (VMT) data on a national and by state level, among others. The FHWA estimates national VMT using State-reported Highway Performance and Monitoring System (HPMS) data, including data from permanent automatic traffic recorders (ATR). The HPMS includes annual average daily traffic (AADT) 38 by road segment. AADTs are multiplied by the length of each road segment to get the daily VMT. When this is summed up for all road segments and days of the year, the annual VMT is derived. 39 In developing Asian countries, surveys such as O-D and number plate surveys are not conducted regularly, only on an ad hoc basis by transport ministries and research institutions. The scope of available data is very much limited by project specifications. It is typical to acquire annual VKT data for only a couple of years depending on when national/local projects were implemented. Further guidance in developing, conducting and analysing surveys are available here: a. UNECE, Handbook on Road Traffic Statistics: Methodology and Experience. URL: b. BTS, BTS Statistical Standards Manual. URL: c. US DOT, Guide to Good Statistical Practice in the Transportation Field. URL: 3. Average Odometer Readings Apart from origin and destination survey, odometer readings are another possible source for vehicle kilometer travelled data. If regularly monitored, odometer readings can provide records of accumulated distances travelled by vehicles. The general formula to estimate annual vehicle travelled using odometer readings is provided below: 40 Where: VKT i Annual traffic volume for the vehicle category i (vkm). R n T First odometer reading for the vehicle n in the category i (km). R n T+ΔT Second odometer reading for the vehicle n in the category i (km). 38 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) is defined as the average of 24 hour counts collected every day in the year. 39 US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, [undated]. Traffic Volume Trends. Policy Information, Travel Monitoring. Last Accessed: 27 May URL: 40 Azevedo, C. and Cardoso, J., Estimation of Annual Traffic Volumes: A Model For Portugal. Last Accessed: 27 May URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

103 ΔT Number of days between the first and the second odometer readings (days). N Number of inspected vehicles in the category i. F Total number of vehicles of the category i in the national vehicle fleet. Y Number of days in a year Aside from limited availability, another major constraint in using odometer readings in developing Asian countries is tampering of odometers to reduce the number of kilometres on the clock. This leads to underestimation of the yearly distance travelled. Other limitations with using odometer readings include different procedures for reading odometers (leading to incomparability between countries) and inability to cover geographical information (leading to inaccuracy when attributing odometer readings to a specific city/location). Further information is available in UNECE, Handbook on Road Traffic Statistics: Methodology and Experience. URL: 4. Other methods Lents, J., et al. (undated) proposed a number of methods to provide a rough estimation of the total VKT, including: 1. Conduct vehicle counts on a group of representative streets and extrapolate the data to the entire region of interest. 2. Determine percentage of certain vehicle types on the street and determine the amount of driving that those vehicles carry out, and then estimate the total VKT. 3. Determine typical daily driving of different vehicle types, the numbers of each of those vehicle types that operate on the streets each day, and then multiply the two and add the results. 4. Use aerial or satellite photography to count vehicles on different roadways and then extrapolate to the entire area of interest. These methods may be used when estimating VKT at small scales (i.e., specific road segment, city, district and provincial level). Further guidance on how to implement these estimation methods are provided in: Lents, J., Walsh, M., He, K., Davis, N., Osses, M., Tolvett, S., and Liu, H., [undated]. Handbook of Air Quality Management. Chapter 6.2 Estimating Emissions from On-Road Mobile Sources: Determination of Total Driving in a Region. URL: (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Depending on data availability and scope of traffic monitoring, this can be reported at a monthly basis (as in the US). In Asia, this is usually available as on an annual basis. (c) Disaggregation Disaggregation depends on data availability. At a minimum, this parameter will be disaggregated into (1) By vehicle type and (2) By vehicle type and type of fuel used 97 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

104 (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for all emissions indicators for transport, except for road transport fuel consumption. (e) References Sobey, E., A Field Guide to Roadside Technology. Chicago Review Press, Inc.: Illinois. CAI-Asia, Default Values for Transport Emissions Evaluation Model for Projects (TEEMP) Models for GEF Project Application. URL: Garber, N., and Hoel, L., Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4 th Edition. Cengage Learning: USA. Lents, J., Walsh, M., He, K., Davis, N., Osses, M., Tolvett, S., and Liu, H., [undated]. Handbook of Air Quality Management. Chapter 6.2 Estimating Emissions from On-Road Mobile Sources: Determination of Total Driving in a Region. URL: US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, [undated]. Traffic Volume Trends. Policy Information, Travel Monitoring. Last Accessed: 27 May URL: Highway Statistics URL: Traffic Monitoring Guide. URL: Department for Transport (DfT), [undated]. How National Traffic Estimates Are Made. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: The City of Calgary, Transportation Planning, Vehicle Kilometers Travelled in Calgary: Proposed Methodology. Last Accessed: 27 May URL: Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Data & Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. The Center for Clean Air Policy in collaboration with Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Washington, D.C. Azevedo, C. and Cardoso, J., Estimation of Annual Traffic Volumes: A Model For Portugal. Last Accessed: 27 May URL: 1).pdf UNECE, Handbook on Road Traffic Statistics: Methodology and Experience. Last Accessed 27 May URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

105 Average Speed Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: Average or mean travel speed of all vehicles at a specified location. Kilometers per hour METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources 1. Speed Surveys Average travel speed data is collected through speed surveys. This may be conducted at random, representative sites to provide an estimate of the speed profile for an area. Vehicle speeds measurement may be done manually by a surveyor. Traffic counters are also used to calculate vehicle speeds. Counters records the duration between the moment a vehicle s front tires depress the hose and the moment that its rear tires depress it. 41 Laser speed guns, which uses infrared laser light to measure vehicle speed, can also be used. Speed surveys can be conducted using handheld GPS equipment, using a technology beyond the traditional floating car methodology, 42 which is still used in many developing cities. 43 Unfortunately, speed surveys are not conducted regularly in developing Asian countries, only on an ad hoc basis by transport ministries and research institutions. Local police may also be a potential source of speed data as speed monitoring is within the jurisdiction of the police for some countries. A sample survey form for Travel Speed and Time Survey is available in the Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs): Preparation Toolkit at URL: 2. Speed flow equations Average speed of different traffic modes can also be derived using speed flow equations for particular roads using volume/capacity (V/C) ratio and saturation limits. The V/C ratio refers to the maximum ratio of the volume of traffic versus road capacity. A ratio of 1 means that the road has reached its rated capacity. The V/C ratio can go as high as 2.5, but this means that the traffic congestion is extremely high. For further guidance, read CAI-Asia, Default Values for Transport Emissions Evaluation Model for Projects (TEEMP) Models for GEF Project Application. URL: (b) Periodicity of Data Collection 41 Sobey, E., A Field Guide to Roadside Technology. Chicago Review Press, Inc.: Illinois. 42 Floating car runs is a source for point-to-point travel time. In this method, one or more vehicles are driven around the length of the facility several times during the analytical period where the mean travel time is computed. Source: US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Traffic Analysis Toolbox. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: 43 Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Data & Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. The Center for Clean Air Policy in collaboration with Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Washington, D.C DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

106 Depending on data availability and scope monitoring, this can be collected by the time of day. Several developed countries report speed survey reports per annum. (c) Disaggregation Disaggregation depends on data availability. At a minimum, this parameter will be disaggregated into (1) By vehicle type and (2) By vehicle type and type of fuel used (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for all emissions indicators for transport, except for road transport fuel consumption. (e) References Sobey, E., A Field Guide to Roadside Technology. Chicago Review Press, Inc.: Illinois. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, [undated]. Traffic Volume Trends. Policy Information, Travel Monitoring. Last Accessed: 27 May URL: US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Traffic Monitoring Guide. URL: Traffic Analysis Toolbox. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Data & Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. The Center for Clean Air Policy in collaboration with Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Washington, D.C DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

107 Emission Factors Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: An emission factor is a representative value that relates the quantity of a pollutant released to the atmosphere with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant. Source: US EPA, g/km METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources Emission factors are generally derived from dynamometer-based drive cycle tests to simulate typical driving conditions and traffic speeds. They are generally represented in grams per kilometer travelled or one of its derivatives. Fleet-based emission factors often used in sector calculations depend on "driving behaviour" (how do we drive), fleet characteristics (what vehicles we drive), "infrastructure and geographical conditions (where we drive). It is to be noted that "no two vehicles will have the same emission factor profile, even if they are nominally identical models, produced on the same day on the same production line. 44 A simplified description on emission factor development using the EMFAC7G emission model used by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) is provided below: 45 Emission factor is calculated as the summation of products of the model year emission factors ( ) and the corresponding travel fractions by model year ( ) (CARB, 1996): The model year emission factor ( ) is the product of the basic emission rate ( ) and various correction factors (CFs) as shown in the following equation (California Air Resources Board, 1996): Where BER denotes the base emission rate and the remaining variables are correction factors with respect to temperature (TCF), speed (SCF) or soak, fuel (FCF), cycle (CCF), and high emitter (HECF). 44 Pollution Control Department (PCD), DIESEL Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land Transport Program. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: 45 Lin, J., A Markov Process Approach to Driving Cycle Development DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

108 Base emission rates for emission factors development are typically generated by measuring emission concentrations for pollutants of concern, from a representative and statistically-significant sample of vehicles (considering age groups, engine types, vehicle types and fuels used), under conditions which closely replicate or correlate with actual in-use driving. Emission measurements are usually undertaken by driving each vehicle through a standardized test cycle (driving cycles) on a rolling road (or chassis ) dynamometer. Exhaust gas and particulate concentrations, fuel consumption and volumetric flow rates will be measured continuously. Vehicle speed is recorded on the same time base as emission measurements in order to allow pollutant emission rates to be linked with vehicle speed and distance travelled. Figure # Exhaust Emissions Test Procedure 46 In the Default Values for TEEMP Models for GEF Project Application Report, several studies in Asia were collated to provide an initial set of default values for the Asian fleet See Table 15 in Annex B. (b) Periodicity of Data Collection (c) Disaggregation This parameter will be disaggregated by vehicle type, fuel used and technology type (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for all emissions indicators for transport, except for road transport fuel consumption. (e) References CAI-Asia, Default Values for Transport Emissions Evaluation Model for Projects (TEEMP) Models for GEF Project Application. URL: Panya Warapetcharayut and Ittipol Paw-armart, [undated]. Emission Factor Development in Thailand. Automotive Air Pollution Section, Air Quality and Noise Management Bureau, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok, Thailand. Lin, J., A Markov Process Approach to Driving Cycle Development. 46 Panya Warapetcharayut and Ittipol Paw-armart, [undated]. Emission Factor Development in Thailand. Automotive Air Pollution Section, Air Quality and Noise Management Bureau, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok, Thailand DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

109 Automobile Research Association of India (ARAI) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India, Draft report on Emission Factor development for Indian Vehicles. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: Pollution Control Board (PCD), Thailand, DIESEL - Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land Transport Project. URL: Academic manuscript: Preparation of technical guidelines for estimating emission load from motor vehicles in Indonesia Biona, J.B.M., Culaba, A.B., and Purvis, M.R.I., Energy use and emissions of two strokepowered tricycles in Metro Manila. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment: Volume 12: 7, pp Nguyen Thi Kim Oanh and Mai Thi Thuy Phuong, Emission Inventory for Motorcycles in Hanoi using the International Vehicle Emission Model. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: Schipper, L., Cordeiro, M., Liska, R., Le Anh, T., Orn, H., and Ng, W., Measuring the Invisible: Quantifying Emissions Reductions from Transport Solutions, Hanoi Case Study. Embarq. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: 508c_eng.pdf Cherry, C., et al., Electric Bikes in the People s Republic of China: Impact on the Environment and Prospects for Growth. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: Strategies for Promotion of Energy Efficient and Cleaner Technologies in the Urban Transportation System in Selected Asian Countries. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), under the project Asian Regional Research Programme on Energy, Environment and Climate (ARRPEEC-III). University of Malaya, Final Report: Energy Use in the Transportation Sector of Malaysia. Report prepared under the Malaysian - Danish Environmental Cooperation Program and Renewable Energy and Efficiency Component DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

