INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 3, No 6, Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.

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1 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 3, No 6, 2013 Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0 Research article ISSN Intensive report on total analysis of drinking water quality in Lahore Almas Hamid 1, Ghazala Yaqub 2, Zubi Sadiq 3, Amra Tahir 4, Noor ul Ain 5 1, 2, 4, 5 - Department of Environmental Sciences, Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore , Pakistan 3- Department of Chemistry (Girls), College of Science, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa , Saudi Arabia almas209@yahoo.com doi: /ijes ABSTRACT In this paper quality of drinking water supplied by Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is analyzed. Sampling units were tube well (direct source) and tap (indirect source) localized in different areas/towns of Lahore. For assessment, various physicochemical parameters (ph, temperature, color, odor, turbidity, conductivity, total hardness, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, electrical conductivity, chloride, fluorides nitrates, lead and arsenic) were selected. Moreover bacteriological study was recorded by finding total coliform colonies. The study showed that in general physicochemical parameters were within the World Health Organization (WHO), Drinking Water Quality Standards (DWQS) of Pakistan, both at source (tube well) and point of use (tap) except the levels of arsenic and fluoride that were found above the National Standards and WHO Standards. Average fluoride concentration in tube well sources was 1.50 mg/l while in tap water sources an average concentrations up to 1.58 mg/l was present, which are higher than the standard of 1.5 mg/l. Likewise average of tube-well and tap water sources had 0.05 mg/l of arsenic, out of which Wagah Town and Shalimar Town showed 0.1 mg/l of arsenic that is higher than the standards of 0.05 mg/l (National Standard) and 0.01 mg/l (WHO standard). Similarly there is an acute need to solve bacterial contamination in drinking water as few samples had very high level of bacteriological contamination. However, after employing disinfection technique via microwave and/or conventional heating methods, polluted samples showed improved results. On the larger scale, it is necessary to employ more effective chlorination plants functional at water sources while water mains and sewer lines should be at maximum distance to avoid this severe trouble. Keywords: Water quality, Analysis, Physicochemical features, Bacteriological study, Lahore. 1. Introduction Regular monitoring of drinking water quality is essential as it is an important factor that has a direct effect on human health. According to World Health Organization (WHO), nearly 1.8 million deaths, due to diarrhea and chlorea per year, are attributed to unsafe water supply in conjunction with inadequate sanitation and hygiene whereas improvement in water supply can help reduce morbidity by 6 to 25% 1. In spite of the fact that chemical contaminants health effects are generally linked with long term exposures, in contrast to immediate effects of biological/bacteriological contamination, yet these chemicals may result in serious adverse effects. 2 Different species of human pathogens (Salmonella, Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella, Campylobacter including various Received on May 2013 Published on July

