DRINKING WATER SUPPLY FOR URBAN POOR: ROLE OF URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES OCTOBER 2016 URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES FOR SMARTER CITIES

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1 REPORT SERIES URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES FOR SMARTER CITIES KNOWLEDGE PARTNER : DRINKING WATER SUPPLY FOR URBAN POOR: ROLE OF URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES OCTOBER 2016 SUPPORT PARTNERS : ADDITIONAL SUPPORT FROM :

2 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 ABOUT THE REPORT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This assessment of drinking water provision to the urban poor in the four cities of Visakhapatnam, Hyderabad, New Delhi, and Mumbai has been conducted as a part of a partnership between Safe Water Network and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), entitled Urban Small Water Enterprises under the USAID Urban Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Alliance program. This study aligns with the agreement entered into between the Ministry of Urban Development and USAID to contribute toward Swachh Bharat Mission. The objectives of this assessment were to: i) map existing water supply, understand the gap in municipal water supply, and evaluate the potential of small water enterprises (SWEs) to address drinking water needs for urban poor; (ii) assess the operational, financial, and technical aspects of SWEs for sustainability so that the urban poor, especially those beyond the pipe, can get access to reliable, safe, and affordable drinking water; (iii) study the policy and enabling environment for SWEs; and (iv) assess the existing digital tools deployed for e-governance, monitoring and evaluation, and propose tools for SWEs. While detailed consumer research and water quality testing was done in select slums to understand the water supply and quality to the urban poor, the overall report builds on the field investigation and discussions with various officials of State Water Supply Boards, Municipal Corporations, and the Ministry of Urban Development. This report begins by introducing the urban slum landscape in the four project cities in terms of slum population and prevalent waterborne diseases caused by contaminated water sources and the existing water supply source for the inhabitants. An assessment of the need for Urban Small Water Enterprises (USWEs) and the regulatory framework and market potential to set up USWEs as a complementary solution to piped water supply follows. The assessment was undertaken by Safe Water Network through the Fixed Obligation Grant Award No. AID-386-F , for the program titled: Urban Small Water Enterprises Dec Dec Key highlights under the project to advance SWEs in Urban India Vishakhapatnam Rapid Assessment Three City Reports: Delhi, Hyderabad, and Mumbai Performance Standards recommended for SWEs Digital Tools for decision support that are available on Google Play store as open source: i) Technology Selection Tool (TST); ii) Financial Viability Tool (FVT); and iii) Plant Assessment Tool (PAT) The Model was presented at a side event at Stockholm World Water Week on August 31, 2016 Beyond the Pipe Forum held in New Delhi on October 14, 2016 We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) India team led by Paul Seong, foreign service contracting officer and deputy director, Regional Office of Acquisition and Assistance, and supported by Anand Rudra, program management specialist water and sanitation, for their guidance and funding support enabling Safe Water Network to undertake the Urban Sector Report. We would like to express appreciation to our other funders that made this work possible, namely PepsiCo Foundation, Pentair Foundation, Newman s Own Foundation, and Cisco Foundation. We thank the officials from the Ministry of Urban Development, Municipal Corporations and State Water Supply Boards who provided perspective and insights to our research on safe water provision in the four cities: Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Visakhapatnam. Finally, we wish to extend our sincere appreciation and a heartfelt gratitude to Honorable Shri Neeraj Mandloi, IAS, joint secretary, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, for his graciousness to launch this report. We would also like to thank the following experts, sector players, and advisors who played a significant role in this report. We acknowledge the contributions of: Our knowledge partners: Accenture, including Vishvesh Prabhakar, Sanjeev Malladi, and Chukka Raja Shekhar; Tata Institute of Social Sciences team led by Professor Venkatesh Kumar; and Jawaharlal Nehru University team led by Professor Sachidanand Sinha and Professor Shrawan Acharya, for their research and analytical support. Our market research consultant, Dipankar Sen, for consumer