2 EMISSIONS AND AIR QUALITY

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1 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality 13 2 EMISSIONS AND AIR QUALITY Introduction Strict regulations for different sectors (e. g., the application of BAT is mandatory for most large emission sources) and structural changes have led to continued reductions in emissions of most classic pollutants in Austria. The per capita emissions of SO 2 and NO x are among the lowest of all Member States of the European Union. Per capita emissions of NMVOC, CO and NH 3 are comparable to those of other EU Member States. The most important sources of emissions are industry (SO 2, NO x, NMVOC, CO and heavy metals), domestic sources (SO 2, CO and heavy metals), traffic (NO x and CO) and agriculture (NH 3 ). The Austrian Ambient Air Quality Protection Act has established air quality limit values for SO 2, NO 2 and NO x, lead, benzene, CO and PM and target values for ozone. Pollution levels are generally lower than the limit values for lead, benzene and CO. For SO 2, exceedances are rare and usually caused by transboundary air pollution from neighbouring eastern countries. However, limit values for PM and NO 2 are exceeded frequently in agglomerations (Vienna, Graz and Linz), predominantly at traffic related sites (NO 2 and PM) and some industrial hot spots (PM). However, relatively high PM levels can also be found at background sites in the north-eastern parts of Austria, indicating a substantial share of long range air pollution. Target values for ozone are also frequently exceeded. Due to its geographical position in Central Europe, Austria is strongly affected by local and long-range air pollution. Therefore, Austria strongly supports further emission reduction strategies on a national and European scale. The deposition of acidifying and eutrophying pollutants is also largely dominated by long-range transport. Critical Loads for acidity are exceeded in around 10 % of all ecosystem areas, while more than 50 % of all ecosystem areas are not protected against eutrophication. 2.1 Legal regulations Austria joined the European Union in Therefore, all relevant EC directives and decisions have to be transposed and implemented in the form of national regulations. Austria is also a party to the UN/ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ( To date (December 2001) Austria has ratified all Protocols pertaining to this Convention except the Protocols on Heavy Metals, on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the Protocol to Combat Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground Level Ozone. These Protocols have been signed and will be ratified within the next months. The main provisions concerning air emissions into air from large stationary sources are regulated by the Clean Air Act for Steam Boilers (Austrian Federal Law Gazette 1988/380, amended by 1993/185, 1997/115 and 1998/158) and its ordinances and the Industrial Code (Austrian Federal Law Gazette 1988/380, last amendment 2000/88) and its ordinances. In general, these regulations stipulate the application of BAT for all installations. In addition, emission limit values for specific pollutants are defined for main source categories. Some of these emission limit values are stricter than those specified in the corresponding European regulations. Emissions from small domestic sources are regulated at the provincial level. Regulations for mobile sources are based on corresponding regulations of the European Community. Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria State of the Environment (2002)

2 14 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality Product regulations include provisions for solvents (VOCs) and for certain fuels (specifying e. g. the maximum sulphur content of certain fuel types). Provisions concerning ambient air quality assessment and management can be found mainly in the Air Quality Protection Act (Austrian Federal Law Gazette 1997/115, amended by 2001/ 62) and its ordinances, through which the EU Directive on Air Quality Assessment and Management ( Air Quality Framework Directive, 96/62/EC) and its daughter legislation were transposed. Some ambient air quality limit values stipulated in the Air Quality Protection Act are stricter than those of the first daughter directive (1999/30/EC) pertaining to the Air Quality Framework Directive. The Ozone Act (Austrian Federal Law Gazette 1992/210) regulates the assessment of and information on ground level ozone. The precautionary principle is an important guiding principle of Austrian environmental policy. 2.2 Sources and trends of emissions Emissions in 1999 The emissions of several air pollutants in 1999 are shown in Table 1, the main pollution sources of the mentioned pollutants in Figure 1. Table 1: Breakdown of emissions of SO 2, NO x (as NO 2 ), NMVOC, CO, NH 3 Cd, Hg, Pb, PAH and dioxins in categories of sources (1999). SNAP97 1 Combustion in energy and transformation industries 2 Non-industrial combustion plants 3 Combustion in manufactoring industry SO 2 in Gg NO 2 in Gg NMVOC Gg CO in Gg NH 3 in Gg Cd in Mg Hg in Mg Pb in Mg PAH in Mg Dioxins in g Production processes Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels and geothermal energy 6 Solvent and other product use Road transport Other mobile sources and machinery 9 Waste treatment and disposal Agriculture Anthropogen. total Other sources and sinks Total State of the Environment (2002) Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria

3 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality % 90 % 80 % 70 % 60 % 50 % 40 % 30 % 20 % 10 % 0 % SO 2 N0 x NMVOC CO NH 3 Cd Hg Pb PAH Dioxins Power Plants (SNAP 1) Domestic sources (SNAP 2) Traffic (SNAP 7 and 8) Agriculture (SNAP 9) Industry (SNAP 3,4,5,6 and 9) Figure 1: Relative contributions of different sources to total emissions in Austria in Emission trends Emission trends of the pollutants SO 2, NO x, NMVOC, CO and NH 3 are shown in Figure 2. The targets for the year 2010 stipulated in the Directive on National Emission Ceilings (NEC Directive, 2001/81/EC) are also shown in the figure (there is no target for CO). Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria State of the Environment (2002)

4 16 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality emissions in % of SO 2 NO x NMVOC CO NH target 2010 Figure 2: Emission trends from 1990 until 1999 and NEC Directive target. Significant reductions of SO 2, NMVOCs and CO emissions have been achieved, while NH 3 and NO x emissions show only a slight decline. The following measures were crucial in reducing emissions (in brackets: pollutants for which measures proved to be most effective): Emission limits according to state-of-the-art technology for steam boiler installations (SO 2, NO x, CO) Reduction of sulphur content of liquid fuels (SO 2 ) Increasing use of natural gas instead of coal and petroleum products (SO 2 ) Introduction of stringent exhaust limits for vehicles according to state-of-the-art technology (NO x, NMVOCs, CO). However, technical improvements have partly been offset by increase in traffic. However, further measures are needed to achieve the targets of the NEC Directive (2001/81/ EC), in particular for NO x and NMVOC, as shown in Table 2. Table 2: National emission totals in 1990, 1999 and targets for 2010 for SO 2, NO x, NMVOC and NH 3 in kt. SO 2 NO x NMVOC NH (target) State of the Environment (2002) Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria

5 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality Comparison to other countries The following figures 3-7 show the per capita emissions of SO 2, NO x, NMVOC, NH 3 and CO (1999) from the EU member states and selected accession candidate countries Hungary Slovenia Greece Poland Ireland Spain kg SO2/inh. Portugal Slovakia Czech Republic UK Belgium EU Finland Italy France Denmark Germany Luxembourg Sweden The Netherlands Austria Figure 3: Per capita emissions of SO 2 in selected European countries in 1999 (EU: average of EU 15). Austria has the lowest per capita emissions of SO 2 of all listed countries. This is primarily a consequence of strict regulations for power plants and industrial installations Finland Denmark Czech Republic Luxembourg Portugal Greece kg NOX/inh. Ireland Spain Sweden Slovenia Belgium UK The Netherlands EU France Italy Poland Hungary Slovakia Austria Germany Figure 4: Per capita NO x emissions in selected European countries in 1999 (EU: average of EU 15). Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria State of the Environment (2002)