110 Average Fuel Efficiency Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: This is expressed as vehicle kilometers travelled per liter of fuel. Km/L METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources Typical sources of fuel efficiency data is from studies deriving emission factors for different vehicle types. Another possible source for fuel efficiency data is through interviews or surveys of fleet operators. In Asia, fuel efficiency measurements are typically done on an ad hoc basis by transport ministries, research institutions and universities. In cases where no local values are available, average fuel efficiency data from countries with relatively similar transport systems may be used for initial estimation. (b) Periodicity of Data Collection (c) Disaggregation This parameter is disaggregated by vehicle type and vehicle-fuel type. (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for all emissions indicators for transport, except for road transport fuel consumption. (e) References Biona, J.B.M., Culaba, A.B., and Purvis, M.R.I., Energy use and emissions of two strokepowered tricycles in Metro Manila. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment: Volume 12: 7, pp Pollution Control Board (PCD), Thailand, DIESEL - Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land Transport Project. URL: US EPA, SmartWay Fuel Efficiency Test Protocol for Medium and Heavy Duty Vehicles. Working Draft. Last Accessed: 31 May URL: Chaudhari, M.K., Fuel Economy Measurements Indian Perspective. ARAI. Presented at the National Media Workshop for Journalists on Fuel Efficiency Issues, Hyderabad, 12 August Last Accessed: 31 May URL: Transport and Traffic Planners, Inc., A Strategic Approach to Climate Change in the Philippines: An Assessment of Low-Carbon Interventions in the Transport and Power Sectors. Final Report. Last Accessed: 31 May URL: _Power.pdf DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

111 %Blend of Bio-fuels in fuels used for road transportation Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: Percent, % Percentage of bio-fuels blended/mixed in gasoline or diesel for road transportation. Widely-used liquid biofuels for transportation are ethanol and biodiesel. METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources 1. National bio-fuel mandates and targets Percent bio-fuels blend in gasoline or diesel for road transportation are usually specified in national mandates, targets and plans. A summary of national bio-fuel mandates and targets for selected Asian countries are provided below. Table 9: Summary of National Bio-fuels Mandates and Targets in Selected Asian Countries Country Ethanol Biodiesel Brunei Darussalam X X China Increase production to 3 million tons/year by 2010 and to 10 million tons/year by 2020 Increase production to 300,000 tons/year in 2010 and 2 million tons/year in 2020 Hong Kong SAR, X X P.R. China Indonesia 2% biofuels in the energy mix by 2010; 3% by 2015; 5% by 2025 Japan 500 million liters by 2010 X Korea X B3 by 2012 Malaysia X B5 mandated in Government suspended implementation due to the palm oil supply and price considerations Philippines E5 by 2009; E10 by 2011 B1 since May 2007; B2 in 2009 Singapore X X Taipei,China Thailand 3% ethanol in gasoline mandate planned for 2011 and compulsory goal of 2% biodiesel in diesel fuel planned to be available nationwide by 2010 X DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION X B2 since February 2008; B5 in 2011; B10 in 2012 Vietnam 500 million liters by million liters by 2020 Source: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and Winrock International, "Sustainable Biofuel Development Policies, Programs, and Practices in APEC Economies and APEC, The Future of Liquid Bio-fuels for APEC Economies. Energy Working Group.

112 (b) Periodicity of Data Collection (c) Disaggregation (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for all emissions indicators for transport, except for road transport fuel consumption. (e) References Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and Winrock International, "Sustainable Biofuel Development Policies, Programs, and Practices in APEC Economies." Winrock International. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: APEC, The Future of Liquid Bio-fuels for APEC Economies. Energy Working Group. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

113 Average Occupancy Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: Average vehicle occupancy is calculated as person-kilometers per vehicle kilometers or simply as the number of people travelling divided by the number of vehicles. Higher the occupancy rates, the lesser the emissions per person trips. Persons-kilometers per vehicle kilometers METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources 1. Vehicle Occupancy Data Collection Methods Traditional methodologies in determining average vehicle occupancy include the roadside windshield observation method and the carousal observational methods. Other methods which may be used in collecting vehicle occupancy data include photographic surveillance, mail-out or telephone surveys, and accident database extraction methods. The US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration s 1997 report on Improved Vehicle Occupancy Data Collection Methods provides more information on these methods, including guidance in selecting appropriate method to be used based on study requirements. Read the full report here: In developing Asian countries, vehicle occupancy data is typically collected on an ad hoc basis by transport ministries, consultants/private sector engaged by government and research institutions. A challenge in vehicle occupancy collection is that there are several and varying vehicle types in Asia. 47 This includes informal vehicle types which seat more than the capacity of the vehicle. As such, an on-board survey may be considered to assess vehicle occupancy. In cases where no local studies are available, default values (provided in Annex B) may be used. (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Average vehicle occupancy estimates may be collected on a per-hour, day, month or annual basis. (c) Disaggregation This parameter is disaggregated by vehicle type. (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for the following indicators: Road transport CO 2 emissions per passenger km Road transport PM emissions per passenger km Road transport NO x emissions per passenger km 47 Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Data & Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. The Center for Clean Air Policy in collaboration with Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Washington, D.C DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

114 (e) References CAI-Asia, Default Values for Transport Emissions Evaluation Model for Projects (TEEMP) Models for GEF Project Application. URL: US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, Final Report Improved Vehicle Occupancy Data Collection Methods. Last Accessed: 30 May URL: Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Data & Capacity Needs for Transportation NAMAs, Report 1: Data Availability. The Center for Clean Air Policy in collaboration with Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Washington, D.C DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

115 Average Vehicle Loading Brief Definition Average loading is calculated by dividing annual freight transport performance (ton-km) by the corresponding laden distance travelled (vehicle-km). Unit of Measurement: Tons METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources 1. Surveys Road freight information is typically collected through surveys such as the Axle Load survey. Axle load surveys are carried out for individual trucks to determine the load they are carrying. It is a simple method where all the axles of the truck are moved over a weighing pad and then the loading is determined as an equivalent standard axle. This survey is usually carried out while planning for a road projects to determine the pavement composition. Load data can also be collected from toll operators and road concessionaires if additional toll is charged for overloading. Another possible data source on vehicle loads are the weigh bridges located on highways. However, researchers need to physically visit the place to collect the data. Rizet (2008) classified three approaches in collection and analysis of road freight data: 48 Vehicle approach data collected on a per-vehicle and per trip basis. Data collected is a good basis for a bottom-up approach and is useful in undertaking a detailed assessment of measures to improve vehicle performance. One limitation in using this method, as discussed by Rizet (2008), is that it does not incorporate transport chains or shippers. Shipper and transport chain approach provides an overview of shippers transport operations and examines inter-relationships between transport configuration, modal changes and logistics structures. 49 An example of this approach is the US Commodity Flow Surveys (CFS). The CFS is a shipper-based surveys and provides data on movement of goods in the US, including information on commodities shipped, their value, weight, and mode of transportation, as well as the origin and destination of shipments of commodities. 50 It is conducted every five years as a partnership between the Bureau of Transportation Statistics and the US Census Bureau. A limitation in 48 Rizet, C, Approaches of Freight Transport Energy Analysis. Presentation at the IEA Workshop on New Energy Indicators for Transport: the Way Forward Paris, January Last Accessed: 31 May URL: 49 McKinnon, A. and Leonardi, J., The Collection of Long Distance Road Freight Data in Europe. Resource Paper for workshop: B6: The Acquisition of Long Distance Freight Data at the 8 th International Conference on Survey Methods in Transport, Annecy, France, May US Census Bureau and Bureau of Transportation Statistics, [undated] Commodity Flow Surveys. Last Accessed 31 May URL: and DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

116 conducting these surveys is the high cost to conduct the survey and the work involved setting up the database. Supply chain approach which traces movement of particular products through a supply chain from the producer to the final consumer, and monitors the amount of transport generated, energy consumed and emissions released. 51 As with other activity data, this is only collected on an ad hoc basis by transport ministries, consultants/private sector engaged by government and research institutions. Further guidance in developing, conducting and analysing surveys are available here: a. BTS, BTS Statistical Standards Manual. URL: b. US DOT, Guide to Good Statistical Practice in the Transportation Field. URL: (b) Periodicity of Data Collection (c) Disaggregation This parameter is disaggregated by vehicle type and vehicle-fuel type. (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed This input parameter will be used for the following indicators: (e) References Road transport CO 2 emissions per freight ton-km Road transport PM emissions per freight ton-km Road transport NO x emissions per freight ton-km Rizet, C, Approaches of Freight Transport Energy Analysis. Presentation at the IEA Workshop on New Energy Indicators for Transport: the Way Forward Paris, January Last Accessed: 31 May URL: McKinnon, A. and Leonardi, J., The Collection of Long Distance Road Freight Data in Europe. Resource Paper for workshop: B6: The Acquisition of Long Distance Freight Data at the 8 th International Conference on Survey Methods in Transport, Annecy, France, May US Census Bureau and Bureau of Transportation Statistics, [undated] Commodity Flow Surveys. Last Accessed 31 May URL: and 51 McKinnon, A. and Leonardi, J., The Collection of Long Distance Road Freight Data in Europe. Resource Paper for workshop: B6: The Acquisition of Long Distance Freight Data at the 8 th International Conference on Survey Methods in Transport, Annecy, France, May DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

117 BTS, BTS Statistical Standards Manual. URL: US DOT, Guide to Good Statistical Practice in the Transportation Field. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

118 3.3 AP and GHG Emissions Indicators for Energy (Electricity Generation) E01 TOTAL CARBON DIOXIDE (CO 2 ) EMISSIONS (FROM ELECTRICITY GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition E01 Total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation is disaggregated by source type. This indicator is also assessed on a per kwh basis. Unit of Measurement: Million metric tons of CO 2 (million tons CO 2 ) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation as an indicator of the country s dependence for electrical energy. It can be used to evaluate the various measures used in the mitigation of climate change related with electricity generation by tracking the release of emissions into the atmosphere. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005) (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for each Annex I party with a view to reducing these Parties overall CO 2 emissions as part of the six main GHGs by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period of METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, CO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the absence of or incompleteness of such data, Direct CO 2 emissions are calculated from the sum of the product of electricity generation (in megawatt-hours [MWh]) and CO 2 emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas). E-Total CO2 = Σ a [EG a EF-CO 2 a ] Where: E-Total CO2 = Total CO 2 emissions (from electricity generation) EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-CO 2 a = CO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) 52 The targets cover emissions of the six main greenhouse gases, namely: Carbon dioxide (CO 2); Methane (CH 4); Nitrous oxide (N 2O); Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

119 a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated further by source type. This indicator is also assessed on the per kwh basis. E02 - CO 2 emissions by source type E03 - CO 2 emissions per kwh (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of CO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level and may also be unavailable for some sources in some countries. Electricity generated in one country may also be exported to other countries (e.g. China to Vietnam) so it may not exactly represent the emissions relevant to local electricity demand. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency (IEA) o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change o World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments also report this indicator as part of their National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGHGI) for the National Communication on Climate Change to UNFCCC. REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: European Environment Agency Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

120 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf United States Environmental Protection Agency Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

