Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management in Bandung City: A Literature Review

Transcription

1 Available at The 3rd International Conference on Technology and Operations Management Sustaining Competitiveness through Green Technology Management Bandung Indonesia, July 4-6, 2012 Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management in Bandung City: A Literature Review Nunik Rahayu 1,*, Gatot Yudoko 1 1 School of Business and Management (SBM) - Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jl. Ganesha 10 (Gedung SBM-ITB), Bandung 40132, Indonesia Abstract. Nowadays, waste problem becomes crucial and challenging. In developing countries, the conventional approach to Municipal Solid Waste Management dominates. Recognizing the inappropriateness of this approach, other approach has been explored, the integrated approach. Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in Indonesia is the responsibility of the municipality (local government). Bandung city as one of big cities in Indonesia has the annual waste generation increases in proportion to the rises in population and urbanization. The low priority to solid waste service and no landfill site to manage wastes are the problems of MSWM in Bandung city. It needs a long term plan for integrated approach of MSWM which involves many contributing factors to the problems, and stakeholders from different sectors. This research proposed backcasting approach to be used as the alternative to develop long-term Bandung Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management. Backcasting is a form of scenario generation which attempts to extrapolate plausible path to desired alternative future. By involving working backwards from a particular future end-point to the present to determine what policy measures would be required to reach the long term of integrated municipal solid waste management in Bandung city. Keywords: Backcasting, Bandung, Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management 1. Introduction Planning for the long-term future management of municipal solid waste (MSW) are being exacerbated by a number of factors, such as urbanization, population growth, industrialization to increase growth, improve living standards, and the increased availability of customer products (Yudoko, 2004). Future studies are needed in doing this planning MSWM for sustainability development. Forcasting is the most well-known methods of future studies. This methods started to be deployed by the mid-1930s in order to make economic predictions (Coppel, 2011); being rewarded by as a successful method to predict the future, due to a growth in economy at the industrialized world. Nevertheless, in the following decade, Godet (1979) said that unforeseen situations such as the oil crisis changed the conditions of how the future was studied. Thus, forecasting methods frequently proved to be of little * Corresponding author. address: nunik.rahayu@sbm-itb.ac.id or gatot@sbm-itb.ac.id

2 540 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste... use and a new method for exploring a set of different possible futures was formulated. On the other hand, a normative planning approach called backcasting emerged as well during the 1970s, in a response to the need for a future study approach that could deal with situations on how to attain specific targets even when forecasts demonstrated that such targets could not be met (Coppel, 2011; Börjeson, et al., 2005). In 1982, Robinson introduced backcasting approach to assist the policy makers in tackling uncertainties of the future in use of energy. Backcasting, also described as backwards-looking analysis, is a form of scenario generation which attempts to extrapolate plausible paths to desired alternative future. Backcasting set an endpoint at which policy measures determine to reach that future, usually years away, with certain goals that could be applied to deal with long term complex issues involving technological innovation and change for sustainability developments. This approach enabled the development of an alternative strategy and the facilitation of a more flexible and responsible policy agenda, beyond mechanistic optimmization (Ng, 2009; Jablonowski, 2007; Suwa, 2009). Bandung City as one of big cities in Indonesia evolved into a serious waste problem. This has already been a major issue for government at all level. Population growth and ever increasing activities in this city entails the increase of waste generation and all of the inherent consequences. It was estimated, that of the entire wastes generated in 2011, at most only around 60% 70% could be transported to final disposal by PDK (The Hygiene Regional Company) of Bandung City (Damanhuri et al, 2010; Surakusumah, 2008; PDK, 2011). A continuous program is held for improving the image of Bandung as a Garbage City. The low priority to solid waste service and no landfill site to manage wastes are the problem of MSWM in Bandung city. It needs the long term plan for integrated approach of MSWM. The integrated approach also viewed as a multisectoral or comprehensive approach