2 viruses such as Rota virus, Hepatitis A and E virus and parasites like Giardia lamblia and Entamaeba histolytica) 3-5 when present in drinking water causes serious risk of ailment like gastroenteritis 6, diarrhea, dehydration etc. To determine bacteriological contamination, coliform group of organisms are considered best indicators as they are easily detectable in water. 7 In Pakistan, a large percentage of rural and urban population do not have access to safe drinking water. During 2004 to 2005, about 38.5 million people in Pakistan lacked access to safe drinking water sources which may rise to 52.8 million peoples by According to an estimate about 200,000 children die annually as a result of diarrhoeal disease alone. 9 Moreover, reports also indicate that poor water quality is a cause of around 30 to 40 percent of all reported diseases and deaths in Pakistan respectively while diarrhoea is major cause of deaths in infants and children under 10 years of age. 10 According to a news report based on Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) research, 79% water sources of the functional Water Supply Schemes (WSS) in Northern and Central Punjab are not safe for drinking purposes with biological contamination present in all water samples. 11 A number of studies conducted in different cities of Punjab have shown that the population is exposed to unsafe drinking water due to one or the other cause. 12 Varying levels of chemical and biological contamination effect the drinking water quality in Pakistan. For instance elevated arsenic, fluoride and nitrate levels have been detected 13, lead levels have been found to exceed WHO permissible limits 14. Other studies have confirmed the pre-sense of E. coli and coliforms in drinking water samples from 15, 16 Lahore. Unfortunately, quantity is being focused rather paying attention on quality of supplied water. Surveillance programmes and monitoring agencies should focus on water microbiology issues on realistic backgrounds and develop legal frameworks and properly equipped laboratories to check the quality of water. 17 The objective of this research work is to present an assessment on present drinking water quality in Lahore and to propose preventive measures if any lapses observed. 2. Material and methods Tested Quality Parameters Standard methods and protocols were followed to carry out sampling and analysis Physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters were considered to check the quality of water samples collected from different sources for this research article. Detail of various parameters being analyzed using different instrumentation is as; for ph (ph meter, (Eco Testr), temperature (Thermohunter PT-2LD), electrical conductivity (electrical conductivity meter), total suspended solids (TSS) in mg/l (Spectrophotometer DR 2800 (HACH), total dissolved solids (TDS) in mg/l (TDS meter (Eco Testr), turbidity in NTU (Turbidity meter HI (HANNA), color in Cu (Spectrophotometer DR 2800 (HACH), odor in TON while carbonates, bicarbonates, phosphate, phosphorus and total hardness in mg/l (titration), phosphate, phosphorus, nitrate, sulfate, fluoride and iron in mg/l (Spectrophotometer DR 2800 (HACH), sodium and potassium (Flame photometer (Esico), chloride (Digital Titration Method 8207), arsenic (Mercuric bromide stain method) and lead (Spectrophotometer (Merck).Bacteriological analysis was carried out using viable counting technique (CFU). 2162

3 Sampling Area This case study was done in 9 different localities of Lahore (2 nd largest city of Pakistan) including Ravi town, Wagah town, Aziz Bhatti town, Data Gunj Baksh town, Shalimar town, Gulberg, Samanabad town, Iqbal town and Nishtar town. These areas are surrounded by private and government societies and water is served through piped supply system, managed by WASA, to all residents. Location points of sampling used in this research work is detailed in table 1. Table 1: Locations of sampling points Sr. Town Sample Code Location Tube Well Depth (ft) 1 Ravi Town R1 Shadara Road- Malik 575 park R2 Shahdra Road Wagah Town W1 Batapur area 510 Bore well W2 Dharampura Data Gunj Baksh D1 Opposite to Pir makki- 515 Town park. D2 Anarkali (Katcha nisbat 680 road) 4 Shalimar Town SH1 Baghban pura 665 SH2 Wasan Pura Iqbal town I1 Kashmir block 610 I2 Sabzazar-F block 457 I3 Margazar-M block Samnabad Town S1 Near 2 no. Gol chakar. 665 S2 Dongi ground Gulberg G1 Firdous market, G block. 695 G2 Gulberg Aziz Bhatti Town A1 College cantt sadar road 521 A2 Tufail road Nishtar Town N1 Township 455 N2 Green town (4 C II, Muslim chock) 430 Sampling methodology Two samples from the selected locations of each town were collected in sterilized wrapped bottles by grab sampling procedures during March and April 2012 and immediately brought to the laboratory for analysis. One direct sample source was tube well of that area and the other was tap water. More number of samples were taken for bacteriological analysis (at least two samples from each source in each town). ph and temperature of the sample were recorded on site instantly to ensure the accuracy in results. 3. Result and conclusion The samples collected from tube well and tap water were analyzed against selected parameters. According to WHO standard, ph of drinking water should be while the mean value for samples from tube-wells showed a ph 7.6 and those from tap water sources 2163