121 E02 CO 2 EMISSIONS BY SOURCE TYPE (GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition E02 This indicator measures CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using specific source types, categorized as: (a) Coal - carbonized vegetal matter in the form of combustible black or brownishblack sedimentary rock. Categorized based on carbon content, it may include hard coal, lignite, peat, patent fuel, and coke. (b) Oil - mixture of hydrocarbons of variable density and viscosity. It may include residual oil, distillate oil, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, and liquid petroleum gas. (c) Natural gas mixture of several gases, mainly methane occurring naturally in underground deposits. It may include non-associated [with oil] gas, associated gas [with oil], and those recovered from coal mines and sewage gas. Unit of Measurement: Million metric tons of CO 2 (million tons CO 2 ) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using specific source types. It shows the implication of the mix of fuel sources used to generate electricity. High levels indicate a dependence on fuels that are more carbon-intensive than others e.g. coal. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005) (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards: The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for each Annex I party with a view to reducing these Parties overall CO 2 emissions as part of the six main GHGs by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period of METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, CO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the absence of or incompleteness of such data, fuel-specific CO 2 emissions are calculated from the product of electricity generated in MWh and CO 2 emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas). E-ST CO2 = EG a EF-CO 2 a Where: E-ST CO2 = CO 2 emissions per source type EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-CO 2 a = CO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

122 (b) Sub- and associated Indicators: Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by source type. E02a - CO 2 emissions from coal E02b - CO 2 emissions from oil E02c - CO 2 emissions from natural gas (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of CO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level. It may also be unavailable for some sources in some countries. Other sources of electricity generation such as hydropower, geothermal, and other renewable energy such as solar, wind, and biomass are considered to have zero emissions with emissions from nuclear power not considered. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change o World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: European Environment Agency Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

123 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf United States Environmental Protection Agency Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

124 E03 CO 2 EMISSIONS PER KWH (GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E03 This indicator measures the rate of CO 2 emissions emitted from electricity in the country. In some cases, this is referred to as the carbon intensity of electricity generation. Kilograms of CO 2 per kilowatt-hour (kg CO 2 /kwh) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using different source types. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of electricity generation. It reflects the amount of emissions per unit of electricity generated. Carbon dioxide from electricity generation (sometimes called carbon intensity) indicates that the lower the carbon intensity, the more the country relies upon nonfossil fuel sources of energy for electricity generation (alternative and renewable energy). (b) International Conventions and Agreements Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005) (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for each Annex I party with a view to reducing these Parties overall CO 2 emissions as part of the six main GHGs by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period of METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, CO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the incompleteness or absence of such data, CO 2 emissions are calculated from electricity output (generation) data. CO 2 emissions per kwh is estimated from the sum of the product of electricity generation (MWh) and CO 2 emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas), divided by total electricity output. E-kWh CO2 = Σ a [EG a EF-CO 2a ]/ Σ[EG b ] Where: E-kWh CO2 = CO 2 emissions per kwh (CO 2 /kwh) EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-CO 2 a = CO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

125 EG b = total electricity generated in kwh including from renewable, nuclear power, hydro and geothermal sources (b) Sub- and associated Indicators (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of CO 2 emissions released per kwh of domestically generated electricity. This does not take into account carbon dependence of imported electricity. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o World Water Assessment Programme REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

126 E04 CO 2 EMISSIONS BY END-USE SECTOR (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code Brief Definition E04 This indicator measures CO 2 emitted in the country due to electricity use by different sectors, categorized as (a) Residential sector - living quarters for private households. (b) Commercial sector - service-providing facilities and equipment of business, government, private and public organizations. (c) Industrial sector - facilities and equipment used for producing, processing, or assembling goods. (d) Transport sector - vehicles/systems whose primary purpose is transporting people and/or goods from one physical location using land-, water-, and air-based transportation. (e) Other sectors - may vary per country (f) Own-use and losses - non-revenue electricity i.e. transmission losses, distribution losses, and own-use consumption. Unit of Measurement: Million metric tons of CO 2 (million tons CO 2 ) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity consumption by different end-users. It is able to show which sector consumes more electricity relative to others and consequently account for more emissions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005) (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for each Annex I party with a view to reducing these Parties overall CO 2 emissions as part of the six main GHGs by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period of METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods CO 2 emissions relevant to end users are calculated from the product of electricity consumption by enduse sector and E03 CO 2 emissions per kwh generated or the weighted CO 2 emission factor according to the source type (coal, oil, natural gas, including renewable sources) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

127 E-ES CO2 = EC c EF-CO 2 aw Where: E-ES CO2 = CO 2 emissions by end-use sector EC c = Electricity consumption (MWh) EF-CO 2 aw = CO 2 emission factor weighted according to source type (tons/mwh) aw = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by end-use sector. E03a - CO 2 emissions from residential sector E03b - CO 2 emissions from commercial sector E03c - CO 2 emissions from industrial sector E03d - CO 2 emissions from transport sector E03e - CO 2 emissions from other sectors E03f - CO 2 emissions from own-use and losses (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of CO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere attributed to electricity use by specific sectors. In electricity grids, it is not possible to identify which specific fuel source contributed to electricity used by specific sectors, thus CO 2 emission factor is a weighted value from the contribution of different fuel sources.. Data is usually found in the country level or by electricity distributor level which may not represent political boundaries such as cities. Consumption data are based on meter/consumer categorization from distribution companies but not necessarily on actual use (e.g., a residential connection may have been used for commercial operation). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change o World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

128 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

129 E04 CO 2 EMISSIONS PER GDP (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E04 This indicator also known as CO 2 intensity refers to the CO 2 emitted from electricity consumption in the country per unit of economic output (i.e. gross domestic product, GDP). GDP used is GDP (constant US$). Constant price estimates are obtained by expressing values in terms of a base period. This eliminates the effect of inflation on the United States dollar value. Kilograms of CO 2 per United States Dollar (kg CO 2 /USD) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity consumption per unit of economic output. CO 2 intensity changes year by year reflecting the end-use efficiency, share of economic output which relies on electricity, the carbon content of sources used for electricity generation, as well as the income levels and behavior of consumers. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of economic activity. It reflects the amount of emissions per GDP. Low carbon intensity indicates that the country relies upon non-fossil fuel sources of energy for electricity generation. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005) (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for each Annex I party with a view to reducing these Parties overall CO 2 emissions as part of the six main GHGs by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period of METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, CO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. CO 2 emissions linked with economic output can be calculated from total CO 2 emissions from electricity consumption divided by GDP at constant prices DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

130 E-GDP CO2 = Σ[EC c EF-CO 2 ]/GDP Where: E-GDP CO2 = CO 2 emissions per GDP EC c = Electricity consumption (MWh) EF-CO 2 a = CO 2 emission factors according end-use sector GDP = GDP constant (US$) a = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of CO 2 emissions (both direct and indirect) released into the atmosphere from electricity consumption only. Data is usually found in the country level. Data depends heavily on economic factors. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change o World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

131 International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

132 E05 CO 2 EMISSIONS PER CAPITA (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E05 This indicator measures CO 2 emitted in the country due to consumption of electricity by the population, categorized as: (a) urban population total number of persons inhabiting urban areas in a country (b) population with access to electricity total number of persons with access to electricity in a country Kilograms of CO 2 per capita (kg CO 2 /capita) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using different source types per capita. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of population. It reflects the amount of emissions per capita. In many developing countries the proportion of households with access to electricity are low depending on the level of grid infrastructure and urbanization. (b) International Conventions and Agreements Kyoto Protocol to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (adopted in December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005) (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for each Annex I party with a view to reducing these Parties overall CO 2 emissions as part of the six main GHGs by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period of METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods CO 2 emissions per capita are calculated from total CO 2 emissions from consumption divided by respective population type (urban population and population with access to electricity). E-C CO2 = Σ a [EC c EF-CO 2 a ]/Capita d Where: E-C CO2 = CO 2 emissions per capita EC C = Electricity consumption (MWh) EF-CO 2 a = CO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) Capita d = Capita according to population type (persons) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

133 c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) d = population type (urban population, and population with access to electricity) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by population. E05a - CO 2 emissions per capita urban population E05b - CO 2 emissions per capita population with access to electricity (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of CO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level. It may also not be available for some sources in some countries. In developing countries, some areas may not have access to electricity. The indicator may not give a good picture of the average consumer. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change o World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: European Environment Agency Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

134 United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf United States Environmental Protection Agency Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

135 E07 TOTAL PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) EMISSIONS (FROM ELECTRICITY GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E07 Total PM emitted in the country from electricity generation is disaggregated by source type. This indicator is also assessed on a per kwh basis. Thousand metric tons of PM (thousand tons PM) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total PM emitted in the country from electricity generation. It can be used to evaluate the various measures used in the mitigation of air pollution related with electricity generation by tracking the release of emissions into the atmosphere. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements include the Malé Declaration for South Asia and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution for South East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for PM. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, PM emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the absence of or incompleteness of such data, Direct PM emissions are calculated from the sum of the product of electricity generation (MWh) and PM emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas). E-Total PM = Σ a [EG a EF-PM a] Where: E-Total PM = Total PM emissions (from electricity generation) EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-PM a = PM emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

136 (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated further by source type. This indicator is also assessed on the per kwh basis. E08 - CO 2 emissions by source type E09 - CO 2 emissions per kwh (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of PM emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level. It may also not be available for some sources in some countries. If locally generated emission factors for PM are not readily available, PM emission factors used are default values sourced from AP42 of United States Environmental Protection Agency or Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Emissions Inventory Manual. PM emissions are abated by technologies such as filters. The information on extent to which these technologies are used and abatement efficiency is not readily available. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency National - Some national governments track emissions from electricity generation i.e. the United States and several European countries. This is seldom done for Asian countries except China and Japan. REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: European Environment Agency Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

137 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf United States Environmental Protection Agency Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: United States Environmental Protection Agency Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

138 E08 PM EMISSIONS BY SOURCE TYPE (GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E08 This indicator measures PM emitted in the country from electricity generation using specific source types, categorized as:* (a) Coal (b) Oil (c) Natural gas *Definitions can be found E02 CO 2 emissions by source type Thousand metric tons of PM (thousand tons PM) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total PM emitted in the country from electricity generation using specific source types. It shows the implication of the mix of fuel sources used to generate electricity. High levels indicate dependence on fuels that generate particulate matter than others. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements include the Malé Declaration for South Asia and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution for South East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for PM. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, PM emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the absence of or incompleteness of such data, fuel-specific PM emissions are calculated from the product of electricity generated in MWh and PM emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas). E-ST PM = EG a EF-PM a Where: E-ST PM = PM emissions per source type EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-PM a = PM emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

139 (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by source type. E08a - PM emissions from coal E08b - PM emissions from oil E08c - PM emissions from natural gas (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of PM emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level. It may also not be available for some sources in some countries. Other sources of electricity generation such as hydropower, geothermal, and other renewable energy such as solar, wind, and biomass are considered to have zero emissions with emissions from nuclear power not considered. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: European Environment Agency Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: International Atomic Energy Agency, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

140 United States Environmental Protection Agency Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: United States Environmental Protection Agency Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

141 E09 PM EMISSIONS PER KWH (GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E09 This indicator measures the rate of CO 2 emissions emitted from electricity in the country. Grams of PM per kilowatt-hour (g PM/kWh) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total PM emitted in the country from electricity generation using different source types. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of electricity generation. It reflects the amount of emissions per unit of electricity generated. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements include the Malé Declaration for South Asia and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution for South East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for PM. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, PM emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the incompleteness or absence of such data, PM emissions are calculated from electricity output (generation) data. CO 2 emissions per kwh is estimated from the sum of the product of electricity generation (MWh) and PM emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas), divided by total electricity output. E-kWh PM = Σ a [EG a EF-PM a]/ Σ[EG b ] Where: E-kWh PM = PM emissions per kwh (PM/kWh) EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-PM a = PM emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) EG b = total electricity generated in kwh including from renewable, nuclear power, hydro and geothermal sources DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

142 (b) Sub- and associated Indicators (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of PM emissions released per kwh of domestically generated electricity. This does not take into account particulate matter dependence of imported electricity. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o World Water Assessment Programme REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA AND OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