research in the select slums of four cities of Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Visakhapatnam, which captured consumer needs, perception, and behavior around water. Our advisors and reviewers for the perspective they brought to the report, especially our India Advisory Group, Mansoor Ali and Mr. Bharat Goenka, for their continued support and guidance. The urban poor, who shared their views in extensive surveys conducted in 2,400 households in the four metro cities. Our Safe Water Network team members led by Amanda Gimble, Ravindra Sewak, and Poonam Sewak, who were supported by Pooja (Sarvotham) Singh, Sukirti Vinayak, Sunaina Chauhan, Garvita Chawla, and Jennifer Niedinger. i Copyright Safe Water Network, All rights reserved. The views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations involved in the project. ii

3 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 FOREWORD Ministry of Urban Development Government of India PREFACE I am happy that Safe Water Network through its Drinking Water Supply for Urban Poor: Role of Small Water Enterprises program is releasing the Urban Sector Review, a report which will provide opportunity to various sector stakeholders to harness the need and market potential of urban Small Water Enterprises (SWEs - decentralized water treatment systems). Apart from analyzing the status of piped water supply in the four major metropolitans as per the Service-Level Benchmarks Visakhapatnam, Hyderabad, Delhi and Mumbai, the report conveys the urban poor s voice on water needs and offers plausible solutions within the policy framework. Therefore, it should serve as a useful source of information for NGOs, Urban Local Bodies and Public Health Engineering Departments of cities, especially those of the new census towns, to deliver affordable, reliable and safe drinking water. It is encouraging to note that SWEs work in public-private partnership mode, where the Government addresses the main concern of mapping the location of SWEs as per need; facilitates infrastructure raw water, room to house the water treatment system; provides electricity; and sets SWE benchmarks and regulatory standards, whereas the private sector operates and maintains the SWEs to deliver affordable water to poor. I take this opportunity to extend my compliments to Drinking Water Supply for Urban Poor: Role of Small Water Enterprises program of Safe Water Network supported by the US Agency for International Development to develop the model, create open source tools and build a platform to scale the SWE sector. In India, nearly 17 percent of the urban population lives in slums. Among the many daily challenges faced by this population are inadequate and unsafe supplies of drinking water, leading to stressful coping mechanisms as people wait for free water tankers or purchase their daily water, at a higher cost. This is an imminent threat to the physical and economic health of the country. The enormity of the crisis requires innovation and collaboration on a massive scale from the government, as well as from investors, the private sector, and civil society to create a cadet of water entrepreneurs. It is against this backdrop that Safe Water Network has been operating in India for the last eight years, with a focus on developing locally owned self-sustaining small water enterprises (SWEs) that provide affordable safe drinking water to communities reliably and sustainably. We are not alone. The last 10 years have seen the rapid emergence of locally owned and managed SWEs as a response to the challenge. Many of these initiatives have experienced significant success at the local level, exhibiting promise for these market-based solutions to play a role in addressing the drinking water crisis. Indeed, our experience shows that SWEs can play an important role in helping to fulfill the vision of UN Sustainable Development Goal 6.1, for clean, affordable water for all. For the SWE sector to reach its potential, however, requires greater coordination, knowledge sharing, and a shift toward implementing at scale. This includes clarifying the roles of government at the national and state level, urban local bodies that are ultimately responsible for water supplies, private sector aggregators, and water entrepreneurs. To accomplish these goals, it is critical to better understand the current status of SWEs their successes, failures, challenges, and potential as well as the circumstances under which these solutions are most appropriate. With this knowledge, we can better define and strengthen the case for scaling the most effective models to meet the needs of the poor across India, and beyond. This report the first in the "urban" series covering four cities: Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Visakhapatnam reviews the evolving urban landscape and its emerging demands for safe drinking water. It