because it takes into account many contributing factors to the problems, and involves stakeholders from different sectors (Yudoko, 2004; Yudoko, 2005). This research proposed backcasting approach to be used as the alternative to develop long-term plan of waste management in Bandung City. Drawing from the problem above, this paper reviews relevant writings to address how can backcasting analysis approach be applied to the Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management (IMSWM) in Bandung? and what are the key factors that influence the long-term plan of IMSWM in Bandung?. The paper is organized into several sections. The first section provides the introduction while the next section discusses about backcasting approach. Third section show the existing condition of waste management in Bandung City, while the forth section discussed the integrated municipal solid waste management. The fifth discussed of backcasting implementation for integrated MSWM in Bandung City. The sixth section concludes the paper, and the last is the future work. 2. An Overview of Backcasting Backcasting is the contrary of forecasting. Backcasting methodology was developed in response to the limitation of forecasting. Its main purpose is to identify the policies and actions required to achieve a certain desirable future, rather than to predict a likely future based on current observations. In this sense, backcasting remains normative by concerned with how desirable futures can be attained, while forecasting is more descriptive. By involving working backwards from a particular future end-point to the present to determine what policy measures would be required to reach that future (Suwa, 2009; Ng, 2009; Robinson, 1982). Backcasting is a method that started to be used for planning energy, electricity supply and sustainability problems in a systematic manner. Many empirical studies related to energy planning used this approach to deal with future uncertainties, such as future scenarios for the possible development of the energy sector within México in order to achieve sustainability in 2050 (Coppel, 2011), China renewable energy planning (Ng, 2009), and Japanese energy policy (Suwa, 2009). Backcasting also used in planning for 70% emission reduction in Japan by 2050 (Fujino, et al., 2008), 80-90% emission reduction from transportation in Netherland (Geurs and van Wee, 2000), and in United Kingdom (Jablonowski, 2007). However, this approach has not been found to be used in long-term planning for municipal solid waste management. The advantage of backcasting includes the examination of a range of plausible future and the possible stepping stones in achieving the desired goals (Börjeson, et al., 2005; Ng, 2009; Robinson, 1982). There are many studies about the effective use of backcasting approach involving stakeholders in determining the desirable, long-term and sustainable future scenarios. Those are illustrated a model to embrace public values, attitudes, preferences, beliefs and expert understanding to improve understanding and practice of sustainability (see Ng, 2009).

3 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Figure 1 Outline of generic backcasting method (Robinson, 1990) Based on Robinson (1990), backcasting approach proposed here involves six steps. Step 1 is determining objectives. To determine the objectives we should describe purpose of analysis; determine temporal, spatial and substantive scope of analysis; and decide number and type of scenario. Next step is specifying goals, constraints and targets. In this step, not only we need to set goals, constraints and targets for scenario analysis; but also to set goals, constraints and targets for exogenous variables. The third step is describing present system by outlining physical consumption and production processes. Step 4 is specifying exogenous variables, which are developing description of exogenous variables and specifying external inputs to scenario analysis. Step 5 is undertaking scenario analysis by choosing scenario generation approach; analyzing future consumption and production processes at the end-point and mid-points; developing scenario(s) and iterating as required to achieve internal consistency. The last step is undertaking impact analysis. In this step we should consolidate scenario results; analyse social, economic and environmental impacts; compare results of step 6 (a) and 6 (b) with step 2; and iterate analysis (step 2, 4, and 5) as required to ensure consistency between goals and results. A summary of this method may be appreciated in figure The Existing Waste Management in Bandung City Bandung City produces 7,500.58m 3 waste per day and can only be served around 65% and the rest can t be processed. There were a lot of sources of waste in Bandung city area. Each of sources has a different volume for each day. The source and the volume of waste can be seen in table 1. No. Table 1 Source of Waste in Bandung City 2011 Source/Waste Generator m 3 /day Volume ton/day 1. Residential 4, , Market Commercial Street Industrial Non-commercial/public facilities Total 7, , *Source: PDK 2011