143 E10 PM EMISSIONS BY END-USE SECTOR (GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E10 This indicator measures PM emitted in the country due to consumption of electricity by different end-use sectors, categorized as* (a) Residential sector (b) Commercial sector (c) Industrial sector (d) Transport sector (e) Other sectors (f) Own-use and losses *Definitions can be found E04 CO 2 emissions by end-use sector Thousand metric tons of PM (thousand tons PM) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total PM emitted in the country from electricity consumption by different end-users. It is able to show which sector consumes more electricity relative to others and consequently account for more emissions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements include the Malé Declaration for South Asia and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution for South East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for PM. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods PM emissions relevant to end users are calculated from the product of electricity consumption by enduse sector and E09 PM emissions per kwh generated or the weighted PM emission factor according to the source type (coal, oil, natural gas, including renewable sources). Where: E-ES PM = PM emissions by end-use sector EC c = Electricity consumption (MWh) E-ES PM = EC c EF-PM aw DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

144 EF-PM aw = PM emission factor weighted according to source type (tons/mwh) aw = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by end-use sector. E10a - PM emissions from residential sector E10b - PM emissions from commercial sector E10c - PM emissions from industrial sector E10d - PM emissions from transport sector E10e - PM emissions from other sectors E10f - PM emissions from own-use and losses (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of PM emissions released into the atmosphere attributed to electricity use by specific sectors. In electricity grids, it is not possible to identify which specific fuel source contributed to electricity used by specific sectors, thus PM emission factor is a weighted value from the contribution of different fuel sources. Data is usually found in the country level or by electricity distributor level which may not represent political boundaries such as cities. Consumption data are based on meter/consumer categorization from distribution companies but not necessarily on actual use (e.g., a residential connection may have been used for commercial operation). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA AND OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

145 IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

146 E11 PM EMISSIONS PER GDP (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code E11 This indicator refers to PM emitted from electricity consumption in the country per unit of economic output (i.e. gross domestic product, GDP). Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: GDP used is GDP (Constant US$). Constant price estimates are obtained by expressing values in terms of a base period. This eliminates the effect of inflation on the United States dollar value. Grams of PM per United States Dollar (g PM/USD) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total PM emitted in the country from electricity consumption per unit of economic output. PM intensity changes year by year reflecting the end-use efficiency, share of economic output which relies on electricity, the particulate matter content of sources used for electricity generation, as well as the income levels and behavior of consumers. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of economic activity. It reflects the amount of emissions per GDP. Low PM intensity indicates that the country relies upon non-fossil fuel sources of energy for electricity generation. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements include the Malé Declaration for South Asia and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution for South East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for PM. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, PM emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. PM emissions linked with economic output can be calculated from total CO2 emissions from electricity consumption divided by GDP at constant prices DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

147 E-GDP PM = Σ[EC c EF-PM]/GDP Where: E-GDP PM = PM emissions per GDP EC c = Electricity consumption (MWh) EF-PM a = PM emission factors according end-use sector GDP = GDP constant (US$) a = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses (b) Sub- and associated Indicators (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of PM emissions (both direct and indirect) released into the atmosphere from electricity consumption only. Data is usually found in the country level. Data depends heavily on economic factors. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA AND OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

148 United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

149 E12 PM EMISSIONS PER CAPITA (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E12 This indicator measures PM emitted in the country due to generation of electricity by total population, categorized as:* (a) urban population (b) population with access to electricity *Definitions can be found E06 CO 2 emissions by capita Kilograms of PM per capita (kg PM/capita) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total PM emitted in the country from electricity generation using different source types per capita. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of population. It reflects the amount of emissions per capita. In many developing countries the proportion of households with access to electricity are low depending on the level of grid infrastructure and urbanization. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements include the Malé Declaration for South Asia and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution for South East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for PM. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods PM emissions per capita are calculated from total PM emissions from consumption divided by respective population type (urban population and population with access to electricity). E-C CO2 = Σ a [EC c EF-PM a ]/Capita d Where: E-C PM = CO 2 emissions per capita EC C = Electricity consumption (MWh) EF-PM a = CO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) Capita d = Capita according to population type (persons) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

150 c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) d = population type (urban population, and population with access to electricity) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by population. E12a - PM emissions per capita urban population E12b PM emissions per capita population with access to electricity (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of PM emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level. It may also not be available for some sources in some countries. In developing countries, some areas may not have access to electricity. The indicator may not give a good picture of the average consumer. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA AND OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Water Development Report Indicators. URL: _production.pdf DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

151 US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

152 E13 TOTAL SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO 2 ) EMISSIONS (FROM ELECTRICITY GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition E13 Total SO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation is disaggregated by source type. This indicator is also assessed on a per kwh basis. Unit of Measurement: Thousand metric tons of SO 2 (thousand tons SO 2 ) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total CO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation as an indicator of the country s dependence for electrical energy. It can be used to evaluate the various measures used in the mitigation of air pollution change related with electricity generation by tracking the release of emissions into the atmosphere. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements and networks include the Malé Declaration for South Asia, Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia for East Asia, North-East Asian Subregional Programme for Environmental Cooperation for North- East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for SO 2. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, SO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the absence of or incompleteness of such data, Direct SO 2 emissions are calculated from the sum of the product of electricity generation (MWh) and CO 2 emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas). E-Total SO2 = Σ a [EG a EF-SO 2 a ] Where: E-Total SO2 = Total SO 2 emissions (from electricity generation) EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-SO 2 a = SO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

153 (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated further by source type. This indicator is also assessed on the per kwh basis. E14 - SO 2 emissions by source type E15 - SO 2 emissions per kwh (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of SO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level and may also be unavailable for some sources in some countries. Electricity generated in one country may also be exported to other countries (e.g. China to Vietnam) so it may not exactly represent the emissions relevant to local electricity demand. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency National - Some national governments track emissions from electricity generation i.e. the United States and several European countries. This is seldom done for Asian countries except China and Japan. REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

154 Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

155 E14 SO 2 EMISSIONS BY SOURCE TYPE (GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E14 This indicator measures SO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using specific source types, categorized as:* (a) Coal (b) Oil *Definitions can be found E02 CO 2 emissions by source type Thousand metric tons of SO 2 (thousand tons SO 2 ) Thousand metric tons of SO 2 (thousand tons SO 2 ) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total SO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using specific source types. It shows the implication of the mix of fuel sources used to generate electricity. High levels indicate a dependence on fuels that generation more SO 2 than others e.g. coal. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements and networks include the Malé Declaration for South Asia, Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia for East Asia, North-East Asian Subregional Programme for Environmental Cooperation for North- East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for SO 2. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, SO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the absence of or incompleteness of such data, fuel-specific SO 2 emissions are calculated from the product of electricity generated in MWh and SO 2 emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas). E-ST SO2 = EG a EF-SO 2 a Where: E-ST SO2 = SO 2 emissions per source type EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-SO 2 a = SO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

156 (b) Sub- and associated Indicators: Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by source type. E14a - SO 2 emissions from coal E14b - SO 2 emissions from oil (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of SO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level. It may also be unavailable for some sources in some countries. Other sources of electricity generation such as hydropower, geothermal, and other renewable energy such as solar, wind, and biomass are considered to have zero emissions with emissions from nuclear power not considered. There is limited information on SO 2 abatement technologies use and efficiency. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: sei-international.org/rapidc/gapforum/html/reports/forum_emissions_manual_v1_7.pdf IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for US EPA - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

157 E15 SO 2 EMISSIONS PER KWH (GENERATION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E15 This indicator measures the rate of SO 2 emissions emitted from electricity in the country. Grams of SO 2 per kilowatt-hour (g SO 2 /kwh) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total SO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using different source types. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of electricity generation. It reflects the amount of emissions per unit of electricity generated. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements and networks include the Malé Declaration for South Asia, Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia for East Asia, North-East Asian Subregional Programme for Environmental Cooperation for North- East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for SO 2. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, SO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. However, in the incompleteness or absence of such data, SO 2 emissions are calculated from electricity output (generation) data. SO 2 emissions per kwh is estimated from the sum of the product of electricity generation (MWh) and SO 2 emission factors according to the source type (coal, oil, and natural gas), divided by total electricity output. E-kWh SO2 = Σ a [EG a EF-SO 2a ]/ Σ[EG b ] Where: E-kWh SO2 = SO 2 emissions per kwh (SO 2 /kwh) EG a = Electricity generation (MWh) EF-SO 2 a = SO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

158 EG b = total electricity generated in kwh including from renewable, nuclear power, hydro and geothermal sources (b) Sub- and associated Indicators (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of SO 2 emissions released per kwh of domestically generated electricity. This does not take into account sulfur dependence of imported electricity. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

159 E16 SO 2 EMISSIONS BY END-USE SECTOR (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code Brief Definition E16 This indicator measures SO 2 emitted in the country due to consumption of electricity by different end-use sectors, categorized as:* (a) Residential sector (b) Commercial sector (c) Industrial sector (d) Transport sector (e) Other sectors (f) Own-use and losses *Definitions can be found E04 CO 2 emissions by end-use sector Unit of Measurement: Thousand metric tons of SO 2 (thousand tons SO 2 ) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total SO 2 emitted in the country from electricity consumption by different end-users. It is able to show which sector consumes more electricity relative to others and consequently account for more emissions. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements and networks include the Malé Declaration for South Asia, Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia for East Asia, North-East Asian Subregional Programme for Environmental Cooperation for North- East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for SO 2. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods SO 2 emissions relevant to end users are calculated from the product of electricity consumption by enduse sector and E15 SO 2 emissions per kwh generated or the weighted SO 2 emission factor according to the source type (coal, oil, natural gas, including renewable sources). E-ES SO2 = EC c EF-SO 2 aw Where: E-ES SO2 = SO 2 emissions by end-use sector EC c = Electricity consumption (MWh) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

160 EF-SO 2 aw = SO 2 emission factor weighted according to source type (tons/mwh) aw = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by end-use sector. E16a - SO 2 emissions from residential sector E16b - SO 2 emissions from commercial sector E16c - SO 2 emissions from industrial sector E16d - SO 2 emissions from transport sector E16e - SO 2 emissions from other sectors E16f - SO 2 emissions from own-use and losses (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of SO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere attributed to electricity use by specific sectors. In electricity grids, it is not possible to identify which specific fuel source contributed to electricity used by specific sectors, thus SO 2 emission factor is a weighted value from the contribution of different fuel sources. Data is usually found in the country level or by electricity distributor level which may not represent political boundaries such as cities. Consumption data are based on meter/consumer categorization from distribution companies but not necessarily on actual use (e.g., a residential connection may have been used for commercial operation). ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

161 IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

162 E17 SO 2 EMISSIONS PER GDP (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code E17 This indicator refers to SO 2 emitted from electricity consumption in the country per unit of economic output (i.e. gross domestic product, GDP). Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: GDP used is GDP (Constant US$). Constant price estimates are obtained by expressing values in terms of a base period. This eliminates the effect of inflation on the United States dollar value. Kilograms of SO 2 per United States Dollar (kg SO 2 /USD) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total SO 2 emitted in the country from electricity consumption per unit of economic output. Sulfur intensity changes year by year reflecting the end-use efficiency, share of economic output which relies on electricity, the sulfur content of sources used for electricity generation, as well as the income levels and behavior of consumers. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of economic activity. It reflects the amount of emissions per GDP. Low sulfur intensity indicates that the country relies upon non-fossil fuel sources of energy for electricity generation. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements and networks include the Malé Declaration for South Asia, Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia for East Asia, North-East Asian Subregional Programme for Environmental Cooperation for North- East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for SO 2. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods When possible, SO 2 emissions should be measured directly at the source of electricity generation. SO 2 emissions linked with economic output can be calculated from total SO 2 emissions from electricity consumption divided by GDP at constant prices DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