6 18 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality Austria s per capita emissions of NO x are among the lowest of all listed countries. This is primarily a consequence of strict regulations for power plants and industrial installations, and a high percentage of cars equipped with catalytic converters Portugal Sweden Spain Greece Finland Luxembourg kg NMVOCX/inh. France Italy EU Austria Belgium UK Ireland Czech Republic Denmark Slovenia Germany Poland The Netherlands Hungary Slovakia Figure 5: Per capita NMVOC emissions in selected European countries in 1999 (EU: average of EU 15). Austria has relatively high levels of per capita emissions of NMVOC. One of the reasons is the wide-spread use of wood for domestic heating, which causes high levels of specific NMVOC emissions kg NH3/inh Ireland Denmark Luxembourg France Spain The Netherlands Portugal Belgium Slovenia EU Poland Austria Italy Germany Czech Republic Hungary Greece Finland Slovakia Sweden UK Figure 6: Per capita emissions of NH 3 in selected European countries in 1999 (EU: average of EU 15). State of the Environment (2002) Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria

7 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality 19 Agriculture is the dominating source for NH 3 in all countries. The per capita emissions reflect livestock in relation to inhabitants kg CO/inh Greece France Luxembourg Poland Portugal Austria Sweden Finland Italy Denmark Spain Belgium EU UK Ireland Hungary Czech Republic Germany Slovakia The Netherlands Slovenia Figure 7: Per capita CO emissions in selected European countries in 1999 (EU: average of EU 15). Austria has relatively high levels of per capita CO emissions. The main reason is the widespread use of wood for domestic heating, which causes high levels of specific CO emissions. 2.3 Ambient air quality Legal basis and limit values in Austria The legal regulations for air quality control and assessment in Austria can be found in the Ozone Act (Federal Law Gazette 1992/210 implementing EU Directive 92/72/EEC), the Air Quality Protection Act (Federal Law Gazette 1997/115) and its ordinances. The Air Quality Protection Act was amended in mid-2001 (Federal Law Gazette 2001/62) so as to include the limit values defined in the first (1999/30/EC) and second (2000/69/EC) air quality daughter directives. Table 3 shows the current limit, alert and target values for ambient air, in Table 4 for deposition in Austria. Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria State of the Environment (2002)

8 20 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality Table 3: Limit and target values according to IG-L (in bold: Limit and target values introduced by the amendment in 2001). Substance Receptor Concentration in µg/m 3 Averaged over Remark SO 2 humans / hrs Limit value SO 2 humans day Limit value SO 2 ecosystems 20 calendar year Limit value SO 2 ecosystems 20 winter 2 Limit value NO 2 humans hrs Limit value NO 2 humans 80 1 day Target value NO 2 humans 30 3 calendar year Limit value NO x vegetation 30 calendar year Limit value Particulate Matter 4 humans day Limit value PM10 humans day Limit value PM10 humans 40 calendar year Limit value PM10 humans day Target value PM10 humans 20 calendar year Target value CO humans 10 8 hrs Limit value Benzene humans 5 1 year Limit value Lead humans 0,5 1 year Limit value Ozone humans hrs 7 Target value 1 May be exceeded up to 3 times per day, but not more than 48 times per year, provided that concentration is below 350 µg/m 3 2 Period from 1 October until 31 March 3 Limit value to be attained from The margin of tolerance is 30 µg/m 3 until reducing on 1 January 2002 and every 12 months thereafter by 5 µg/m 3 until The margin of tolerance is 10 µg/m 3 from until The margin of tolerance is 5 µg/m 3 from until Measured as Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) 5 Not to be exceeded more than 35 times per calendar year 6 Not to be exceeded more than 7 times per calendar year 7 From midnight until 8 a.m., 8 a.m.-4 p.m., 4 p.m. until midnight and from noon until 8 p.m.. Table 4: Deposition limit values in Austria. Dust precipitation in mg/(m 2 * d) as annual mean Dust precipitation 210 Lead in dust precipitation Cadmium in dust precipitation State of the Environment (2002) Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria

9 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality 21 Legally binding limit values Air quality monitoring No Exceedance of limit value Yes Detailed Assessment ( Statuserhebung ) Air quality management plan ( Maßnahmenkatalog ) Figure 8: Basic scheme for air quality assessment and management in Austria. The overall target of the Austrian clean air policy is to ensure the lasting protection of humans, animals and plants, their symbioses, habitats and interactions, to protect cultural and economic goods from harmful air pollutants and to ensure the preventive reduction of air pollution (IG-L, 1). Austria runs a dense network of air pollution monitoring sites. The number of sites operated per pollutant in 1999 is shown in Table 5. The data are transmitted online to the network centres. Up-to-date information on the measured concentrations (including maps of ozone concentrations) can be obtained from the web-site of the Federal Environment Agency (Homepage: The basic scheme for assessment and management is shown in Figure 8. After an exceedance of an air quality limit value a detailed investigation of the responsible sources is required ( Statuserhebung ). This investigation is the basis for setting up and implementing air quality management plans ( Maßnahmenkatalog ) to reduce pollution levels. Table 5: Number of monitoring sites in Austria. Pollutant Number of sites SO 2 ~ 140 NO 2 ~ 140 CO ~ 60 Particulate Matter ~ 110 Lead ~ 10 Benzene ~ 10 O 3 ~ 110 Dust precipitation > 110 Pb, Cd in dust precipitation > 90 Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria State of the Environment (2002)

10 22 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality Ambient air quality levels The following section provides information on some selected ambient air pollutants in Austria. More comprehensive information can be found in UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2001) 1 and SPANGL & SCHNEIDER (2000; 2001) 2, Ozone The target values for the protection of human health and the threshold values for the protection of vegetation (as laid down in the Ozone Directive 92/72/EEC) are exceeded throughout Austria. This is due to a generally high background concentration in Central Europe and additional regional and local ozone formation. In particular, two phenomena have to be mentioned: In Alpine areas there are high long-term average concentrations of ozone. This can be explained by the fact that at hill- or mountain-top sites, only low ozone depletion by dry deposition takes place, reaction of ozone with NO does not play a significant role and exchange with air from above the nocturnal mixing layer inhibits a concentration decline at night. Highest long term ozone levels occur at higher altitudes. The ozone levels observed in Alpine regions are influenced predominantly by long range transport of ozone and its precursor substances. In the Vienna/Lower Austria area high short-term local peak concentrations can occur in the Viennese plume. In this region the highest frequency of exceedances of e. g. the EC information threshold (180 µg/m 3 as one hour mean value) occurs; concentrations up to 30 % higher than the background concentrations can be detected under appropriate meteorological conditions (UMWELTBUNDESAMT, 2001). The Critical Levels for ozone for natural ecosystems and crops are exceeded by a factor of two to four in about 70 per cent of the area. In Alpine regions Critical Levels for forest ecosystems are exceeded by a factor of up to five. An in-depth analysis of Austrian ozone data from the nineties suggests a continuing trend in ozone levels towards lower pollution peaks but higher background concentrations, in particular at Alpine sites. This might be an indication for rising background levels of ozone in the northern hemisphere. Ozone levels in Austria are characterised by constantly high levels in many parts of the country on the one hand, and short-term high peak levels especially in the north-eastern regions. In general, the levels are in such ranges that adverse effects on human health and environment can be expected. Therefore emission reductions of ozone precursors are necessary in Austria (to reduce home-made peak levels), but also on a European level to reduce the high background concentrations (SCHNEIDER, 1999a) Nitrogen dioxide The highest levels including exceedances of the limit values of the Air Protection Act are observed in areas affected by traffic, especially in the agglomerations Vienna and Graz. In addition, regions with adverse dispersion conditions like the Alpine Inn valley and the Klagenfurt basin are also affected by exceedances of the limit values for NO 2. (UMWELTBUNDES- AMT; 2001; SPANGL & SCHNEIDER, 2001). 1 Also available on the Umweltbundesamt-Homepage 2 Also available on the Umweltbundesamt-Homepage 3 Also available on the Umweltbundesamt-Homepage State of the Environment (2002) Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria

11 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality 23 The spatial distribution of NO 2 levels was modelled starting from emission patterns and specific dispersion patterns (SCHNEIDER, 1999a). The results are shown in Figure 9. NO 2 caused by road transit A specific Austrian problem consists in the raised NO 2 levels caused by transit traffic through Alpine regions. This is of major concern since road traffic is concentrated on only a few heavily frequented transit routes, which leads to high emission densities in a few valleys human settlements, major traffic routes, local economy, and agriculture are concentrated in these small areas the specific topographic and meteorological conditions of Alpine valleys hamper the dispersion of air pollutants; some of the highest annual NO 2 levels in Austria can be found along the Brenner transit route in Tyrol Alpine ecosystems are particularly sensitive to air pollutants and pollutant deposition due to higher altitudes, poorer soil quality, restricted vegetation periods and other biotic and abiotic hazards the damage of forest ecosystems may have large impacts, since these forests often have a protective function Particulate Matter (PM) The limit value for PM (as total suspended particulates) is exceeded frequently in agglomerations (Vienna, Graz and Linz), predominantly at traffic orientated sites and some industrial hot spots. However, relatively high PM levels can be found at background sites in the northeastern parts of Austria, indicating a substantial share of long-range air pollution. Measurements of PM10 have started at a few sites recently. Preliminary results indicate that the values obtained in several regions (in particular in agglomerations) will not be in compliance with the limit values for PM10 of the Austrian Air Protection Act. Health effects caused by PM10 exposure Research during the past years confirms that outdoor air pollution contributes to morbidity and mortality. Although the mechanisms are not fully understood, epidemiological evidence suggests this. State-of-the-art epidemiological research has produced consistent and coherent evidence that there is a link between air pollution and various health problems (e. g., respiratory symptoms, reduced lung function, chronic bronchitis, and death). The impact of outdoor (total) and traffic-related air pollution on public health was estimated in a trilateral project involving Austria, France, and Switzerland using PM10 as a pollution indicator. This project was carried out for the Ministerial Conference on Environment and Health, held in June 1999 in London ( transport04.htm). The air quality modelling is described in SCHNEIDER (1999a). The main health problems are summarised in Table 6. Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria State of the Environment (2002)

12 24 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality Table 6: Health effects caused by air pollution using PM10 as an indicator in Austria for 1996 (KÜNZLI et al., 2000). Health effects Long-term mortality (adults >30 years) Respiratory hospital admissions (all ages) Cardiovascular hospital admissions (all ages) Chronic-bronchitis incidence (adults >25 years) Bronchitis (children <15 years) Restricted activity days (in adults 20 years in millions) Asthmatics: asthma attacks (children <15 years) Asthmatics: asthma attacks (adults 15 years, person days) Estimated attributable number of cases or days (95% CI) Total outdoor air pollution (PM10 ) 5600 ( ) 3400 ( ) 6700 ( ) 6200 ( ) ( ) 3 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) Traffic-related air pollution (PM10 ) 2400 ( ) 1500 ( ) 2900 ( ) 2700 ( ) ( ) 1 3 ( ) ( ) ( ) Sulphur dioxide Austrian ambient air quality limit values for SO 2 have rarely been exceeded in recent years. Almost all exceedances were caused by long-range air pollution, originating from neighbouring countries east of Austria. However, transboundary air pollution has declined during the last few years following emission reductions in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Slovenia. Further improvements are expected, since the countries mentioned are expected to implement the relevant EU legislation. The spatial pattern of SO 2 concentrations in 1998 (as annual mean levels) is shown in Figure 10. The elevated SO 2 concentrations in the south-eastern parts of Austria are caused by longrange transport predominately from Slovenia, those in the north-eastern part from the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. Figure 9: Spatial distribution of annual mean NO 2 levels in 1998 (The NO 2 pattern corresponds largely to the pattern of traffic emissions). Figure 10: Spatial distribution of annual mean SO 2 levels in 1998 (Yellow arrows: Transboundary air pollution). State of the Environment (2002) Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria

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17 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality Carbon monoxide The limit value for CO is generally not exceeded. The highest levels recorded within the last years were measured at a monitoring site near an industrial hot spot (Leoben/Donawitz in Styria; steel industry) and at traffic orientated sites. At current CO levels it can be assumed that human health is affected only in exceptional cases. Given the role of CO in ozone formation, however, further emission reductions are desirable Benzene There has been a significant downward trend of benzene levels in Austria within the second half of the nineties, mainly caused by emission reductions from road traffic (e. g. limiting the benzene content in petrol to 1 %). Most measured annual mean concentrations do not exceed the limit value of 5 µg/m Lead Levels of lead are far lower than the limit values in most areas. In the vicinity of certain installations (non-ferrous metal plants) levels came close to the limit values but remained below them Outlook Most of the exceedances of limit and target values have been recorded for ozone, PM and nitrogen dioxide. Background concentrations of ozone are caused by long range transboundary air pollution and can hardly be influenced by Austrian emission reductions of precursor substances. European measures such as those stipulated in the NEC Directive (for background, see: and the Gothenborg Protocol (see will have a beneficial influence on ozone levels. However, the highest peak levels are found in the plume of Vienna. Calculations carried out using a photochemical transport model have indicated that emission reductions performed in north-eastern Austria will help reduce these peak levels (Schneider, 1999b). Nitrogen dioxide concentrations exceeding the limit values are mainly caused by emissions from road traffic. Technical improvements during recent years required by stricter emission standards for vehicles have largely been offset by a constant increase in traffic volume. Transit traffic is of particular concern. In the long run, a substantial change in the modal split and/or additional technical measures ( zero emission vehicle ) will be needed to comply with limit values. Currently, only a few PM10 data are available for Austria. Full measurements of PM10 at several sites did not start until 2001, partly replacing TSP measurements. Existing data indicate that the levels in several regions in Austria will not be in compliance with the limit values. For PM10 a considerable share of the total level is caused by long-range transport. However, local pollution sources (such as traffic, industry and domestic sources) add substantially to PM10 levels. Additional research is needed to quantify sources of PM10 (of primary and secondary origin), and to identify cost-effective measures to reduce these levels. In addition to the assessment of the pollutants governed by legislation some other pollutants are becoming more and more important in Austria, in particular heavy metals (in addition to lead), persistent organic compounds (e. g. PCDD/Fs) and various volatile organic compounds. PAH levels are of particular concern. High levels are presumably caused by emissions from domestic sources (wood burning in old stoves) and industrial sources. Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria State of the Environment (2002)

18 30 6 th Report on the State of the Environment in Austria 2. Emissions and Air Quality 2.4 Acidification and eutrophication The deposition of nitrogen compounds may lead to the eutrophication of ecosystems and, together with sulphur compounds, cause acidification. The sensitivity of Austrian soils and ecosystems was assessed using the Critical Loads concept. Table 7 shows the percentage of unprotected ecosystem area (current deposition exceeding the Critical Loads). Table 7: Percentage of ecosystems with exceedance of Critical Loads for acidification and eutrophication. Year Unprotected against acidification Unprotected against eutrophication % 97 % % 94 % % 81 % % 68 % % 65 % Further improvement of the situation can be expected as a result of the implementation of the NEC Directive and the Gothenborg Protocol. Due to its geographical situation Austria is particularly affected by transboundary air pollution. Table 8 shows the import/export of oxidised sulphur compounds, oxidised and reduced nitrogen compounds and their share in relation to the total emission/deposition. Data have been calculated by EMEP ( Table 8: Import/export of oxidised sulphur compounds, oxidised and reduced nitrogen compounds in 1998 in 100 t and in %. of total emissions (export) and deposition (import). Oxidised Sulphur Oxidised Nitrogen Reduced Nitrogen Export Import Export Import Export Import mass in 100 t S % mass in 100 t S % mass in 100 t N % mass in 100 t N % mass in 100 t N % mass in 100 t N % For sulphur, the imported mass (63,800 t S) exceeds the exported mass (17,500 t) by far. For both nitrogen compounds (oxidised and reduced), the exported and the imported masses are in the same range. State of the Environment (2002) Umweltbundesamt/Federal Environment Agency Austria

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