4 542 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste... Most of the waste generated in Bandung is organic waste, namely covers 60-75% of the total volume of waste). Bandung waste management is managed by PD Kebersihan (Regional Hygiene Company) which is the organizational structure is one implementing unit under the government of Bandung City (Damanhuri et al., 2009; PDK, 2011). Bandung City waste management still using a simple collection processes and discarded into landfill. Further processing done on the spot final disposal by combustion in incinerators processing, composting and recycling. There is no source-separation of wastes at various generation points like households, institutions, and commercial establishments. At some markets like Ciroyom traditional market (west area), there is an organic waste separation of remaining vegetables which will to be chopped and process into compost in Jelekong. At hospitals, there is only source-separation between medical waste and non-medical waste. The medical waste still transferred to the special management of medical waste in Bogor. Some households in Bandung city afford a waste bin made by concrete, plastic or steel built in front of their houses. Other simply, just stores their waste in plastic bags or in used cartoon boxes in front of their houses. These wastes are then picked up by a community collector cart or a small truck depending on the arrangement in the neighborhood community. Bandung City still using 18 units of rental truck to carry waste from street temporary disposal site (TPS) to final disposal site (TPA). The amount of ritasi (trip) is about 192trip/day. There are 382 truck drivers and transport personnel. It is about 2,131 m 3 /day solid waste can be managed or 1,092 ton/day. The existing MSW management system in Bandung city relies on the existence of landfills. Nowadays, waste generated from Bandung city transferred to Sarimukti final disposal (21 hectares, 45km west of Bandung city), which is merged with other area in Bandung Metropolitan such as Cimahi. No landfill site in Bandung city becomes a big problem. Bandung city governance plans to move the final disposal to Garut (about 100 hectares, 65km form Bandung city), because Sarimukti landfill capacity will be full in So far, the existing landfills are not adequately prepared and are not professionally operated. In the other hand, the consciousness on the part of the surrounding communities of their right to enjoy better environmental quality in their lives is ever increasing. This problem is made worse by the incapability of the site managers in coordinating the waste pickers who compete for handling the wastes. There are no treatment facilities from household level until temporary waste shelter for the municipal waste. Societies manage their wastes by burning it. Reasons identified are lack of motivation and knowledge of the citizen, financial constrain in the PDK, absence of private sector participation, etc. Even technologies like composting which needs small capital investment is not practiced well (Damanhuri et al., 2009; PDK, 2011). Until these days, PDK still focus in daily operational management and not yet emphasis on long-term MSWM planning. 4. Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management The conventional approach of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) dominates in developing countries. For example, the responsibility of municipal authorities for providing service (collection, transportation and disposal) is handled by the regional government. This approach is no longer appropriate because of its inability to cope with the high rate of urban growth and development, limited local authorities resources, lack of public participation and services (Yudoko, 2004). The Integrated MSWM is proposed as a solution to this problem. IMSWM, a multisectoral or comprehensive approach, takes into account many contribution factors to the problems, and involves stakeholders from different sectors (Yudoko, 2004). This approach has been implemented in many developed countries such as U.S (Chambal et al., 2003), Canada (Huang et al., 2001), European countries (Rigamonti et al., 2009; Shcneider and Bogdan, 2010) and Australia (Wang, 2001; Qian et al., 2010). Several developing countries try to plan this appropriate way to address the complex problems of MSWM, such as Indonesia (Yudoko, 2004; Yudoko, 2005; Meidiana and Gamse, 2010), India (Saxena et al., 2009; Rathi, 2007) and Ghana (Obeng, et al, 2008), to develop their MSWM practices. No single actor or organization can only solve the complex problem of municipal solid waste is an argument for the important of integrated approach. Based on their work on solid waste management in Asia, Hoornweg and Thomas (1999, 1) concluded that Municipal governments are usually the responsible agency for solid waste collection and disposal, but the magnitude of the problem is well beyond the ability of any municipal government. In addition to other levels of government, business and the general community need to be more involved in waste management (see Yudoko, 2004, p.25).