163 E-GDP SO2 = Σ[EC c EF-SO 2 ]/GDP Where: E-GDP SO2 = SO 2 emissions per GDP EC c = Electricity consumption (MWh) EF-SO 2 a = SO 2 emission factors according end-use sector GDP = GDP constant (US$) a = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of SO 2 emissions (both direct and indirect) released into the atmosphere from electricity consumption only. Data is usually found in the country level. Data depends heavily on economic factors. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

164 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

165 E18 SO 2 EMISSIONS PER CAPITA (CONSUMPTION) Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E18 This indicator measures SO 2 emitted in the country due to generation of electricity by total population, categorized as:* (a) urban population (b) population with access to electricity *Definitions can be found E06 CO 2 emissions by capita Metric tons SO 2 per capita (tons SO 2 /capita) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures the total SO 2 emitted in the country from electricity generation using different source types per capita. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of population. It reflects the amount of emissions per capita. In many developing countries the proportion of households with access to electricity are low depending on the level of grid infrastructure and urbanization. (b) International Conventions and Agreements International agreements are made usually to address transboundary air pollution. For Asia, agreements and networks include the Malé Declaration for South Asia, Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia for East Asia, North-East Asian Subregional Programme for Environmental Cooperation for North- East Asia. In addition, countries in the northern hemisphere though the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe have agreed on the Convention on Long-range transboundary pollution. (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards WHO air quality guidelines exist for SO 2. As a criteria pollutant, many countries have also established their own air quality standards. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods SO 2 emissions per capita are calculated from total SO 2 emissions from consumption divided by respective population type (total, urban population, access to electricity). E-C SO2 = Σ a [EC c EF-SO 2 a ]/Capita d Where: E-C CO2 = SO 2 emissions per capita EC C = Electricity consumption (MWh) EF-SO 2 a = SO 2 emission factors according to source type (tons/mwh) Capita d = Capita according to population type (persons) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

166 a = source type (coal, oil, and natural gas for CO 2 and PM emissions; coal and oil for SO 2 emissions) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) d = population type (urban population, and population with access to electricity) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by population. E17a - SO 2 emissions per capita urban population E17b - SO 2 emissions per capita population with access to electricity (c) Limitations of Indicator This indicator shows the quantity of SO 2 emissions released into the atmosphere from electricity generation only. Data is usually found in the country level. It may also not be available for some sources in some countries. In developing countries, some areas may not have access to electricity. The indicator may not give a good picture of the average consumer. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global - International Energy Agency REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC United Nations Statistics Energy Statistics Yearbook. UN, New York. URL: US EPA Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

167 Agency - Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation Sector Strategies Division by the ICF International. US EPA, USA. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

168 E19 TOTAL ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION Indicator Code E19 Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: This indicator reflects the level of energy use in the form of electricity. mega-watt per hour (MWh) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures electricity consumption. The indicator shows electricity consumption by end-use sectors. Electricity consumption includes own-use consumption and distribution & transmission losses. Sufficient energy supply is key factor in economic and social development. Current energy supply has been dominated by fossil fuels which has had major implications on energy security, climate change, and air quality. Governments are increasingly aware of the depleting energy supply which prompted many countries to have structural changes and improvements aimed at energy efficiency. This has caused global aggregate energy intensity to advance more slowly. In particular, targeting the improvement of electricity generation efficiency is an economically-sound strategy to lessen dependency on fossil fuels as well reduces air pollution and greenhouse gases. (b) International Conventions and Agreements (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards Although, there are no international agreements for energy efficiency, national targets for energy efficiency and conservation have been adopted by Europe and countries like China and Singapore. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods Electricity consumption is measured by summation of electricity sales by end-use sector. EC = Σ c [EC c ] Where: EC c = Electricity consumption (MWh) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

169 (b) Sub- and associated Indicators (c) Limitations of Indicator: Data is usually found in the country level. It can be obtained from national energy agencies and local electricity producers. International agencies can be used as secondary sources. Data depends heavily on economic factors. In developing countries, the wide gap between the poor and the affluent will not give a good picture of the average consumer. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o o o International Energy Agency United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EIA Developing Key Indicators. Prepared by Janice Lent and Joseph Conklin. EIA, USA. URL: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Worldwide Trends in Energy Use and Efficiency. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

170 E20 ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION PER GDP Indicator Code E20 This indicator reflects the level of energy use in the form of electricity on the per economic output (GDP) basis. Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: GDP used is GDP (Constant US$). Constant price estimates are obtained by expressing values in terms of a base period. This eliminates the effect of inflation s effects on the United States dollar value. KiloWatt-hour per United States Dollar (kwh/usd) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures electricity consumption per unit of economic output. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of economic activity. It reflects the amount of electricity consumption per GDP. (b) International Conventions and Agreements (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards Although, there are no international agreements for energy efficiency, national targets for energy efficiency and conservation have been adopted by Europe and countries like China and Singapore. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods Electricity consumption is measured by summation of electricity sales by end-use sector, while GDP is measured from the total value of all goods and services produced and the income generated by production within a country for a given year. EC-GDP = Σ c [EC c ]/GDP Where: EC-GDP = Electricity consumption per GDP EC c = Electricity consumption (kwh) GDP = GDP constant (US$) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) (a) Sub- and associated Indicators DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

171 (b) Limitations of Indicator: Data is usually found in the country level. It can be obtained from national energy agencies and local electricity producers. International agencies can be used as secondary sources. Data depends heavily on economic factors. In developing countries, the wide gap between the poor and the affluent will not give a good picture of the average consumer. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o o o International Energy Agency United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EIA Developing Key Indicators. Prepared by Janice Lent and Joseph Conklin. EIA, USA. URL: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Worldwide Trends in Energy Use and Efficiency. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

172 E21 ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA Indicator Code Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: E21 This indicator reflects the level of energy use in the form of electricity on the per capita (population) basis, categorized as:* (a) urban population (b) population with access to electricity *Definitions can be found E06 CO 2 emissions by capita KiloWatt-hour per capita (kwh/capita) POLICY RELEVANCE (a) Purpose This indicator measures electricity consumption per capita. The indicator makes it easier to differentiate reductions that result from efficiency gains than reductions that result from decreases in the level of population. It reflects the amount of electricity consumption per capita. (b) International Conventions and Agreements (c) International Targets/Recommended Standards Although, there are no international agreements for energy efficiency, national targets for energy efficiency and conservation have been adopted by Europe and countries like China and Singapore. METHODOLOGY (a) Measurement Methods Electricity consumption is measured by summation of electricity sales by end-use sector, while population is accounted for by census. Urban population is the number of residents in recognized cities, while the population with access to electricity accounts for the residents which live in electrified areas. EC-C = Σ c [EC c ]/Capita d Where: EC-C = Electricity consumption (kwh) Capita d = Capita according to population type (persons) c = end-use sector (residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses) d = population type (urban population, and population with access to electricity) (b) Sub- and associated Indicators Depending on data availability, this indicator can be disaggregated by population. E21a Electricity consumption per capita urban population E21b Electricity consumption per capita population with access to electricity DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

173 (c) Limitations of Indicator Data is usually found in the country level. It can be obtained from national energy agencies and local electricity producers. International agencies can be used as secondary sources. Data depends heavily on economic factors. In developing countries, the wide gap between the poor and the affluent will not give a good picture of the average consumer. ORGANIZATIONS (a) Other Agencies/Organizations also using this Indicator Global o International Energy Agency o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change o World Bank Regional o Asia: Asian Development Bank o Europe: European Environment Agency National o National governments REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING: EIA Developing Key Indicators. Prepared by Janice Lent and Joseph Conklin. EIA, USA. URL: EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Worldwide Trends in Energy Use and Efficiency. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

174 3.4 Input Parameters for Indicators for Energy Sector Electricity Supply Electricity supply is the total amount of electricity available in the grid. Brief Definition It is composed of three components: (a) Electricity generation is the process of generating electricity from other forms of energy. Electricity is generated by different fuel source and energy types, which include coal, oil, and natural gas. The most common fuels used for electricity generation are coal and oil. (b) Imported electricity is electricity bought from other countries. (c) Exported electricity is electricity sold to other countries. This parameter indicates the magnitude of electricity generated and reflects fuel consumption and consequently air pollutant and GHG emissions. It also indicates the level of demand dictated by economic activity in the country. Unit of Measurement: MegaWatt-hour (MWh) METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources Primary data is generated from power plants which are then reported to Ministries and/or Departments with a mandate for energy. They can also be found in international organizations such as the ADB, IEA, WB, and other agencies such as the US DOE EIA. Data varies on definition of the source types. Recommended data collection method would be to request information from the relevant Ministries and/or Departments with a mandate for energy. Fuel consumption - The amount of fuel consumed in a year for power generation. Fuel consumption impact - The amount of energy generated from consumed fuel in a year. Energy generated - The amount energy generated in the electricity generation process. Heat rate - The measure of fuel burning efficiency of power plant. (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Data is available on an annual basis. (c) Disaggregation Electricity generation is calculated by source type: coal, oil, and natural gas. Coal - carbonized vegetal matter in the form of combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock. Categorized based on carbon content, it may include hard coal, lignite, peat, patent fuel, and coke. Oil - mixture of hydrocarbons of variable density and viscosity. It may include residual oil, distillate oil, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, and liquid petroleum gas DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

175 Natural gas mixture of several gases, mainly methane occurring naturally in underground deposits. It may include non-associated [with oil] gas, associated gas [with oil], and those recovered from coal mines and sewage gas. Total electricity generation includes geothermal power, hydropower, biomass/agrofuels, wind power, solar power, and others like nuclear power. Imported electricity is calculated by the total amount of electricity bought from other countries. Exported electricity is calculated by the total amount of electricity bought from other countries. Imported and exported electricity are not included in the calculation of electricity generation-related indicators. (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed Total CO 2 emissions (E01) (from electricity generation) Total PM emissions (E07) (from electricity generation) Total SO 2 emissions (E13) (from electricity generation) E02 - CO 2 emissions by source type (generation) E03 - CO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) E08 - PM emissions by source type (generation) E09 - PM emissions per kwh (generation) E14 - SO 2 emissions by source type (generation) E15 - SO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) (e) References EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

176 Electricity Consumption Electricity consumption is the total amount of electricity consumed in the grid. It is composed of three components: Brief Definition (a) Electricity consumption by end-use sector is the utilization of electricity to meet the needs of the end-use sectors. Consumption data are often broken down into the following main end-use sectors: residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors. (b) Own use consumption refers to electricity used to power own generation operations. (c) Losses found in distribution and transmission refer to the loss of electricity from electric power lines and consumers connection. This parameter indicates the magnitude of electricity consumed which also indicates the extent of indirect fuel consumption and consequently air pollutant and GHG emissions. Unit of Measurement: MegaWatt-hour (MWh) METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources Primary data is generated from power plants which are then reported to Ministries and/or Departments with a mandate for energy. They can also be found in international organizations such as the ADB, IEA, WB, and other agencies such as the US DOE EIA. Data varies on definition of the source types. Recommended data collection method would be to request information from the relevant Ministries and/or Departments with a mandate for energy. (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Data is available on an annual basis. (c) Disaggregation Electricity consumption is calculated by end-use sector: residential, commercial, industrial, transport, and other sectors including own use and losses End use sectors Residential sector - living quarters for private households. Commercial sector - service-providing facilities and equipment of business, government, private and public organizations. Industrial sector - facilities and equipment used for producing, processing, or assembling goods. Transport sector - vehicles/systems whose primary purpose is transporting people and/or goods from one physical location using land-, water-, and air-based transportation DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

177 Other sectors - may vary per country Own-use and losses - non-revenue electricity i.e. transmission losses, distribution losses, and ownuse consumption. Total electricity consumption is the sum of the electricity consumption of identified end-use sectors, own-use consumption, and transmission & distribution losses. For ease of calculation, own-use consumption and losses are considered to be one sector. (f) For which indicators is this parameter needed E04 - CO 2 emissions by end-use sector (consumption) E05 - CO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) E06 - CO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) E10 - PM emissions by end-use sector (consumption) E11 - PM emissions per GDP (consumption) E12 - PM emissions per capita (consumption) E16 - SO 2 emissions by end-use sector (consumption) E17 - SO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) E18 - SO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) E19 - Total electricity consumption E20 - Electricity consumption per GDP E21 - Electricity consumption per capita (e) References EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

178 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) Emission Factor Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: An emissions factor is the average emission rate of the pollutant relative to energy intensity. Emission factors for coal, oil, and natural gas were calculated for CO 2. CO 2 is measured as the principal greenhouse gas in relation with coal, oil, and natural gas. Other sources of electricity generation such as hydropower, geothermal, and other renewable energy such as solar, wind, and biomass are considered to have zero emissions with emissions from nuclear power not considered. Kilogram per megawatt-hour (kg/mwh) and Metric ton per megawatt-hour (Ton/MWh) METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources For the calculation of CO 2 emission factors, Tier 1 was the selected methodology used to estimate emissions. The choice of methodology was determined by data availability. Locally available data such as electricity generation and consumption are coupled with international default values when local data is not available (See Error! Reference source not found. for the list of default values). Carbon emission factor The average emission rate of carbon relative to unit of fuel-burned. Unadjusted annual carbon emission impact - The unadjusted amount of carbon generated in a year based on carbon emission factor. Combustion efficiency The measure of efficiency of combustion. High levels are beneficial since they minimize fuel consumption and consequently minimize unwanted emissions. Actual carbon emission impact - The actual amount of carbon generated in a year adjusted for combustion efficiency. Annual carbon dioxide emission impact - The amount of Carbon dioxide generated in a year. Recommended data collection method would be to request locally available data from Ministries and/or Departments with a mandate for energy, while default values are found in international organizations such as the IPCC (carbon emission factor and combustion efficiency default values) and national organizations such as the US EPA (heating value default values). (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Electricity generation data needed for heat rate is given at an annual basis. Carbon emission factor and combustion efficiency should also be given at an annual basis. However if not locally-available, then international default values are used which were given Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Workbook. (c) Disaggregation DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

179 CO 2 emission factors for coal, oil, and natural gas were calculated by averaging the emission factors per fuel types found in the national energy mix for electricity generation. (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed Total CO 2 emissions (E01) (from electricity generation) E02 - CO 2 emissions by source type (generation) E03 - CO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) E04 - CO 2 emissions by end-use sector (consumption) E05 - CO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) E06 - CO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) (e) References EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

180 Particulate Matter <10 (PM) Emission Factor Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: An emissions factor is the average emission rate of the pollutant relative to energy intensity. Emission factors for coal, oil, and natural gas were calculated for PM. As a criteria air pollutant, PM is measured in relation to coal, oil, and natural gas. Other sources of electricity generation such as hydropower, geothermal, and other renewable energy such as solar, wind, and biomass are considered to have zero emissions with emissions from nuclear power not considered. Kilogram per megawatt-hour (kg/mwh) and Metric ton per megawatt-hour (Ton/MWh) METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources For the calculation of PM emission factors, AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors was the selected guide used to estimate emissions. Locally available data such as electricity generation and consumption are coupled with international default values when local data is not available (See Error! Reference source not found. for the list of default values). Calorific value - Measure of the amount of calories (thermal units) contained in one unit of a substance and released in combustion. Particulate matter combustion factor (PM per kg/ton-fuel) - average emission rate of particulate matter relative to unit of fuel-burned. Recommended data collection method would be to request locally available data from Ministries and/or Departments with a mandate for energy, while default values are found in international organizations such as GAPF (particulate matter combustion factor), IPCC (calorific value), and national organizations such as the US EPA (heating value and ash content default value). (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Electricity generation data needed for heat rate is given at an annual basis. PM per kg/ton-fuel, and Calorific value should also be given at an annual basis. However if not locally-available, then international default values are used which were given in the Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Workbook, and US EPA AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. (c) Disaggregation PM emission factors for coal, oil, and natural gas were calculated by averaging the emission factors per fuel types found in the national energy mix for electricity generation. (d) For which indicators is this parameter needed Total PM emissions (E07) (from electricity generation) E08 - PM emissions by source type (generation) E09 - PM emissions per kwh (generation) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

181 E10 - PM emissions by end-use sector (consumption) E11 - PM emissions per GDP (consumption) E12 - PM emissions per capita (consumption) (e) References EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

182 Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) Emission Factor Brief Definition Unit of Measurement: An emissions factor is the average emission rate of the pollutant relative to energy intensity. Emission factors for coal and oil were calculated for SO 2. As a criteria air pollutant, SO 2 is measured in relation to coal and oil. SO 2 Emissions from natural gas are found to be negligible, and are thus not included. Other sources of electricity generation such as hydropower, geothermal, and other renewable energy such as solar, wind, and biomass are considered to have zero emissions with emissions from nuclear power not considered. Kilogram per megawatt-hour (kg/mwh) and Metric ton per megawatt-hour (Ton/MWh) METHODOLOGY (a) Data Sources and Collection Methods For the calculation of SO 2 emission factors, AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors was the selected guide used to estimate emissions. Locally available data such as electricity generation and consumption are coupled with international default values when local data is not available (See Error! Reference source not found. for the list of default values). Sulfur content in fuel The measure of sulfur content per unit of fuel. High levels are considered to be detrimental because of the higher incidence of the formation of sulfur oxides and particulates liberated to the atmosphere during combustion. Sulfur retention in ash The measure of sulfur retained in ash. High amount are considered beneficial because of the reduction in sulfur oxides liberated to the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide abatement efficiency The measure of the efficiency of pollution abatement technologies Net calorific value The measure of calorific value excluding the latent heat of water formed during combustion. Recommended data collection method would be to request locally available data to Ministries and/or Departments with a mandate for energy, while default values are found in international organizations such as GAPF (sulfur retention in ash default values), IPCC (net calorific value default values), and national organizations such as the US EPA (heating value and sulfur content in fuel default value). There is limited information on SO 2 abatement technologies use and efficiency. (b) Periodicity of Data Collection Electricity generation data needed for heat rate is given at an annual basis. Sulfur content in fuel, sulfur retention in ash, abatement efficiency, and net calorific value should also be given at an annual basis. However if not locally-available, then international default values are used which were given in the Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Workbook, and US EPA AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

183 (c) Disaggregation SO 2 emission factors for coal and oil were calculated by averaging the emission factors based on the fuel types found in the national energy mix for electricity generation. (d) For which indicators is this needed for calculation Total SO 2 emissions (E13) (from electricity generation) E14 - SO 2 emissions by source type (generation) E15 - SO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) E16 - SO 2 emissions by end-use sector (consumption) E17 - SO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) E18 - SO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) (e) References EEA Energy and Environment Indicators. Prepared by Peter Taylor and Aphrodite Mourelatou for the Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) presented in the United Nations Headquarters, New York. Eurostat Energy, transport and environment indicators. Eurostat, Luxembourg. URL: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: IAEA, Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies. IAEA, Vienna. URL: IEA and OECD Energy Statistics Manual. IEA and OECD, France. URL: IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. (eds). IGES, Japan. URL: US EPA Emissions Factors & AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

184 4. Annexes Annex A Some Indicator Initiatives of International Organizations 1. Organisations for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) core set of indicators and sectoral indicators a. Environmental Indicators: A preliminary set (1991) b. OECD Core Set of Indicators for Environmental Performance Reviews: A Synthesis Report by the Group on the State of the Environment (1993) c. Indicators for the Integration of Environmental Concerns into Energy Policies. (1993 and 2001) d. Indicators for the Integration of Environmental Concerns into Transport Policies. (1993 and 1999) e. Towards sustainable household consumption patterns - Indicators to measure progress. (1999) f. Towards sustainable development - Indicators to measure progress-rome CONFERENCE. (2000) g. Environmental Indicators: OECD Core Set. (1994) h. Towards sustainable development - Environmental Indicators. (1998) i. Environmental Indicators - Towards sustainable development. (2001) j. Key Environmental Indicators. (2001) k. OECD Environmental Performance Reviews. 2. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Sustainable Development (UN- SD) Indicators for sustainable development a. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies, 3 rd Ed. (2007) 3. CO 2 and energy indicators by the International Energy Agency (IEA) a. Towards a More Energy Efficient Future: Applying indicators to enhance energy policy. (2009) b. Energy Efficiency Indicators for Public Electricity Production from Fossil Fuels. (2008) c. Energy Indicators For Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. (2005) d. Energy Indicators and Sustainable Development. (2001) e. IEA Energy Indicators- Understanding the Energy-Emissions Link. (2000) f. IEA Energy Indicators- Analysing Emissions on the Road from Kyoto. (2000) 4. International Transport Forum (ITF) a. Reducing transport greenhouse gas emissions: Trends and Data. (2010) 5. European Environment Agency (EEA) s Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM) a. Towards a TERM for the EU, Part 1: TERM concept and process (1999). b. Towards a TERM for the EU, Part 2: Some Preliminary Indicator Sheets (1999). c. TERM Paving the way for EU enlargement - Indicators of transport and environment integration. (2002) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

185 d. Climate for a transport change. TERM 2007: indicators tracking transport and environment in the European Union. (2007) e. Transport at a crossroads. TERM 2008: indicators tracking transport and environment in the European Union. (2008) f. Towards a resource-efficient transport system TERM 2009: Indicators tracking transport and environment in the European Union. (2009) 6. Global City Indicators Facility (GCIF) 7. Work on health indicators by the World Health Organization (WHO) a. World Health Statistics 2010: Indicator Compendium. (2010) b. Environmental Health Indicators: Development of a methodology for the WHO European Region. (2000) 8. Environmentally Sustainable Cities in Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN): key indicators for clean air, clean water and clean land 9. United National Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) s Environmental indicators and reporting in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia 10. World Bank a. Environmental Monitoring: guidelines for the application of environmental indicators in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and central Asia. (2007) b. Guidelines for the preparation of indicator-based environmental assessment reports. (2007) a. World development indicators Asian Development Bank (ADB) a. Development Indicators Reference Manual: Concepts and Definitions. (2004) b. Key Indicators Report. For Developing Asian and Pacific Countries. ( ) 12. Victoria Transport Policy Institute s sustainable transportation indicators a. Well Measured: Developing Indicators for Sustainable and Livable Transport Planning. (2011) b. Sustainable Transportation Indicators: A Recommended Research Program For Developing Sustainable Transportation Indicators and Data. (2008) c. Sustainable Transportation Indicator Data Quality and Availability. (2009) DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

186 Annex B Default Values for Transport Input Parameters Based on TEEMP: Total Trips DEFAULT VALUES FOR TEEMP MODELS for GEF PROJECT APPLICATION The total trips by motorized and non-motorized transport modes refer to cumulative daily one-way trips between an origin and destination. Based on the economic growth, city planning and transport network, the total number of trip varies among zones, cities and regions. In case the user does not have any indication of total number trips in the study area, 53 per capita trip rates can be multiplied by the population data from the zone/city/region to estimate the total number of trips. Per capita trip rate values are available from the International Association of Public Transport s Mobility in Cities Database (UITP-MCD) 54. This would allow the user to compute emissions at sketch level. Table 10: Per Capita Trip Rate Default Values (in Number of Trips) Region Per Capita Trip Rate Source Latin America 1.71 UITP-MCD Africa 1.60 UITP-MCD India 1.13 MOUD China 2.58 GEF Other Asia 2.21 UITP-MCD Trip Mode Share The trip mode share indicates the distribution of the trips in the study area with different modes of transport. The trip mode share is one of the indicators for measuring sustainable transport. Trip mode share is an integral parameter for calculating emissions from any urban transport project as it helps in converting person trips to vehicular trips when combined with average occupancy. If trip mode share data is not available, the following default values (expressed in %) are proposed based on literature survey from different countries: Table 11: Default Trip Mode Share (%) Description Walk Cycle Two wheeler Car IPT Bus Metro India Average of 30 cities, Ministry of Urban Development China GEF and other sources (Average of 16 cities) Latin America UITP-MCD Africa World Bank (average of 14 cities) Can refer to zone, city, region. 54 See DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