profiles potential funding sources and other key stakeholders and presents the opportunities and challenges that SWE implementers face as they seek to sustain and scale their operations. Based on these insights, the report provides a series of recommendations to move the sector forward. Safe piped water access is a priority of governments worldwide, likewise by the Government of India under its flagship Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) program. However, piped water inherently has challenges related to cross-contamination due to aging or leaking pipes as well as widespread lead contamination originating from the old pipes. In addition, due to unplanned growth, there are potential hot spots beyond the pipe that need drinking water safety and security through urban SWEs. A key conclusion of this report is that for an investment of an estimated INR 4,000 crores (US$592 million), 50 percent of India s urban poor could be served with self-sustaining, affordable, safe drinking water. The role for SWEs to play in serving the urban poor in India would complement the Government of India s vision of 24/7 piped water, and ensure that an entire generation of poor enjoys the benefits of health and economic good that water brings. This report shall be a useful resource for governments, investors, the private sector, aggregators, water entrepreneurs, civil society, and the donor community, all of whom seek poverty alleviation through crafting solutions that can deliver affordable water access reliably to the urban poor. We welcome your input and feedback so we can continually improve the report to ensure future versions are useful to all sector stakeholders. Kurt Soderlund Ravindra Sewak Chief Executive Officer India Country Director iii iv

4 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY For a capital investment of roughly INR 4,000 crores (US$592 million), 1 Urban small water enterprises (USWEs) can provide 35 million, or roughly half of the total urban slum dwellers in India, with sustainable access to safe drinking water. This would provide safe drinking water in the near term, and ensure that an entire generation can enjoy good health while the government rolls out its piped water system for full coverage of India s population. USWEs generally operate for 15 years (which is also the recommended duration of concessionaire agreements), and ensure safe drinking water access for an up-front investment of about INR 67 (US$1) per person per year. This is a onetime capital investment after which revenue generated from water sales can cover operating costs starting from day one of operation, and enable USWEs to be operationally and financially sustainable for the long term. USWEs can fill a much-needed gap in urban slums where there is rapid growth in population and water provision for the poor is limited to untreated groundwater or water that may have been recontaminated during piped transmission due to intermittent water supply. As per the Census 2011, roughly 13.9 million households (~65 million people), or 17.4 percent of urban Indian households, live in slums. One-third of India s 1.2 billion population resides in urban areas. The decadal growth rate in the urban and slum populations is 34 percent and 24 percent, respectively, compared with the overall decadal growth of 18 percent. Indian public water provides ~60 percent of urban consumers with less than three hours of supply per day. A little less than 25 percent get less than one hour of supply daily. Political discourse around water supply for the urban poor is almost solely focused on free piped water for all consumption purposes, ignoring decades of experience of unreliable and unsafe piped water supply to planned colonies as well as the need for user fees to cover the costs of operations and maintenance of systems. It will take some time for piped coverage to reach all. In addition, piped water often suffers from water quality challenges in adequacy and quality at the last mile. Improved water supply is critical to address the waterborne disease prevalence in the country with 37.7m Indians affected annually, the majority of which occurs in slums. USWEs hold great potential to help fill the water access gap in urban slums, augmenting drinking water to the piped water supply. The study of the four project cities Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Visakhapatnam found that virtually all piped households in slums depend largely on alternate sources of water such as stand posts, tankers, and groundwater to supplement their daily water needs. USWEs have emerged as reliable sources of treated drinking water with low seasonal variation in supply. Initially SWEs were popular in the rural areas but are now gaining presence in the periurban slums. Additionally, each USWE generates at least five-seven jobs per center. They have been set