5 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Integrated Waste Management Model Increasing environmental concerns and interest in materials and energy conservation have led to increasing sophistication in the management of solid waste management tremendously over the past two decades. Quite appropriately, the field of modeling of waste systems, as opposed to the modeling of a particular component of the system, has been active since the late 1980s. Many modeling approaches are being utilized, including optimization, statistical, simulation and, in recent years, life cycle inventory models (Wang, 2001). The optimization model for integrated waste management mostly emphasized on cost minimization and based on linear or non-linear programming techniques. Most of the models cited above have achieved optimization of the overall system concerned at the expense of detailed aspects of the systems (Wang, 2001; Huang et al., 2001; Cheng et al., 2009; Rathi, 2007). While the statistical models of integrated waste management system has not been reported widely, the application of an approach to various components of the systems has long been in existence, such as in the forecasting of waste generation through use of time-series analyses and of socio-economic factors (Wang, 2001). Life-cycle assessment (LCA) applications to waste management systems ware developed roughly since the mid-1990s. The LCA methodology has a stronger emphasis on detailing environmental impacts of products by examining each stage of production life, usually from extraction of raw materials, production, fabrication, distribution, consumption and final disposal or recovery (Wang, 2001; Rigamonti et al., 2009). Simulation models are particularly suited in studying system dynamics and its impact on the systems. In collection of recyclables, for example, the type of recyclables collected, collection frequency, receptacle used, and so on, will affect the participation rate and frequency of set-out by households, which in turn will determine whether the collection system offered is feasible or cost effective (Wang, 2001). 5. Backcasting Scenario for IMSWM in Bandung City This session presents a normative future scenario with a vision towards integrated and sustainability as our objective. Thus, the desirable future state or image of the future is expressed in terms of targets or specific metrics to be reached by the end of the studied period; so to be used as a departing point to identify the conditions that must be met along the way to fulfill the vision. The purpose of this scenario is then to stimulate discussion and reasoning from a different perspective regarding long term issues that could emerge between waste management and sustainable development. Let say if we set the planning horizon for IMSWM in Bandung City is 25 years taken from the minimum of backcasting end-point. What will the MSWM system looks like if integrated planning is applied by 2027? What are the policy instruments available and when will they have to be implemented to realize this IMSWM? This mean, we will pull backward our strategy, from the future specific goals of IMSWM, into the present situation, at once also analyze the obstacles and impacts (Robinson, 1982; Jablonowski, 2007; Robinson, 1990; Geurs and van Wee, 2000). Integrated planning and management in MSW is multidimensional and system oriented. It is necessary to examine the interrelationship among various components of the system, activities, actors (stakeholders), aspects (perspectives), and options (Yudoko, 2004; Yudoko, 2005). Because of the options component similar to the activities, we will only discuss the trilpe As component, the activities, the actors and the aspects The Activities In IMSWM, activities include waste generation, source separation and storage, collection, transportation, processing and treatment, and disposal (Yudoko, 2004; Chambal et al., 2003). IMSWM plan activities include selection and recycling efficiencies scenario, the fraction collected separately are sent to material recovery process, whereas the residual waste is sent to energy recovery. Material recovery includes the recycling of packaging materials (iron, glass, paper, wood, and plastic) and the composting of food and green waste (Yudoko, 2004; Rigamonti et al., 2009). In 2006, local service of MSWM was 56% (Meidiana and Gamse, 2010), it needs waste policies in national level and waste regulation enforcement in local level to achieve the optimal IMSWM target the next 25 years. Operating safe disposal and incineration facilities also the goals of IMSWM activities. Incineration facilities should be applied due to the pressured from the increasing production of waste in Bandung City, the limited number of landfills available, and the difficulty in finding landfill site (Damanhuri et al., 2009; Yudoko, 2004; Meidina and Gamse, 2010). Sanitary landfill sould be made for safe disposal site due to environmental hygiene.