187 Average Trip Length It is the average distance travelled during a trip i.e. one way between an origin and destination. This is generally estimated as the ratio of total passenger- kilometers to the total number of trips and by using origin and destination (O-D) surveys and often represented in km. The size, structure, economic growth, density and transport system has implications on the average trip length of the study area. The data on average trip length allows the analyst to link the trip characteristics with vehicle emission factors to determine emissions. The following default values can be used for sketch analysis in case the average trip length data is not available. Table 12: Default Values for Average Trip Length (kilometers) Walk Cycle Two wheeler Car IPT Bus Metro Source Asia various - GEF, UITP- MCD, others Africa UITP-MCD Latin America UITP-MCD Average Occupancy The average occupancy is calculated as person-kilometers per vehicle kilometers or simply as the number of people traveling divided by the number of vehicles. Higher the occupancy rates, the lesser the emissions per person trips. Average occupancy can be easy calculated using field occupancy surveys. In case no data is available, following default values can be used: Table 13: Average Occupancy Region Walk Cycle Two Public Car wheeler transport IPT Asia UITP-MCD and others Latin America UITP-MCD and others Africa UITP-MCD 36.3 Emission Factors Emission factors are generally derived from dynamometer-based drive cycle tests to simulate typical driving conditions and traffic speeds. They are generally represented in grams per kilometer travelled or one of its derivatives. Fleet-based emission factors often used in sector calculations depend on "driving behavior" (how do we drive), fleet characteristics (what vehicles we drive), "infrastructure and geographical conditions (where we drive). It is to be noted that "no two vehicles will have the same emission factor profile, even if they are nominally identical models, produced on the same day on the same production line. 55 However, in order to simplify the calculations, the analyst needs to tailor the emission factors to fit "best possible local conditions and the fleet". These tailoring are often done using local studies on various models. In other words, by using an on-road mobile source emissions model like the International Vehicle Emissions (IVE) Model with local data on vehicle technology distributions, power-based driving factors, vehicle soak 55 DIESEL study- PCD Bangkok, DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

188 distributions, and meteorological factors, one can tailor the model to suit the local conditions. This would give the best accuracy for computing emission factors. For example, IVE Model has over base emission rates for over 1300 vehicles 56 to capture the different fleet characteristics and thus allow better representation. In case, the data is not available for the analyst to use models such as IVE, one can use national averages, local averages or use fuel consumption data reported via surveys etc. It is to be noted that the approved CDM baseline methodology AM0031 Baseline Methodology for Bus Rapid Transit Projects 57 suggests the following alternatives: Two methodological alternatives are proposed for the fuel consumption data (in order of preference): Alternative 1: Measurement of fuel consumption data using a representative sample for the respective category and fuel type. Factors such as the specific urban driving conditions (drive-cycle, average speed etc), vehicle maintenance and geographical conditions (altitude, road gradients etc) are thus included. The sample must be large enough to be representative and Alternative 2: Use of fixed values based on the national or international literature. The literature data can either be based on measurements of similar vehicles in comparable surroundings (e.g. from comparable cities of other countries) or may include identifying the vehicle age and technology of average vehicles circulating in the project region and then matching this with the most appropriate IPCC values. The most important proxy to identify vehicle technologies is the average age of vehicles used in the area of influence of the project. In the present TEEMP models, a detailed set of emission factors based on IVE has not been suggested due to the time and data availability. 58 Instead as an alternative option, it is recommended that analyst use cityspecific studies and national/city surveys to generate the emission factors for the TEEMP models. In order to capture the impact of speed, following default index values have been proposed taking insights from COPERT and other studies. 59 Many studies have suggested that vehicle travelling near 50 kmph have best efficiency. Thus 50kmph was kept as the basis to compute the effect on efficiency and calibrate the emission factor. Table 14: Speed and Emission factors Index (assuming 0 at 50 kmph) 60 CO 2 PM NOx SPEED 2W 3W Cars LCV Bus HCV Car LGV Bus HGV Car LGV Bus HGV Different combinations of vehicle types, fuel, weight, air/fuel control, exhaust emission controls and age. 57 See 58 Corrective factors need to applied to the base emission rates in order to adjust them to local conditions. 59 Copert-3, CORINAIR, green transport, diesel, updated road user cost study of India and trl emission factors for 2009 for department of transportation, UK. 60 % decrease in fuel efficiency assuming fuel efficiency at 50kmph as 0, - value is indicative DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

189 CO 2 PM NOx SPEED 2W 3W Cars LCV Bus HCV Car LGV Bus HGV Car LGV Bus HGV The TEEMP model allows users to quantify the air pollutants PM and NOx using the emission factors. The analyst is encouraged to look for national level emission factors for local projects. As a first approximation, several studies in Asia were collated to capture a set of default vales for Asian fleet. Table 15: Fuel Consumption and Emission Factors for Different Vehicles in Asia Vehicle distribution Fuel Consumption L/100KM CO2 (kg/l) PM (g/km) NOx g/km KMPL CO2 g/vkm MC-two MCthree PC LCV P P P D P Two Stroke Four Stroke NO data Two Stroke Four Stroke NO data Pre Euro Euro I Euro Euro 3 and Above NO data Pre Euro Euro I Euro Euro 3 and Above NO data Pre Euro Euro I Euro DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

190 BUS HCV D D D Euro 3 and Above NO data Pre Euro Euro I Euro II Euro III and Above NO data Pre Euro Euro I Euro II Euro III and Above NO data Pre Euro Euro I Euro II Euro III and Above NO data For the references of the above emission factors please see the footnote below References for emission factors: 1. Draft report on Emission Factor development for Indian Vehicles, Automobile Research Association of India and Central Pollution Control Board, India 2. Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land Transport (Diesel) Project- Pollution Control Board, Thailand 3. Academic manuscript: Preparation of technical guidelines for estimating emission load from motor vehicles in Indonesia 4. Energy use and emissions of two stroke-powered tricycles in Metro Manila, J.B.M. Biona et al. 5. Emission Inventory for Motorcycles in Hanoi using the International Vehicle Emission Model Dr. Nguyen Thi Kim Oanh, Mai Thi Thuy Phuong 6. Measuring the Invisible, Quantifying Emissions Reductions from Transport Solutions, Hanoi Case Study, Embarq 7. Electric Bikes in the People s Republic of China: Impact on the Environment and Prospects for Growth Chris Cherry et al. 8. Strategies for Promotion of Energy Efficient and Cleaner Technologies in the Urban Transport System in Selected Asian Countries 9. Energy Use in the Transportation Sector Of Malaysia, Malaysian - Danish Environmental Cooperation Programme 10. Transport in China: Energy Consumption and Emissions of Different Transport Modes - ifeu Institute for Energy and Environmental Research Heidelberg 11. A Strategic Approach To Climate Change In The Philippines: An Assessment Of Low-Carbon Interventions In The Transport And Power Sectors DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

191 Construction Emissions Emissions quantification from transport projects should ideally consider construction emissions. The quantum of construction emissions varies depending upon the quantity and type of construction materials used and the methodology adopted. In absence of any data, in order to have ballpark estimates, default values have been proposed for per km construction based on materials used (cement, steel and bitumen). Table 16: Construction Emission Factors 1 km of infrastructure Description tons of CO 2 Source BRTS Considering only the quantity of steel, cement and asphalt Assuming material quantity - Cement tons/km, Asphalt tons/km and Steel tons/km. A multiplier of 1.75 has been proposed for actual construction works based on Kwangho Park, et. al. (2003). Estimates from Mexico BRTS (Lee at al.) and Transmilenio (monitoring report) have indicated 3475 and 1390 tons. Bikeways Considering only the quantity of steel, cement and asphalt. 20 Assuming material quantity - Cement tons/km, Asphalt - 40 tons/km and Steel - 1 tons/km for constructing 1km of 2.5 m wide bikeway MRTS 2 lines for 80% elevated and 20% underground Bangalore metro calculations using quantity of materials used - steel and cement. Research from japan as summarized in TEEMP model indicates a range between 7119 to tons of CO 2 Railways Considering only the quantity of steel and concrete for single track 875 Assuming a track requires 570 tons of concrete and 117 tons of steel, 350 tons of CO 2 is generated during material production. Scotland Transport depatment recommends 500 tons of CO2 per track based on material production.a multiplier of 1.75 has been proposed for actual construction works based on Kwangho Park, et. al. (2003) for Road works Roads Considering only the quantity of steel, cement and asphalt for a four lane road 2100 An analysis based on the quantity of construction materials used cement, steel and bitumen indicates that the approximate emissions of a two lane to four lane improved highway is approximate 1100 tons/km. When all the quantities are considered including the emissions generated by machinery, the emissions range from 2100 to 2400 tons/km for high-speed roads (four-lanes) based on traffic, topography and type of improvements suggested DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

192 Mode shift from different modes to a bike share program The development of bike sharing scheme would attract new riders from different modes. Actual surveys can determine the extent of transition from different modes. In case the analyst does not have any insights on the magnitude of transition, the following default values derived from the evaluation of different bike sharing schemes are proposed. The majority of the riders using bike sharing schemes come from public transport modes. The analysis of 51 schemes in Europe by the Optimising Bike Sharing in European Cities study 62 indicates that nearly 25% and 9.3% of trips have been shifted from walking and cycling. Mode shift from (%) Table 17: Mode Shifts towards Bike Sharing Schemes Around the World Hangzhou Shanghai Beijing Paris Barcelona Lyon London Default Values Pedestrian Bus Taxi Car E Bike/Motorcycle Private Bicycle Others/No Trip Source: Various studies DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

193 Annex C Default Values for Energy Input Parameters Table 18: Heating Value by Fuel Type Fuel Value Unit TYPICAL PARAMETERS OF VARIOUS FUELS HEATING VALUE Solid fuels Bituminous Coal 13,000 BTU/lb Anthracite Coal 12,300 BTU/lb Lignite (@ 35% moisture) 7,200 BTU/lb Wood (@ 40% moisture) 5,200 BTU/lb Bagasse (@ 50% moisture) 4,000 BTU/lb Reference: Bark (@ 50% moisture) 4,500 BTU/lb Coke, Byproduct 13,300 BTU/lb Liquid fuels Residual Oil 150,000 BTU/gal Distillate Oil 140,000 BTU/gal Diesel 137,000 BTU/gal Gasoline 130,000 BTU/gal Kerosene 135,000 BTU/gal Liquid Petroleum Gas 94,000 BTU/gal Gaseous fuels Natural Gas 1,050 BTU/SCF Coke Oven Gas 590 BTU/SCF Blast Furnace Gas 100 BTU/SCF US EPA AP 42, Fifth Edition. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: Stationary Point and Area Sources. Appendix A. URL: Remarks: (a) N = negligible Reference: US EPA AP 42, Fifth Edition. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: Stationary Point and Area Sources. Appendix A. URL: Remarks: (a) N = negligible DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