up by Urban Local Bodies (ULB) in cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Delhi, and Vizag. USWEs remain a cost-effective option from an operating expense perspective, and are significantly lower in capital cost compared with piped water supply and other point-of-use water treatment. For USWEs to reach their potential to quickly and cost-effectively serve the urban poor, a more conducive enabling environment is needed that allows for fair pricing, self-regulation, and political and funding support. The report outlines several key recommendations for consideration: USWEs need to be facilitated with a policy environment that officially sanctions and legitimizes them to function within an administrative water governance framework of the ULB. This would enable setting and monitoring of standards and facilitate funding to provide treated, affordable drinking water. A single-window award of license to operate by ULB will signal multiple authorities to refrain from imposing regulatory hurdles that can drive up the cost of operations. USWE benchmarks are needed to standardize service and compare performance across USWEs. This can be achieved by the introduction and adoption of mutually acceptable USWE benchmarks against which USWEs can be measured for performance by ULBs/RWSS, and tools enabling USWEs to self-regulate, supplemented by social or external audits. Monitoring and evaluation of performance parameters on the score of social, operational, financial, institutional, and environmental (SOFIE) criteria should govern inclusive and equitable water access, quality, reliability, and fair pricing. There is a need for affordable yet fair pricing. The prescribed price for 20 liters of water at INR 2-3 (US$ ) is financially unsustainable at current volumes as it does not cover the monthly operating costs, maintenance fees, and provision for large-value spares. In the urban context, a price of INR 5-7 (US$ ) per 20L of water seems sustainable, given the cost structure and volumes. USWE models that are facilitated by ULBs have lower capital investment as they receive subsidized water supply using legitimate bore wells or other water sources, free /low rent for land and building, and an electricity connection. Such facilitation can enable water provision to be affordable for the poor. Risk mitigation strategies for ULBs and aggregators are essential for thriving PPPs. ULBs face the biggest risk of adherence to quality, pricing, and continuity of operations. These can be addressed by engaging responsible social entrepreneurs or reputable nonprofits with a track record of execution with commensurate warranties. Competitive bids are often secured by equipment manufacturers, with little interest in long-term sustenance once the profits from the sale of equipment are realized. The USWE aggregators, on the other hand, face risks, such as nonavailability of raw water, low demand, and restrictions imposed by authorities without jurisdiction, as well as handling those who benefit from the current gaps in reliable water access. USWEs result in improved health and livelihoods for consumers. The urban poor understand the link between safe water and health, and are willing to pay at least INR 5-7 (US$ ) per 20L can procured from the USWEs. USWEs reduce the overall drudgery on women, with fewer women charged with collecting water than at piped sources, since USWE consumers tend to rely on modes of delivery other than walking, e.g., bicycles, motorbikes. This report also shows that those using USWEs miss fewer work and school days than those primarily using piped water and tankers. 1 Exchange rate used throughout report: INR 1 = USD v vi

5 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 CONTENTS Section 1. Introduction Section 2. Need for Urban Small Water Enterprises Section 3. Consumer Voice Section 4. Policy and Enabling Environment Section 5. Market Potential Section 6. Recommendations Section 7. Annexures LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Common SWEs Characteristics and Suitability for Partnering with Governments 13 Table 2. Snapshot of USWEs in Four Project Cities 15 Table 3. Relationship between Age of USWE and Price 18 Table 4. Prevailing USWE Models Facilitated by ULBs and Private Entrepreneurs 25 Table 5. Kiosk-level Economics of the USWEs Studied 27 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Slum HHs as a Share of Total HHs 2 Figure 2. States with Share of National Slum Population 2 Figure 3. Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases 3 Figure 4. State-wise Mortality Rate Due to Waterborne Disease 3 Figure 5. Primary Source of Drinking Water 4 Figure 6. Percentage of People in Smart Cities with 135 LPCD Water Supply 5 Figure 7. Percentage of People in Non-Smart Cities with 135 LPCD Water Supply 5 Figure 8. Indian Public Water Utilities LPCD 6 Table 6. Impact of Political Environment in USWE Sector 29 LIST OF ANNEXURES Annexure 7.1 Methodology 38 Annexure 7.2 Process Flow of the Project 38 Annexure 7.3 Snapshot of Research Results: Hyderabad 39 Annexure 7.4 Snapshot of Research Results: Mumbai 40 Annexure 7.5 Snapshot of Research Results: New Delhi 41 Annexure 7.6 Snapshot of Research Results: Visakhapatnam 42 Figure 9. Indian Public Water Utilities Water Supply Duration 6 Figure 10. Share of Districts at Various Stages of Groundwater Development 8 Figure 11. Share of 640 Districts Affected by Various Geogenic Contaminants 8 Figure 12. Growth of Home Water Purifier Market in India 10 Figure 13. Growth of Bottled Water Market in India 10 Figure 14. Affordability and Range of Various Drinking Water Sources by Income Group 11 Figure 15. Comparison of CapEx Per Capita under Different Water Supply Methods 14 Figure 16. Comparison of OpEx Per Capita under Different Water Supply Methods 14 Figure 17. Willingness to Pay INR 5/20L 18 Figure 18. Factors Contributing to Consumers Willingness to Pay for Clean Water 18 Figure 19. Drinking Water Availability and Frequency of Supply 19 Figure 20. Collection Time at USWEs vs. Other Delivery Mechanisms 19 Figure 21. Responsibility for Water Collection 20 Figure 22. Modes of Transporting Water 21 Figure 23. Average Number of Missed Work/School Days by Primary Drinking Water Source Figure 24. Reasons for Not Trying USWEs 22 Figure 25. Setting up a USWE: Mapping Timelines for Approvals 26 Figure 26. Opportunity for SWEs to Serve Urban Poor 32 Figure 27. Recommended Performance Standards for SWEs Sustainability vii viii

6 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS KEY DEFINITIONS ATW CAGR CGWB COCO DFBOT DJB DUSIB GVMC GHMC GOI HH HMWS&SB IDSP LPCD MCGM MoUD NCT NRW OPD POU PPP PRS RWSS SHG SLB SWE ULB UNICEF USAID USWE Vizag Anytime Water Compound Annual Growth Rate Central Ground Water Board Company Owned, Company Operated Design, Finance, Build, Operate, Transfer Delhi Jal Board Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Government of India Household Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply & Sewerage Board Integrated Disease Surveillance Program Liters Per Capita per Day Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) Ministry of Urban Development National Capital Territory Non Revenue Water Outpatient Department Point Of Use Public-Private Partnership PRS Legislative Research Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Self-Help Group Service Level Benchmark Small Water Enterprise Urban Local Body United Nations Children s Emergency Fund United States Agency for International Development Urban Small Water Enterprise Vishakhapatnam Urban Small Water Enterprises Urban small water enterprises (USWEs) generally refer to a range of entities selling water to bottom-of-the-pyramid populations in urban areas, ranging from stationary water points, such as kiosks or standpipes, to mobile units, such as tanker trucks and door-to-door vendors. This assessment, however, was limited to water purification kiosks that sell affordable water to the urban poor. Urban Local Body In India, an Urban Local Body (ULB) is the constitutionally provided administrative unit, which provides basic infrastructure and services in urban areas. These municipal bodies are vested with several functions delegated to them by the state governments under the municipal legislation, related to public health, welfare, regulatory functions, public safety, public infrastructure works, and development activities. Notified/Non-notified Slums Any compact settlement with a collection of poorly built tenements of at least 20 households, mostly of a temporary nature, crowded together, usually with inadequate sanitary and drinking water facilities in unhygienic conditions. A notified slum is an area notified as a slum by concerned municipalities, corporations, local bodies, or development authorities. The balance is non-notified slums. [Source: Public Information Bureau, Govt. of India.] Resettlement Colonies Resettlement colonies are settlements created to relocate some populations that were earlier residing in slums. Non Revenue Water (NRW) NRW is water that has been produced and is lost before it reaches the customer, owing to such factors as leakages, theft, or metering inaccuracies, or which did not yield revenue owing to technical and nontechnical reasons. It also refers to water supplied free through stand posts or under an exemption policy. Statutory Towns (ST) STs comprise all places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board, or notified town area committee, etc. Urban area constitutes statutory towns, census towns, and outgrowths. Census Town (CT) The Census of India 2011 defines CTs as: i) a minimum population of 5,000; ii) at least 75 percent of the male main working population engaged in nonagricultural pursuits; and iii) a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km. Outgrowth (OG) An Outgrowth is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an enumeration block made up of such village or hamlet and clearly identifiable in terms of its boundaries and location. ix x