6 544 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste The Actors (Stakeholders) The actors or stakeholders in IMSWM related to solid waste policy and action. They are central government, municipal government, private solid waste business, private industry, community organizations (national scope), waste pickers, itinerant buyers, households, individual collectors, schools and foreign agencies. These stakeholders can be categorized into government institutions, private sectors, individuals, non-governmental organization (NGO), and foreign agencies (Yudoko, 2004). Local government needs to collect almost all of total amount of household waste for treatment purposes such as landfill, composting, recycling or incineration. But that would be feasible if local community also participate in handling their waste from the very first hand. For IMSWM optimization, household already sorting their waste (Yudoko, 2004; Huang et al., 2001), and practicing backyard composting (Huang et al., 2001). Private sector can recycle inorganic wastes that have been sorted by households. So, local government will collect the rest of waste that is not exploited by private sectors or households The Aspects Economic Aspect Financial shortage is one of the problems in waste management in Bandung City and other cities in Indonesia (Yudoko, 2005; Meidiana and Gamse, 2010) for fulfilling waste collection and transportation cost, operating costs, and waste management facilities costs (Huang et al., 2001). Economic aspect encourages financial incentive and disincentive mechanisms to drive effective environmental management (Meidina and Gamse, 2010). Since we cannot increase waste distribution fee from household due to their willingness to pay more, private sectors participation in providing service can be helpful to reduce money spending by government. For this, municipal government needs to make regulation related to privatization of waste service in Bandung City (Yudoko, 2005). Waste sorting and recycling not only can reduce waste build-up, but also can be the additional income for households, especially for low-income (Damanhuri et al., 2009; Yudoko, 2005) by doing reverse logistics (see Ramadhani, 2008). For this, it is necessary to prepare the marketing finished compost and recyclable materials, and calculate residual market value (Huang et al., 2001) Social Aspect Waste sorting and local community responsible for delivering waste from primary service (household) to temporary disposal site will be achieved. No one will throw away garbage every where in the streets or at the rivers. It is needs strong regulation and socialization from the government by setting pinalties for those who violate. In terms of human rights and social justice, IMSWM acknowledge the existence and role of waste pickers by accomodating and facilitating the recovery and recycling sites for their activities (Yudoko, 2005) Environmental Aspect According to a national law issued in 1997 (UU No.23 Tahun 1997), everybody has an obligation to sustain and prevent the environment from being degraded. Resource conservation by reusing and recycling materials will enhance the environment. Reuse practice by households, the recovery and recycling by the informal waste sector, and the formal waste processing all contribute to reducing the use of virgin materials (Yudoko, 2005). Waste incineration emits carbon dioxide, and landfilling generates greenhouse gases like methane (Rodionov and Nakata, 2011). We must therefore take measures for preventing global warming in waste management as well. Case in Low carbon society (LCS) policy in Japan can be a reference (Fujino et al., 2008; Suwa, 2009) Other Considerations Information System Information system is one of the factors that causing low service of solid waste management in many Indonesia cities. The lack information about the exact amount of waste generated at the source point, collected at transfer point, and delivered to final disposal site (Meidiana and Gamse, 2010). Bandung City needs adequate information about the components in waste management to lead the efficient of IMSWM. Weighting system in transfer point and final disposal site is required in estimating the waste generation and collection rate Waste-to-Energy Nowadays, decreasing the amount of oil and gas become primary issue in developed country to seek other resources. Waste can be one of this renewable energy production, by processing the methane into energy (Ryu, 2010; Rodionov and Nakata, 2011; Schneider and Bogdan, 2010). Green house gases (GHG) emission from waste landfill site can be substantially reduce by waste-to-energy (WtE) production.