4 have ph 7.8. Average temperature for tube-wells is o C while for tap water is o C. As regards odor, none of the sample exhibited any objectionable odor. WHO have not specified any standards for TSS as these are not present in dangerous levels in drinking water sources while the present study showed average value of TSS for tube-wells to be 0.56 mg/l and tap water sources as 0.22 mg/l. The TDS levels for all samples were below the WHO standard value of < 1000 mg/l, with an, average value of mg/l and mg/l for tube well and tap water samples respectively. The turbidity level for all samples was also within the permissible limits with an average value of 0.01 NTU for tube well samples and a relatively higher turbidity for tap water samples with an average of 0.35 NTU. The electrical conductivity EC were also within the prescribed WHO water quality guidelines. National standard for color of drinking water is 15 TCU. Mean results of tube wells and tap water sources are 2.89 and 2.56 respectively that are satisfactory in terms of physiological quality of water. WHO standards have not been specified for the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates in the drinking water as it is of no or less major hazard to the humans. Mean value for carbonates for tube well samples was18.05 mg/l and tap water had carbonates levels as mg/l. Bicarbonate alkalinity of mg/l and mg/l was shown to be present in tube well and tap water respectively. The National Standards for Drinking Water of Pakistan has specified < 500 mg/l as the standard for total hardness in drinking water, whereas WHO have not specified any standards for total hardness. The Mean value for total hardness (tube well samples) was mg/l while for tap water, the concentration was calculated to be 135 mg/l. Phosphate is not present in alarming concentration in drinking water sources due to which there are no standards defined in National Standards and WHO standards. Statistics show that on an average tube wells had 0.73 mg/l concentrations of phosphate and tap water had 0.68 mg/l. According to the statistical data the mean phosphorous for tube-well sources is 0.23 mg/l and tap water source has 0.21 mg/l of phosphorus. WHO standards have specified the guideline value for nitrate to be 50 mg/l, while the samples had 1.7 mg/l of nitrate (tube wells) and 1.4 mg/l(tap water). WHO Standards for chloride in drinking water are < 250 mg/l. The statistics show that mean of tube wells for the presence of chloride in drinking water was and that of tap water sources was WHO Standards has set a standard of 1.5 mg/l for fluoride. The study samples however indicated a slight increased concentration in tube well samples with mean value of 1.5 mg/l of fluoride and a more elevated level in tap water samples with an average of 1.58 mg/l. Higher levels of arsenic were also present. The values ranged from mg/l to 0.01 mg/l in comparison with National Standards for drinking water of Pakistan ( 0.05). The results showed that there were no concentrations of lead in drinking water as they were detected as below detectable limits. National Standards for drinking water and WHO standards have not specified any standards for iron. The mean of all values of iron in tube-well was found to be 0.01 and in tap water sources was Electrical conductivity is the ability of substance to diffuse light, sound and heat. The recommended value of WHO standard should remain from us/cm Results showed that all the values were within the limits set by WHO. Bacteriological studies According to WHO guideline 2008, there must be no total coliforms per 100 ml of sample. The bacteriological results in R1, R2, W2, D1, SH1, SH2, I1, S1, S2, G1,G2, A1 and A2 towns were excellent as no colonies were seen in tube well as well as in tap water. However, 2164

5 in case of Wagah Town (W1) no colonies were seen in tube well whereas 1000 colonies per 100 ml were recorded in tap water of W1.This shows the unsatisfactory results. Similarly in case of Data Gunj Baksh (sample D2) and Iqbal Town (sample I2) no colonies were seen in tube well whereas 500 colonies per 100 ml were detected in tap water. For sample I3 Iqbal town, there were 7500 colonies per 100 ml in tap water which is much beyond the WHO limit. The bacteriological result for Nishtar town (sample N1) showed 500 bacterial colonies in tube well and 8500 bacterial colonies in tap water samples, whereas, in another sample N2 from the same town, 10,000 bacterial colonies in tap water were observed, which have to be taken under consideration. The results are far beyond the limit of WHO. It was noted that there is the drain flowing along the side of the area where contamination has been determined. There may be a possibility that the drain water line may be mixed with the water supply line and distribution increases with the passage of line. If the total coliforms is found in drinking water then there is indication that the drinking water is polluted with fecal or the water line has been mixed with the sewerage line. Furthermore, colonies of Escherichia coli were identified. The presence of E. coli in drinking water shows that the water has been contaminated with sewerage or animal waste. If the total coliforms is found in drinking water then there is indication that the drinking water is polluted with fecal or the water line has been mixed with the sewerage line. Furthermore, colonies of Escherichia coli were identified. The presence of E. coli in drinking water shows that the water has been contaminated with sewerage or animal waste. The locals of this area are definitely suffering from water borne illness which has been ascertained through a limited questionnaire survey conducted during the same study. Result indicated that residents of Nishtar town, Allama Iqbal Town and Wagah Town are suffering from some health issue, like diarrhea, stomach disorders, gastrointestinal and hepatitis, due to this drinking water quality of the area. Heating the contaminated sample in microwave and/or conventional hot plate was helpful as a simple disinfectant technique. Figure 1: Comparison of T.C in tube well and tap water 2165