194 Table 19: Carbon Emission Factor by Fuel Type Fuel Value Unit LIQUID FOSSIL Primary fuels Crude oil 20.0 tc/yr Orimulsion 22.0 tc/yr Natural Gas Liquids 17.2 tc/yr Secondary fuels/products Gasoline 18.9 tc/yr Jet Kerosene 19.5 tc/yr Other Kerosene 20.0 tc/yr Shale Oil 20.2 tc/yr Gas/Diesel Oil 20.2 tc/yr Residual Fuel Oil 21.1 tc/yr LPG 17.2 tc/yr Ethane 16.8 tc/yr Naphtha (a) 20.0 tc/yr Bitumen 22.0 tc/yr Lubricants (a) 20.0 tc/yr Petroleum Coke 27.5 tc/yr Refinery Feedstocks (a) 20.0 tc/yr Refinery Gas (b) 18.2 tc/yr Other Oil (a) 20.0 tc/yr SOLID FOSSIL Primary fuels Anthracite 26.8 tc/yr Coking Coal 25.8 tc/yr Other Bituminous Coal 25.8 tc/yr Sub-bituminous Coal 26.2 tc/yr Lignite 27.6 tc/yr Oil Shale 29.1 tc/yr Peat 28.9 tc/yr Secondary Fuels/Products BKB & Patent Fuel (a) 25.8 tc/yr Coke Oven / Gas Coke 29.5 tc/yr Coke Oven Gas (b) 13.0 tc/yr Blast Furnace Gas (b) 66.0 tc/yr GASEOUS FOSSIL Natural Gas (Dry) 15.3 tc/yr Reference: IPCC Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Workbook. URL: Remarks: (a) This value is a default value until a fuel specific CEF is determined. For Gas biomass, the CEF is based on the assumption that 50% of the carbon in the biomass is converted to methane and 50% is emitted as CO2. The CO2 emissions from biogas should not be included in national inventories. If biogas is released and not combusted 50% of the carbon content should be included as methane [sic]. (b) For use in the sectoral calculations DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

195 Table 20: Percent of Carbon Oxidized Fuel Value Unit PERCENT OF CARBON OXIDISED Coal (a) 98 % Oil and Oil products 99 % Gas (b) 99.5 % Peat for electricity generation 99 % Reference: IPCC Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Workbook. URL: Remarks: (a) This figure is a global average but varies for different types of coal, and can be as low as (b) The fraction for peat used in households may be much lower. Reference: Table 21: Calorific Value by Fuel Type Fuel Value Unit Default Net Caloric Value (NCV) (TJ/Gg) Crude Oil 42.3 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Orimulsion 27.5 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Natural Gas Liquids 44.2 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Motor Gasoline 44.3 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Aviation Gasoline 44.3 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Jet Gasoline 44.3 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Jet Kerosene 44.1 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Other Kerosene 43.8 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Gas/Diesel Oil 43.0 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt bio-gasoline/bio-diesel 27.0 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt other liquid biofuels 27.4 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Anthracite 29.7 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Coking coals 28.2 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt Other bituminous 24.1 TJ/Gg = TJ/kt IEA Energy Statistics Manual. URL: IPCC IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories - Energy. URL: REDD Methodological Module Estimation of emissions from fossil fuel combustion. URL: FFC.pdf DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

196 Table 22: Particulate Matter Combustion Emission Factor Fuel Value Unit COAL Other Bitimunous Coal & Anthracite 1.23 x A (b) kg/ton-fuel Sub-Bituminous Coal 1.23 x A (b) kg/ton-fuel Lignite 1.03 x A (c) kg/ton-fuel GAS Natural Gas (d) kg/ton-fuel OIL Gas/Diesel Oil (e) kg/ton-fuel Heavy Fuel Oil 0.9 (f) kg/ton-fuel Petroleum coke 1.23 x A (g) kg/ton-fuel Reference: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: Remarks: (a) Combustion in the energy industries - public electricity and heat production (b) Mean AP-42 value for pulverised coal-fire boilers A = Ash content (see Table P4 Ash Content) (c) i.e. sub-bituminous coal/lignite A = Ash content (d) AP-42 (e) AP-42 uncontrolled emission factor for filterable plus condensable PM for utility boilers firing No. 2 grade distillate oil (diesel) (f) AP-42 uncontrolled emission factor for utility boilers firing No 5 grade residual fuel oil (g) Assume = emission factor for Other Bitimunous Coal & Anthracite Table 23: Ash Content by Fuel Type Fuel Value Unit TYPICAL PARAMETERS OF VARIOUS FUELS (ASH % [by weight]) Solid fuels Bituminous Coal 20-Apr % Anthracite Coal % Lignite (@ 35% moisture) 6.2 % Wood (@ 40% moisture) 1--3 % Bagasse (@ 50% moisture) 1--2 % Bark (@ 50% moisture) 1--3 (a) % Coke, Byproduct % Liquid fuels Residual Oil % Distillate Oil N (b) % Diesel N (b) % Gasoline N (b) % Kerosene N (b) % Liquid Petroleum Gas N (b) % Gaseous fuels Natural Gas N (b) % Coke Oven Gas % Blast Furnace Gas N (b) % Reference: US EPA AP 42, Fifth Edition. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: Stationary Point and Area Sources. Appendix A. URL: Remarks: (a) Ash content may be considerably higher when sand, dirt, etc., are present. (b) N = negligible DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

197 Table 24: Sulfur Content by Fuel Type Fuel Value Unit TYPICAL PARAMETERS OF VARIOUS FUELS SULFUR % (by weight) Solid fuels Bituminous Coal % Anthracite Coal % Lignite (@ 35% moisture) 0.7 % Wood (@ 40% moisture) N (a) % Bagasse (@ 50% moisture) N (a) % Bark (@ 50% moisture) N (a) % Coke, Byproduct % Liquid fuels Residual Oil % Distillate Oil % Diesel 0.4 % Gasoline % Kerosene % Liquid Petroleum Gas N (a) % Gaseous fuels Natural Gas N (a) % Coke Oven Gas % Blast Furnace Gas N (a) % Reference: US EPA AP 42, Fifth Edition. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: Stationary Point and Area Sources. Appendix A. URL: Remarks: (a) N = negligible Table 25: Sulfur Retention by Fuel Type Fuel Value Unit HARD COAL (a) Power generation and Industry sectors 5 % Transport and Other Sectors (b) 22.5 % BROWN COAL (c) All sectors 22.5 % SOLID BIOMASS All sectors Negligible % LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUELS All sectors 0 % Reference: GAPF The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. URL: Remarks: (a) i.e. coking coal, other bituminous coal and anthracite (b) i.e. Commercial/Institutional, Residential and Agriculture/ Forestry/Fishing (c) i.e. sub-bituminous coal/lignite DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

198 Table 26: Net Calorific Value by Fuel Type Fuel Value Unit SELECTED NET CALORIFIC VALUES Refined Petroleum Products Gasoline TJ/kt Jet Kerosene TJ/kt Other Kerosene TJ/kt Shale Oil TJ/kt Gas/Diesel Oil TJ/kt Residual Fuel Oil TJ/kt LPG TJ/kt Ethane TJ/kt Naphtha TJ/kt Bitumen TJ/kt Lubricants TJ/kt Petroleum Coke TJ/kt Refinery Feedstocks TJ/kt Refinery Gas TJ/kt Other Oil Products TJ/kt Other Products Coal Oils and Tars (Coking TJ/kt Coals) Oil Shale 9.40 TJ/kt Orimulsion TJ/kt Reference: IPCC Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Workbook. URL: DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

199 PRC IND INO NEP PAK PHI SRI VIE SIN THA LAO MON BAN Annex D Data Availability for Transport and Energy Input Parameters and Indicators LEGEND Available Limited No data Default value Table 27: Data Availability of Transport Indicators To be updated Table 28: Data Availability of Transport Input Parameters To be updated Table 29: Data Availability of Energy Indicators Total CO 2 emissions (from electricity) E01 - Total CO 2 emissions (from electricity generation) E02 - CO 2 emissions per source type (generation) E02a - CO 2 emissions from coal E02b - CO 2 emissions from oil E02c - CO 2 emissions from natural gas E03 - CO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) E04 - CO 2 emissions by end use sector (consumption) E04a - CO 2 emissions from residential sector E04b - CO 2 emissions from commercial sector E04c - CO 2 emissions from industrial sector E04d - CO 2 emissions from transport sector E04e - CO 2 emissions from other sectors E04f - CO 2 emissions from own-use and losses E05 - CO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) E06 - CO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) E06a- CO 2 emissions per capita - urban population E06b - CO 2 emissions per capita DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

200 PRC IND INO NEP PAK PHI SRI VIE SIN THA LAO MON BAN population with access to electricity Total PM 10 emissions (from electricity) E07 - Total PM 10 emissions (from electricity) E08 - PM 10 emissions per source type (generation) E08a - PM 10 emissions from coal E08b - PM 10 emissions from oil E08c - PM 10 emissions from natural gas E09 - PM 10 emissions per kwh (generation) E10 - PM 10 emissions by end use sector (consumption) E10a - PM 10 emissions from residential sector E10b - PM 10 emissions from commercial sector E10c - PM 10 emissions from industrial sector E10d - PM 10 emissions from transport sector E10e - PM 10 emissions from other sectors E10f - PM 10 emissions from own-use and losses E11 - PM 10 emissions per GDP (consumption) E12 - PM 10 emissions per capita (consumption) E12a- PM 10 emissions per capita - urban population E12b - PM 10 emissions per capita - population with access to electricity Total SO 2 emissions (from electricity) E13 - Total SO 2 emissions (from electricity) E14 - SO 2 emissions per source type (generation) E14a - SO 2 emissions from coal E14b- SO 2 emissions from oil E15 - SO 2 emissions per kwh (generation) E16 - SO 2 emissions by end use sector (consumption) E16a - SO 2 emissions from residential sector E16b - SO 2 emissions from commercial sector E16c - SO 2 emissions from industrial sector DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

201 PRC IND INO NEP PAK PHI SRI VIE SIN THA LAO MON BAN PRC IND INO NEP PAK PHI SRI VIE SIN THA LAO MON BAN E16d - SO 2 emissions from transport sector E16e - SO 2 emissions from other sectors E16f - SO 2 emissions from own-use and losses E17 - SO 2 emissions per GDP (consumption) E18 - SO 2 emissions per capita (consumption) E18a - SO 2 emissions per capita - urban population E18b - SO 2 emissions per capita - population with access to electricity Total Electricity Consumption E19 - Total electricity consumption E20 - Electricity consumption per GDP E21 - Electricity consumption per capita E20a - Electricity consumption per capita - urban population E20b - Electricity consumption per capita - population with access to electricity Table 30: Data Availability of Energy Input Parameters General Input Parameters Electricity supply GDP Population Total Electricity generation by end-use sector Electricity imports and exports Fuel Constant USD Total population Urban Population Population with access to electricity Total Electricity Generation Coal Oil Natural gas Geothermal power Hydropower Biomass/Agrofuels Wind power Solar power Other source/s Imported electricity Exported electricity Coal DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

202 PRC IND INO NEP PAK PHI SRI VIE SIN THA LAO MON BAN Electricity consumptio n Emission Factors - CO 2 Emission Factors - PM consumptio n Heat rate Fuel consumptio n impact (calculated) Energy generated (calculated) Total Electricity consumptio n by enduse sector Carbon Emission Factor Unadjusted annual carbon emission impact (calculated) Combustion efficiency Actual carbon emission impact (calculated) Annual carbon dioxide emission impact (calculated) CO2 emission factor (calculated) Calorific value Oil Natural gas Coal Oil Natural gas Coal Oil Natural gas Coal Oil Natural gas Total electricity consumption Residential sector Commercial sector Industrial sector Transport sector Other sectors Own-use (consumption) Losses (transmission and distribution) Coal Oil Natural gas Coal Oil Natural gas Coal Oil Natural gas Coal Oil Natural gas Coal Oil Natural gas kg/mwh ton/mwh Coal Oil Natural gas DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

203 PRC IND INO NEP PAK PHI SRI VIE SIN THA LAO MON BAN Emission Factors - SO2 Particulate matter combustion factor PM emission factor (calculated) Sulfur Content (fuel) Sulfur Retention (ash) SO2 Abatement Efficiency Net Calorific Value SO2 emission factor (calculated) Coal Oil Natural gas kg/mwh ton/mwh Coal Oil Coal Oil Coal Oil Coal Oil kg/mwh ton/mwh DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION

204 198 - DRAFT NOT FOR CIRCULATION