7 S E C TIO N 1 INTRODUCTION Bringing safe water access to India s millions is a daunting task. There are over 97 million people without access to safe drinking water,1 impacting health and morbidity. This section describes the various government initiatives in water supply, gaps in water provision, and the cost of this lack of access. It also describes how growth trends of populations in urban slums magnify the need for immediate solutions to address the challenges of safe water for the urban poor. INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Exponential and unplanned growth of cities fueled by migration is posing a key challenge to supplying water both in quantum and quality. As ULBs struggle to keep up the water delivery services, the urban poor bear the brunt, especially those living beyond the pipe. Epidemics of waterborne diseases are more prevalent in slums due to high-density living, poverty, inadequate water and sanitation, inadequate hygiene practices, poor water quality, low access to health care, and malnutrition. FIGURE 1. Slums HHs as a Share of Total HHs (%), Census 2011 FIGURE 1. Slum HHs as a Share of Total HHs (%) (Census 2011) % Slum Households % Non-Slum Households '1000s HHs All India Urban % 17% 83% 78,900 Hyderabad 32% 68% 1,642 Mumbai 41% 59% 2,235 New Delhi 15% 85% 2,628 Visakhapatnam 44% 56% 464 0% Large cities are home to the majority of India s urban slum population Slum population in India rose by 24 percent from 52 million in 2001 to 65 million in % 40% 60% 80% 100% FIGURE 2. States with Share of National Slum Population FIGURE 2. States with Share of National Slum (Census 2011) Population, (Census 2011) Maharashtra Others 18% 27% 2,613 urban towns, out of 4,041 in India, have slums 45 percent of Maharashtra s slum HHs are in Greater Mumbai and represent about 8 percent of the national slum population Hyderabad s slum population makes up 32.7 percent of the total 6.9 million people in the city Kolkata accounts for ~20 percent of West Bengal s slum population Visakhapatnam has the highest percentage of slum households (44 percent) of the cities studied Slum dwellers collect water from tankers for their homes. Slum households generally depend on nearby public stand posts, community taps, hand pumps, bore wells, or tanker trucks provided by the HMWS&SB % NCT Delhi 3% Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh 9% Tamil Nadu 9% 10% 10% West Bengal Uttar Pradesh * 2011 Census covers Andhra Pradesh as an entire state, which has since split into two states in June million people live in slums in India, up from 52 million in 2001; 17 percent of urban India resides in slums *2011 Census covers Andhra Pradesh as an entire state, which has since split into two states in June million India loses >140,000 children households in 90 million workdays under the age of five India do not have access due to waterborne die every year in to safe treated drinking India due to diarrheal diseases water diseases (McKenzie and Ray, 2004) (2011 Census) (2011 Census) (UNICEF) WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program

8 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION It is estimated that 3.7 percent of India s population (37.7 million) is affected by waterborne diseases annually, 1 and 0.15 percent of India s children (1.5 million) die of diarrhea alone. 2 In addition, 45 percent of India s children (168 million) have stunted growth 3 due to poor water quality. India s water quality ranks 120th among 122 nations. 4 FIGURE 3. Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases (Census 2011) 1% 12% More than 50 percent of the 14 million urban poor families in slums do not have access to clean tap water at home despite ULBs piped water efforts. FIGURE 5. Primary Source of Drinking Water (Census 2011) 2% 7% 9% 12% 14% 2% 8% 13% 29% 3% 81% Diarrhea Hepatitis Typhoid 56% 46% In India, around 81 percent of the waterborne disease cases reported are diarrhea, vs. typhoid (12 percent) and hepatitis (1 percent), based on the 12.4 million cases surveyed by Census On the other hand, according to the Central Pollution Control Board 2002, about 5 million people are affected by arsenic contamination in groundwater, leading to arsenicosis in West Bengal, and 66.6 million people are at risk of consuming fluoride-contaminated water in 19 states of India, including 6 million children below the age of 14 years. 