6 Sr. no Table 2: Results of analyzed parameters for Ravi Town and Wagah Town PARAMETER S NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR PAKISTAN WHO STANDAR DS RAVI WAGAH Tubewell Tube- water well 1 ph water 2 Temperature NS* NS 13 o C 19 o C 12 o C 12 o C ( o C) 3 Electrical NS Conductivity us/cm -1 4 TDS (mg/l) < 1000 < Turbidity < 5 NTU < 5 NTU (NTU) 6 Color (TCU) 15 TCU 15 TCU Odor (TON) Non- Non- Nil Nil Nil Nil objectionable objectionabl e 8 Carbonates NS NS Bicarbonates NS NS Total < 500 NS Hardness 11 NO Cl < 250 < F As Pb BDL* BDL BDL BDL 16 Total Must not be Must not be Coliform/ 100 detectable in detectable in ml any 100 ml any 100 ml sample sample Table 3: Results of analyzed parameters for Data Gunj Baksh Town and Shalimar Town Sr. no PARAMETER S NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR PAKISTAN WHO STANDAR DS DATA GUNJ BAKSH SHALIMAR Tubewell Tube- water well 1 ph water 2 Temperature NS* NS 24 o C 15 o C 24 o C 15 o C ( o C) 3 Electrical NS Conductivity us/cm -1 4 TDS (mg/l) < 1000 < Turbidity < 5 NTU < 5 NTU (NTU) 6 Color (TCU) 15 TCU 15 TCU

7 7 Odor (TON) Nonobjectionable Nonobjectionabl e Nil Nil Nil Nil 8 Carbonates NS NS Bicarbonates NS NS Total < 500 NS Hardness 11 NO Cl < 250 < F BDL BDL BDL BDL 14 As Pb BDL BDL BDL BDL 16 Total Must not be Must not be Coliform/ 100 detectable in detectable in ml any 100 ml any 100 ml sample sample * NS (Not Specified) * BDL (Below Detectable Limits) Sr. no Table 4: Results of analyzed parameters for Iqbal Town & Samnabad Town. PARAMETE RS NATION AL STANDA RDS FOR PAKISTA N WHO STANDARD S IQBAL Tubewell Tubewell SAMNABAD water 1 ph water 2 Temperature NS* NS 18 o C 24 o C 24 o C 16 o C ( o C) 3 Electrical NS Conductivity us/cm -1 4 TDS < 1000 < Turbidity < 5 NTU < 5 NTU (NTU) 6 Color (TCU) 15 TCU 15 TCU Odor (TON) Nonobjectiona ble Nonobjectionable Nil Nil Nil Nil 8 CO 3 NS NS HCO 3 NS NS Total < 500 NS Hardness 11 NO Cl < 250 < F BDL BDL BDL BDL 2167

8 14 As Pb BDL* BDL BDL BDL 16 Total Coliform/ 100mL Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample Table 5: Results of analyzed parameters for Gulberg, Aziz Bhatti Town and Nishtar Town Sr. no PARAMETE RS NATION AL STANDA RDS FOR PAKIST AN WHO STANDAR DS GULBERG Tubewell wate r AZIZ BHATTI Tub e- Well wate r NISHTAR Tub e- well 1 ph Temperatur e ( o C) NS* NS 25 o C 27 o C 20 o C 20 o C 25 o C 27 o C 3 Electrical NS Conductivit y us/cm -1 4 TDS < 1000 < wate r 5 Turbidity < 5 NTU < 5 NTU (NTU) 6 Color 15 TCU 15 TCU (TCU) 7 Odor (TON) Non- Non- Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil objectiona ble objectionabl e 8 CO 3 NS NS HCO 3 NS NS Total < 500 NS Hardness 11 NO Cl < 250 < F BDL BDL BDL BDL 14 As Pb BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 16 Total Coliform/ 100mL Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample * NS (Not Specified) * BDL (Below Detectable Limits

9 Table 6: Total bacteriological analysis of drinking water by applying viable counting Towns Microbial analysis Tube well water Total coliform/100 ml R1 0 0 R2 0 0 W W2 0 0 D1 0 0 D SH1 0 0 SH2 0 0 I1 0 0 I I S1 0 0 S2 0 0 G1 0 0 G2 0 0 A1 0 0 A2 0 0 N N2 0 10,000 WHO standards Must not be detectable in any 100 Must not be detectable in any 100 Standard value for Pakistan ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample From this study it is concluded that the selected physical and chemical parameters, with the exception of fluoride and arsenic in some areas, were within acceptable limits set by WHO standards and hence groundwater is suitable for drinking and other domestic purposes. However, bacteriological results of some samples were alarming and exceeding the water quality standards and they impose a threat to the humans health especially children. The total coliforms seen in samples is the indication that the water line may be mixed with sewerage line. In order to prevent the increased level of contamination in future it is important to follow the recommendations and to monitor the quality of drinking water regularly, keeping in view the health and safety of the residents of Lahore. Recommendations 1. Treatment of polluted water should be carried out by installing separate monitoring plants in the housing societies. 2. Microbial analysis must be carried out on routine basis to evaluate the whole water supply system. 3. Stagnation of water due to lack of well drainage system should be improved. Chlorination units must be functionalize to avoid bacteriological contamination. 4. The leakage problems in pumping assembly should be rectified by replacing old and rusted parts and using chemical sealants at the earliest. 5. Raise public awareness at all levels about the issues of drinking water quality and 2169

10 4. References importance of clean and safe drinking water accessed January WHO, (2007), Chemical safety of drinking-water: Assessing priorities for risk management. 3. Geldreich E. E., (1992), Water borne pathogens invasions: A case of water quality protection in distribution, Proceedings of American water works association water quality technology conference, pp Pommervilli J. C., (2007), Alcamo s Fundamentals of Microbiology, 8 th Edition, Massachusetts: Jones and bartlett publishing. 5. Bridges G., (2007) Asian water development outlook, Country paper Pakistan, Asian Development Bank. Available at Books/AWDO/ 2007/cr08.pdf 29 December, Park J. E., and Park K., (1991), Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine. 13 th Edition, Jabalpur: Banarsidas Bhanot, pp Global Water Partnership, (2000), Draft South Asia - Water Vision 2025, Country report Pakistan. 8. Khan Faheem J., and Yaser J., (2007), Delivering access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation in Pakistan. (PIDE working papers No. 30) 9. Rosemann N. (2005), Drinking water crises in Pakistan and the issue of bottled water: The Case of Nestle s Pure Life. Actionaid Pakistan report (2007), accessed on January December The World Bank, (2005), Pakistan country water resources assistance strategy water economy: Running dry, pp Water%20and%20Sanitation/10-Water%20&%20Sanitation.pdf. section Haq N., Arain M. A., Badar N., Rasheed M., and Haque Z., (2011), Drinking water: a major source of lead exposure in Karachi, Pakistan, Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 17(1). Available at emhj/v17/11/17_11_ 2011_0882_0886.pdf, Decemberr Hannan A., Shan S., and Arshad M. U., (2010), Bacteriological analysis of drinking water from 100 families of Lahore by membrane filtration technique and chromatography, Biomedica, 26, pp

11 16. Anwar M. S., Lateef S., and Siddiqi G. M., (2010), Bacteriological quality of drinking water in Lahore, Biomedica, 26, pp Guidelines for drinking-water quality, (2004), 3 rd edition, volume 1. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, pp