Useful applications of radioactivity and nuclear energy Power for good... and evil

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1 Useful applications of radioactivity and nuclear energy Power for good... and evil

2 Nuclear power: environmental The greatest environmental threat is perceived to be global warming the build-up of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels Nuclear power offers a greenhouse-free alternative Stop press: events can change opinions friend

3 Power generation Heat energy from nuclear fission is used to create steam that generates electricity by turning a turbine

4 Fact: Currently 104 Operating Power Reactors in the U.S. Illinois generates 46 % of electricity from nuclear compared with the average of 20 %

5 Global nuclear picture

6 Total number of reactors

7 Dimming of the day Nuclear power offered promise of plentiful cheap power. It has (mostly) failed to deliver. Public hostility and fear Periodic accidents and disasters Availability of nuclear fuel Problems of disposal (Not in my backyard!) Costs of power production Yucca no more

8 Spent Nuclear Fuel Disposition 87,000 tons from 100+ plants Direct Disposal As currently configured repository cannot accommodate all of this spent fuel Options HLW Repository Spent Fuel Produce Power Transuranics Power Plant Cladding, stable isotopes and most fission products Spent Fuel Treatment Recycle Cs and Sr after interim storage ~95% of Spent Fuel mass is Uranium LLW Disposal or Storage

9 Separation is Key 96% of the material in Spent Fuel can be recovered, with only a small fraction sent to the geological repository Spent Fuel Low Level Waste or Storage RECYCLE URANIUM (95 %) (0.8% U) Fuel TRU (1%) Fission Products 4 % WASTE Geologic Disposal -

10 Nuclear dangers: live or Memorex? A nuclear plant can NEVER result in a nuclear explosion But accidents have occurred: Fukushima (with a bit of help from nature) Chernobyl Three Mile Island Varying views on Chernobyl Anti-nuke 500,000 deaths Actual scenario 4,000 deaths Chernobyl compares favourably with coalmines Mount St Helens eruption leaked radiation thousands of times greater than Three Mile Island

11 Reactor Safety Today For more than two decades, engineers consider safety integral to system design Current LWR design demonstrates a high degree of safety to remove decay heat & minimize radioactivity release (e.g., TMI) Chernobyl accident was a terrible accident (negligent actions with a flawed engineering design: redesigned and retrained) There has been an impeccable safety record for nuclear power in the U.S. Oh Fukushima

12 Useful radioisotopes and half-lives Selection of nuclide will depend on Chemical considerations use of iodine in thyroid for example Type of radiation (not alpha for internal use) Half-life: Short for medical applications 123 I Long for dating applications - 14 C Radioisotope Emission Half-life Application Tritium H-3 β 12.3 yrs Biochemical tracer Carbon-14 β 5730 yrs Archeology Phosphorus-32 β 11.3 days Leukemia therapy Poatssium-40 β 1.3 billion yrs Geological dating Cobalt-60 β, γ 5.3 yrs Cancer therapy Technetium-99 γ 6 hours Brain scans Iodine-123 γ 13.3 hours Thyroid therapy Uranium-235 α, γ 700 million years Nuclear power

13 Radioisotopes have wide range of uses H-3 Triggering nuclear weapons, luminous paints and gauges, biochemical tracer I-131 Thyroid treatment and medical imaging Co-60 Food irradiation, industrial applications, radiotherapy Sr-90 Tracer in medical and agricultural studies U-235/238 Nuclear power generation, depleted U used in weapons and shielding Am-241 Thickness and distance gauges, smoke detectors (low energy gamma safe for domestic use)

14 Biological Effects of Radiation Penetrating power of radiation is function of mass: -rays > - particles >> -particles. Ionizing radiation removes electron from water to form H 2 O + ions in tissue. H 2 O + ions react with H 2 O molecule to produce H 3 O + and a highly reactive OH radical. Free radicals generally undergo chain reactions, producing many radicals in biomolecules.

15 Measuring the damage

16 Biological Effects of Radiation Not all forms of radiation have the same efficiency for biological damage. To correct, the radiation dose is multiplied by the relative biological effectiveness (RBE), which gives the roentgen equivalent for man (rem). RBE is about 1 for - and - and 10 for radiation. SI unit for effective dosage is the Sievert (1 Sv = RBE x 1 Gy = 100 rem).

17 Biological Effects of Radiation

18 Somatic and Genetic damage Somatic damage. High-energy radiation causes extensive damage to important structural and functional molecules Sickness and/or death generally result Genetic damage. Lower levels of exposure cause more subtle changes to the DNA Physical defects appear in offspring

19 Sources of Radiation Exposure

20 So what is my exposure? Worksheet for calculating annual exposure Is nuclear power so dangerous? Under normal working conditions, exposure to radiation from a power station is negligible Concerns center on disasters and waste disposal What is worse, long-term discharge of greenhouse gases and acid rain on a global scale or more localized sites of radioactive waste storage? Calculate Your Radiation Dose

21 The Dating Game Carbon-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere by the bombardment of nitrogen atoms with neutrons: 14 7 N n 14 6 C H Radioactive 14 CO 2 is produced, which mixes with ordinary 12 CO 2 and is taken up by plants during photosynthesis.

22 Carbon Dating During an organism s life, 14 CO 2 and 12 CO 2 are in a dynamic equilibrium at a ratio of 1 part in When an organism dies, the 14 C/ 12 C ratio decreases as 14 C undergoes decay to 14 N. Measuring the 14 C/ 12 C ratio determines the age of the sample with a high degree of certainty. Ages of ,000 years are commonly determined. The half-life for 14 C is 5730 years.

23 The age of the earth U-238 decays eventually to Pb-206 Since half-life of U-238 is much longer (4.5 billion years) than the intermediates, Pb-206 appears almost instantly after its decay If the mineral was once pure U-238, after some billions of years it becomes a mixture of U and Pb only Measuring the ratio of Pb:U gives us the age of the rock Note that the U-238 half-life is of the order of the age of the earth. If the earth was 6,000 years old or 50 billion years old it would not work

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