7 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Research Methodology for Implementing Backcasting Analysis in IMSWM in Bandung City Backcasting Steps based on Robinson (1990) Step 1 determining objectives Step 2 specifying goals, constraints and targets Step 3 describing present system Step 4 specifying exogenous variables Step 5 undertaking scenario analysis Step 6 undertaking impact analysis Operational Definition The purpose analysis is to know how backcasting approach can be used in integrating municipal solid waste management in Bandung City The goal is to achieve integrated municipal solid waste management in Bandung City. The constraints are many stakeholders involved to achieve this integrated approach. Outlining physical consumption and production processes of municipal solid waste in Bandung City Developing description of exogenous variables of municipal solid waste management in Bandung City Specifying external inputs to scenario analysis of integrated municipal solid waste management in Bandung City Developing and choosing scenario generation approach for integrated municpal solid waste management in Bandung City Analyzing future consumption and production processes at the end-point and mid-points iterating as required to achieve internal consistency of municipal solid waste in Bandung City Consolidate scenario results of integrated municipal solid waste management in Bandung City Analyse social, economic and environmental impacts of integrated municipal solid waste management in Bandung City Comparing results of consolidate scenario result and social, economic, environmental analysis of integrated municipal solid waste management in Bandung City with its goal and constraints Stakeholders Government institution Government institution, private sectors, NGO, households (individuals), foreign agencies Government institution, private sectors, NGO, households (individuals), foreign agencies Government institution, private sectors, NGO, households (individuals), foreign agencies Government institution Government institution, private sectors, NGO, households (individuals), foreign agencies 6. Conclusions Backcasting can be used to be an effective manner to take insight into what the future may bring and how may we prepare to it. Moreover, backcasting scenario are adequate for sustainability issues, such as integrated municipal solid waste management, since their departing point is a set of norms to be achieved when current development trends suggest that such desired future state is not attainable, as it is the case in most sustainable development issues. Sustainable development compromises to meet the needs of everybody and by including everybody s opinion, a common target and key driving forces may be more effectively identified. On the other hand, backcasting embraces higher order learning among the involved participants and facilitates network creation among key players for future action. Bandung City has not been on course to achieve a sustainable path in regards of its waste management. For this, it is recommended that in spite of the perceived difficulty and possible barrier in the short term to achieve the envisioned scenario, Bandung City would benefit from such actions in the long term. Cases and experiences in other countries have demonstrated that this is possible. The future IMSWM and waste-to-energy in Bandung City can be a choice and not a destiny. Nevertheless, it is a sector which needs to be carefully planned with time in advance due to the required infrastructure needed to operate it. Hence those efforts to achieve it a desire future state must start as of today.

8 546 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Further Research Further work is required to construct blueprint of backcasting implementation and test the scenario in Bandung City in order to see its feasibility and sustainability. A simulation modeling will provide valuable insight regarding the fitness of the backcasting scenario with Bandung City condition. This simulation can lead Bandung City municipality to prepare plans towards the backcasting scenario of IMSWM. References [1] Börjeson, L.,Höjer, M., Dreborg, K.H., Ekvall, T., and Finnveden, G., (2005). Towards a user s guide to scenarios - a report on scenario types and scenario techniques. (ISSN ) Sweden: Environmental strategies research fms, Department of Urban studies, Royal Institute of Technology. [2] Chambal, Stephen., Shoviak, Mark and Thal Jr, Alfred E. (2003). Decision Analysis Methodology to Evaluate Integrated Solid Waste Management Alternatives. Environmental Modeling and Assessment, Vol. 8, No.1; pp [3] Cheng, G.H., Cao, M.F., Fan, Y.R., Huang, G.H. and Li, Y.P. (2009). Planning of Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems Under Dual Uncertainties: A Hybrid Interval Stochastic Programming Approach. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessement, Vol.23, pp [4] Coppel, Julián Patrón. (2011). México 2050: Backcasting for a sustainable future. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya: Master Thesis. Barcelona. [5] Damanhuri, E., Handoko, W., and Padmi, T. (2010). Municipal Solid Waste Management in Indonesia, in Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia and the Pacific Islands for Society of Solid Waste Management Expert in Asia and Pasific Islands (SWAPI). Institut Teknologi Bandung: Bandung, pp [6] Fujino, Junichi., Hibino, Go., Ehara, Tomoki., Matsuoka, Yuzuru., Masui, Toshihiko and Kainuma, Mikiko (2008). Back-casting Analysis for 70% Emission Reduction in Japan by Climate Policy, Vol.8, pp [7] Geurs, Karst and Wee, Bert Van. (2000). Backcasting as a Tool to Develop a Sustainable Transport Scenario Assuming Emission Reductions Of 80 90%. Innovation ProQuest Sociology, Vol.13, No.1, pp [8] Huang, G. H., Sae-Lim, N., Chen, Z. and Liu, L. (2001). Long-term Planning of Waste Management System in the City of Regina An Integrated Inexcat Optimization Approach. Environmental Modeling and Assessment, Vol.6, No.4, pp [9] Jablonowski, Mark. (2007). Avoiding Risk Dilemmas Using Backcasting. Risk Management, Vol.9, pp [10] Meidiana, Christia and Gamse, Thomas. (2010). Development of Waste Management Practices in Indonesia. European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol.40, No.2, pp [11] Ng, Artie. (2009). Backcasting Performance of the Emerging Renewable Energy Sector in China: A Strategic Optimization Approach for Policy Making. Journal of Technology Management in China, Vol.4, No.1, pp [12] Obeng, Peter A., Donkor, Emmanuel A. and Mensah, Anthony. (2009). Assessment of Institutional Structures for Solid Waste Management in Kumasi. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol.20, No.2, pp [13] Perusahaan Daerah Kebersihan (PDK) Kota Bandung. (2011). Unpublished data, Bandung, West Java. [14] Qian, Wei., Burritt, Roger and Monroe, Gary. (2011). Environmental Management Accounting in Local Government: A Case of Waste Management. Accounting, Auditing, & Accountability Journal, Vol.24, No.1, pp [15] Ramadhani, Hubby. (2008). Supply Chain Analysis of Used Plastic Drinking Water Container in Bandung City. Institut Teknologi Bandung: Undergraduate Thesis. Bandung. [16] Rathi, Sarika. (2007). Optimization Model for Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management in Mumbai, India. Environment and Development Economics, Vol.12, pp [17] Rodionov, Mikhail and Nakata, Toshihiko. (2011). Design of an Optimal Waste Utilization System: A Case Study in St. Petersburg, Russia. Sustainability, Vol.3, pp [18] Rigamonti, Lucia., Grosso, Mario and Sunseri, Maria Caterina. (2009). Influence of Assumptions about Selection and Recycling Efficiencies in the LCA of Integrated Waste Management System. International Journals Life Cycle Assessment, Vol.15, pp [19] Robinson, John B. (1990). Future Under Glass : A Recipe for People Who Hate to Predict. Futures, pp [20] Robinson, John B. (1982). Energy Backcasting: A Proposed Method of Policy Analysis. EnergyPolicy, pp [21] Ryu, Changkook. (2010). Potential of Municipal Solid Waste for Renewable Energy Production and Reduction of Green house Gas Emissions in South Korea. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, Vol.60 pp

9 N. Rahayu and G. Yudoko Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste [22] Saxena, S., Srivastava, R. K. and Samaddar, A. B. (2010). Towards Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management in Allahabad City. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol.21, No.3, pp [23] Schneider, Daniel R. and Bogdan, Željko. (2011). Analysis of a Sustainable System for Energy Recovery from Municipal Waste in Croatia. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol.22, No.1, pp [24] Surakusumah, Wahyu. (2008). Permasalahan Sampah Kota Bandung dan Alternatif Solusinya. Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia: Bandung. [25] Suwa, Aki. (2009). Soft Energy Paths in Japan: a Backcasting Approach to Energy Planning. Climate Policy, Vol.9, pp [26] Wang, F. S. (2001). Deterministic and Stochastic Simulations for Solid Waste Collection System A SWIM Approach. Environmental Modeling and Assessment, Vol.6, pp [27] Yudoko, Gatot. (2005). Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Planning and Management (IMSWPM) in Developing Countries: The Feasibility Analysis of a Case Study in the Municipality of Bandung. Jurnal Manajemen Teknologi MBA ITB, Vol.4, No.1, pp [28] Yudoko, Gatot. (2004). Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Planning and Management (IMSWPM) in Developing Countries: A Conceptual Framework. Jurnal Manajemen Teknologi MBA ITB, Vol.5, pp Cite this paper Rahayu, N., and Yudoko, G. (2012). Backcasting Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management in Bandung City: A Literature Review, Proceedings of The 3 rd International Conference on Technology and Operations Management: Sustaining Competitiveness through Green Technology Management, Bandung Indonesia (July 4-6), pp ISBN: