Water Quality Management for Coastal Aquaculture

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1 SUB Hamburg A/ Water Quality Management for Coastal Aquaculture By Sukumar Bandyopadhyay Former Professor and Emeritus Fellow Indian institute of Technology Kharagpur 2008 DAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE Delhi

2 Contents Acknowledgements Preface vii ix Chapter 1: Introduction Water and Land Resource Use 1.2 Environmental Impact from Agriculture and Aquaculture 1.3 Food Production and Fisheries 1.4 Perspective of Water Quality Management in Aquaculture PART I; WATER RESOURCES FOR COASTAL AQUACULTURE Chapter 2: Water Resources Sources of Water Surface Water 1. Ponds, Lakes and Reservoirs 2. Streams and Rivers 3. Sea or Saltwater Ground Water 2.2 Coastal Environment Coastal Areas and Zones

3 xii Ecological Divisions 1. Marine Environment 2. Rocky Shore 3. Sandy and Muddy Shores 4. Brackish Water or Estuarine Environment 5. Marshes and Mangroves Coastal Regulation Zone 2.3 Characteristics of Water Resources Environmental Characteristics of Coastal Water 1. Carrying Capacity and Standing Crop 2. Primary Productivity and Food Chain 3. Principles Governing the Coastal Water Ecosystem 4. Aquatic Biodiversity 5. Ecological Factors General Characteristics of Source Water 1. Water Temperature and Circulation 2. Dissolved Oxygen Content 3. ph and Carbon Dioxide 4. Nutrients and Organic Substances 5. Plant and Animal Community 6. Ground Water Characteristics 7. Summary Chapter 3: Water Resource Use in Coastal Area Coastal Fisheries and Aquaculture Coastal Fisheries 1. Types of Fisheries 2. Inland Capture Fisheries 3. Marine Fisheries Coastal Aquaculture 1. Types of Aquaculture Production Systems 2. Species Cultured in Coastal Waters 3. Operation of Coastal Aquaculture Farms 3.2 Multiple Use of Coastal Resources Coastal Agriculture 1. Constraints Affecting Coastal Agriculture 2. Crop Selection for Salt-affected Soils

4 xm Coastal Forestry 1. Types of Coastal Forests 2. Socio-economic Values of Coastal Forests 3. Special Characteristics of Coastal Forestry Waste Disposal and Pollution in Coastal Areas 1. Sources of Pollution 2. Types of Contaminants and Pollutants 3. Major Examples of Coastal Pollution Chapter 4: Impact of Coastal Resource Use on the Environment Impacts on Coastal Environment Alterations and Destruction of Habitats Effects of marine Pollution on Human Health Hypernutrification and Eutrophication Decline of Fish Stocks and Other Renewable Resources Changes in Sediment Flows 4.2 Potential and Specific Cases of Impacts Agricultural Activities Capture Fisheries and Coastal Aquaculture Activities Multiple Activities 4.3 Integrated Ecosystem Approach for Resource Use References PART II: WATER QUALITY Chapter 5: Water Quality Characteristics Water Quality Parameters Classification of Water Quality Parameters 1. Dissolved Oxygen 2. Primary Productivity and Nutrients 3. Temperature 4. Salinity 5. Suspended Solids 6.pH 7. Alkalinity and Hardness 8. Dissolved Gases 9. Biological Parameters

5 XIV 5.2 Fundamental Principles Equilibrium Relationships 1. Some Thermodynamic Concepts of Equilibria 2. Ionic Equilibrium in Water 3. Ionization of Acids and Bases 4. Solubility Relationship Process Kinetics 1. Rate of a Chemical Reaction 2. Kinetic Models of Homogeneous Reactions 3. Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate Biological Reaction Systems 1. Kinetics of Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions 2. Kinetics of Microbial Growth Chapter 6: Aquaculture Pond Dynamics Dynamics of Nutrientsin Pond Ecosystem NitrogenCycle Phosphorus Cycle Carbon Cycle 6.2 Dynamics of Dissolved Oxygen in Pond Water Biological Processes 1. Photosynthetic Oxygen Production 2. Oxygen Requirements of Fish 3. Diurnal Changes of Oxygen Concentration in Ponds Diffusional Oxygen Transfer by Natural Aeration DO Concentration Balance in Pond Water during Culture 1. Channel Catfish Pond 2. Trout Pond 3. Warm Water Fish 6.3 Dynamics of Fertilized Pond Effects of Fertilization on Pond Dynamics 1. Changes in Acidity due to Nitrogen Fertilizer 2. Effects of Fertilization on Phosphorus Cycle 3. Plants and Invertebrates 6.4 Dynamics of Limed Pond Effects of Liming on Pond Dynamics 1. Increase in Total Alkalinity 2. Increase in Concentration of Total Available Carbon Dioxide

6 3. Increase in Total Hardness 4. Effect on Activity of Microorganisms 5. Increase in the Availability of Mud Phosphate Effects of Liming on Plankton and Invertebrates 6.5 Dynamics of Fed Pond Types of Feeding and Feeding Options Supplementary Diet Feeding Complete Diet Feeding Feed Conversion, Utilization and Waste Production 1. Material Balance of Feed Utilization 2. Nutrients and Solids Budget 3. Waste Components 4. COD Balance Waste Production from Fertilization Residues of Chemicals Effects of Wastes on Culture Environment Relationship of Water Quality with Feeding Rate References XV PART III: WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT Chapter 7: Introduction Culture Systems Types of Culture Systems 1. Open System 2. Semi-closed System 3. Closed System Basic Approach of Closed System 7.2 Treatment Methods Pond Management Methods Recirculating Methods Chapter 8: Fertilization of Ponds Fertilizers Types, Properties and Sources of Fertilizers 1. Types and Sources 2. Properties Requirement of Fertilizers 1. Principle 2. General Guidelines for Fertilizer Requirement

7 8.2 Application of Fertilizers Types of Fertilizer Application Rate Method of Fertilizer Application 1. Platform Method 2. Nylon Cloth or Bag Method 3. Application of Liquid Fertilizers 8.3 Organic Manures Types of Manures Method of Straight Manual Application of Manures 1. Frequency of Application 2. Methods 3. Manure Application through Integrated Farming of Livestock XVI Chapter 9: Liming of Ponds Lime Requirement andliming Rate Calculation of Liming Rate 1. Technique Employed on Agricultural Crop 2. Technique Based on Exchange Acidity of Soil 9.2 Liming Methods Liming of Ponds 1. Liming Materials 2. Methods of Application Liming of Acid-sulphate Soils Chapter 10: Aeration Aeration Fundamentals Theory of Oxygen Transfer 1. Factors Affecting Volumetric Oxygen Transfer Coefficient (l^a) 2. Evaluation of l^a by Aeration Experiment 3. Measurement of DO 4. Standard Oxygen Transfer Rate and Aeration Efficiency Rating of Aeration Systems under Field Conditions 10.2 Aeration Systems Types of Aerators 1. Classification 2. Surface Aerators 3. Diffused Air Systems 4. Gravity Aerators

8 xvn Types of Aeration 1. Emergency Aeration 2. Supplemental or Continuous Aeration 3. Aeration to Prevent Thermal and Oxygen Stratification 4. Aeration of Source Water Comparative Performance of Various Aerators 1. Aeration Rate and Efficiency 2. Oxygen Saturation and Oxygen Transfer 10.3 Fish Production 10.4 Aeration Process and Aerator Design Computation of Oxygen Demand and Supplemental Aeration Requirement 1. Average Daily Oxygen Demand 2. Maximum Daily Oxygen Demand 3. Oxygen Supplied by Water Flow 4. Supplemental Oxygen Demand Surface Aerator Design 1. Practical Approach 2. Simulation Approach Chapter 11: Feed Management Feeding Options Pond Fertilization and Supplemental Feeding 1. Feed Ingredients 2. Supplementary Feeds Complete Diet Feeding l.typesoffeed 2. Formulation 3. Preparation 11.2 Feeding Methods Feeding Rate and Frequency 1. Feeding Rate 2. Feeding Frequency Feeding Tables Feeding Devices 1. Hand-feeding or Manual Feeding 2. Automatic Feeders

9 xvm Chapter 12: Effluent Treatment Systems Types of Waste Materials in Aquaculture Effluents Suspended Solids Nutrient and BOD Pathogens 12.2 Treatability of Aquaculture Effluents Load and Concentration of Pollutants Pollution Potential of Effluents Comparison of Effluents from Different Culture Systems 1. Intensive Aquaculture Systems 2. Semi-intensive Aquaculture Systems 3. Extensive Aquaculture Systems 12.3 Effluent Standards and Regulations Effluents Standards Guidelines and Codes of Conduct Codes of Practice 1. Farm Effluents 2. Site Characteristics for Discharge Regulations General Regulations of Coastal Farm 12.4 Effluent Treatment Practices Treatment Technologies in Use 1. Solids Removal from the Pond Bottoms 2. Solids Removal by Sedimentation Ponds 3. Solids Removal by Filtration 4. Solids Removal in Cage Farms 5. Biological Treatment 6. Sludge Treatment Effluent Treatment in Shrimp Farming Systems 1. Effluent Treatment Scheme of Aquaculture Authority of India 2. Environment-Friendly Scheme for Intensive Farming 3. Closed-Recirculating Shrimp Farming Chapter 13: Solids Removal Screening Types of Screens Typical Design Characteristics and Data

10 xix 13.2 Mechanical Filtration Types of Filters 1. Gravity Filters 2. Rapid Filters 3. Diatomaceous Earth Filter Filtration Process 1. Solids Removal Mechanisms 2. Mathematical Analysis 3. Computation of Head-loss 4. Filtration Process Variables 13.3 Sedimentation of Solids Types of Settling Types of Sedimentation Tanks or Basins Mathematical Analysis of Settling 1. Settling Velocity Analysis 2. Removal Efficiency of a Basin Chapter 14: Biological Filtration Principle of Ammonia Removal by Nitrification Organisms Reactions Environmental Factors Affecting Nitrification Rate 1. Ammonia Concentration 2. Dissolved Oxygen Concentration 3. Temperature Changes 4. ph Changes 5. Effect of Minerals and Chemicals 6. Filter Media Types 14.2 Filter Design Filter Configuration 1. Submerged Filters 2. Trickling Filters 3. Rotating Media Filters ' Operating Parameters 1. Flow Distribution 2. Hydraulic Loading 3. Duty Cycle

11 XX Comparison of Existing Designs of Biofilters Filter Design Procedure 1. Ammonia Mass Balance 2. Nitrate-Nitrogen Mass balance 3. DO Mass Balance 4. DO Mass Balance in Biofilter Chapter 15: Disinfection Methods of Disinfection Chlorination Process 1. Forms of Chlorine 2. Chemistry of Chlorination 3. Disadvantages of Chlorination 4. Chlorine Removal 5. Chlorine Compounds Used in Practice Potassium Permanganate Treatment 15.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics of Disinfection References Appendices 341 Index 351