5 Non-slum HHs: 65m HH-level Taps Bore well/tube well Shared Taps Well Slum HHs: 14m Hand Pumps Others FIGURE 4. State-wise Mortality Due to Waterborne Disease (Census 2011) Number of Deaths/Year 300 Diarrhea Hepatitis Typhoid 302 The political discourse around water supply for the urban poor pivots around free water; charging for water is viewed as a political threat. While water is recognized as a state subject, the central MoUD, which is responsible for national policy, has strongly advocated for piped water systems for several years, as reflected in the state governments plans. Almost one-third of slum households depend on groundwater sources for drinking purposes, even though groundwater has become increasingly unfit for consumption virtually everywhere across the country. While a piped connection for all is the ultimate goal for any public water utility, the urban poor cannot be left vulnerable until piped water reaches them all. 0 Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chandigarh Chhattisgarh Dadar and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Lakshadweep Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Odisha Puducherry Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal West Bengal reports the highest number of deaths due to diarrhea, and accounts for percent of the total diarrheal deaths in India. Uttar Pradesh has the second-highest number of diarrheal deaths at percent. Uttar Pradesh reports percent of deaths due to typhoid followed by West Bengal at 10.8 percent. Delhi reports the highest number of deaths due to hepatitis at percent followed by West Bengal at 17.7 percent. 2 Census of India, UNICEF, FAO, SaciWATERs. Water in India: Situation and Prospects 2013 report 4 Ibid 2 5 UNICEF,

9 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION Government Programs and Priorities The Urban Local Body s priority has been to meet the piped water standard service level benchmarks set by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) for water supply. These are: percent connectivity percent treated water to all hours of water supply Concept of Smart City FIGURE 6. Percentage of People in Smart Cities with 135 LPCD Water Supply (Safe Water Network, India Urban Sector Review) The concept of "smart city" was introduced by the Government of India in 2015, with the goal of developing the selected cities under the AMRUT program and shaping them as the economic hubs of the nation. The selected "smart cities" hold one-third of the urban population. Among the 7,935 cities and towns in India, 100 cities are covered under the smart cities plan and an additional 400 through the AMRUT program. The balance of 7,435 cities are to be supported through state government budgets. Only 43 percent of people living in these cities have been receiving water supply at or above the benchmark level. To address this would require an investment of INR 98,000 crores (US$15 billion) in the next five years. FIGURE 7. Percentage of People in Non-Smart Cities with 135 LPCD Water Supply (Safe Water Network, India Urban Sector Review) % of People in Smart Cities % of People in Non-Smart Cities 100 Total 100 Total About 89 percent, or more than two-thirds, of urban dwellers living in non smart cities are behind their counterparts in "smart cities" in receiving the benchmark levels of water supply. 43 >=135 LPCD 11 >=135 LPCD 57 <135 LPCD 89 <135 LPCD Indian public water utility benchmarks aim to provide 24-hour supply, but 60 percent of the served population receive piped water for less than three hours per day. The benchmark for duration of water supply is 24 hours, as continuous supply is less likely to be contaminated due to positive pressure in the pipes, preventing seepage of contaminated water. However, intermittent supply makes water supply prone to recontamination risks. Currently, fewer than five small ULBs covering only 300,000 people cumulatively meet the benchmark. Utilities need to improve continuity of water supply: 6 60 percent of the total population receives piped water for less than three hours per day. 25 percent of the urban population gets piped water supply for less than 60 minutes per day. In cities with over 0.5 million people, 55 percent receive piped supply for < three hours per day. In cities with fewer than 0.5 million people, 76 percent receive piped supply for < three hours per day. Tap Water Situation Inadequacy (volume): Only ~25 percent of the urban population has adequate availability (135 LPCD Benchmark), largely in cities with over 0.5 million population. In urban agglomerations with a population of less than 500,000, fewer than 10 percent have such availability. Disproportionate spending is going into infrastructure of bigger cities as compared with smaller towns. FIGURE 8. Indian Public Water Utilities LPCD (population in millions) (SLB National Handbook ) (Census 2011) Inadequacy (duration) Less than 1 percent of the population receive a continuous supply of water, versus the 24/7 supply benchmark. Almost 60 percent of the population gets piped water for less than three hours a day. FIGURE 9. Indian Public Water Utilities Water Supply Duration (population in millions) (SLB National Handbook ) (Census 2011) # of LPCD 1,405 Cities and Towns Studied < Source: SLB National Handbook , Census ,405 Cities and Towns Studied # of Hours 51 < million people (75%) < MoUD benchmark of 135 LPCDs million people (61%) get less than 3 hours of water supply Source: SLB National Handbook , Census 2011 Less than 3 Hours 2-3 Below MoUD Benchmark More than 3 Hours 5-6 Above MoUD Benchmark >= Million People 24 Benchmark 6 SLB National Handbook , Census 2011, citywide estimate provided by ULBs 5 6

10 S E C TIO N 2 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES Availability of drinking water sources, and their affordability, varies by income groups, with fewer affordable options for the poor. This section describes the nature and degree of contamination affecting water quality from various sources across districts in India. It also compares the various drinking water sources, their relative costs (CapEx and OpEx), the affordability of these water supply methods, and the benefits of SWEs to meet the needs of the urban poor. FIGURE 10. Slum households rely on personal groundwater sources orstages those provided by the government such as hand pumps, wells, Share of Districts at Various of Ground and tube wells. AroundWater 50 percent of urban water demand is met by groundwater, through at least 13 million bore wells.7 Development, India ( ) FIGURE 10. Share of Districts at Various Stages of Groundwater Development, India ( ) (CGWB, PRS Analysis) 4% 3% 1% 14% 14% 15% 4% 9% 4% 10% 4% 10% 92% 73% 72% 71% Safe Semicritical Critical Jammu & Overexploited Kashmir As per the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), PRS Legislative Punjab Research (PRS) Analysis, the groundwater was safejammu in 71 percent & Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu Uttarakhand & Kashmir Arunachal Pradesh Kashmir of the districts in India during the period Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Punjab Rajasthan FIGURE 11. Share of All Districts Affected by Various Haryana Punjab Uttarakhand Geogenic Contaminants, in Excess of the Limits Prescribed Haryana FIGURE 11. Share of 640 Districts Affected by for Drinking WaterContaminants, 2014 (CGWB, PRS 2014 Analysis) Gujarat Rajasthan Various Geogenic Rajasthan 11% 43% 60% 89% 57% 40% Arsenic Flouride Nitrate 46% Sikkim Uttarakhand Bihar Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Assam Arunachal Pradesh Meghalaya Manipur JharkhandSikkim Mizoram Tripura Sikkim Uttar Pradesh Bihar Nagaland Madhya Pradesh Assam West Meghalaya Bihar Manipur Bengal Nagaland Odisha Uttar Pradesh Assam Jharkhand Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Mizoram Meghalaya Access to treated water Manipur Tripura Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand <10% West Maharashtra Gujarat Mizoram 10 20% Bengal TripuraOdisha Telangana Madhya Pradesh 20 40% West Access to treated water >40% Chhattisgarh Bengal Odisha <10% Maharashtra Goa 10 20% AndhraTelangana Access to treated water Contaminants 20 40% Chhattisgarh Pradesh <10% Arsenic >40% Maharashtra Karnataka 10 20% Fluoride Goa Telangana Andhra 54% 20 40% Nitrate Contaminants Pradesh Tamil Nadu >40% Iron Arsenic Karnataka Kerala Salinity Goa Fluoride Andhra Nitrate Contaminants Andaman and Tamil Nadu Pradesh Iron Iron Arsenic Kerala Nicobar Islands Karnataka Salinity Fluoride Groundwater Quality Not Affected Groundwater Quality Affected Kerala Nitrate and Andaman Iron Islands Nicobar Tamil Nadu Salinity Andaman and Nicobar Islands As per the CGWB-PRS Analysis, consuming contaminated water above permissible limits of arsenic causes skin cancer; fluoride causes dental and skeletal fluorosis; nitrate causes blue baby syndrome; and iron causes stomach among other ailments. Consumers collect water from a GHMC-supported Community Water Center in Hyderabad. 20 percent of districts have reached unsafe levels of groundwater development between 1995 and 2011 (Ratio of Annual Groundwater Draft and Net Annual Groundwater Availability) out of 29 Indian states groundwater is contaminated with excessive levels of arsenic, fluoride, nitrate, or iron or a combination of these 24 percent of the slum population relies on groundwater sources for drinking purposes (Census of India 2011) (CGWB, PRS Analysis) Deep Wells and Prudence: Towards Pragmatic Action for Addressing Groundwater Overexploitation in India, The World Bank, March

11 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES Media Reports: Unreliable Piped Water Supply Leads to Poor Water Quality and Poor Health. "In the first two weeks of May 2011, more than 30 persons took ill due to water contamination in Bangalore s Dasarahalli zone. Survey done last year showed that 72% of Bangaloreans get contaminated water, and 15 of BBMP s 198 wards get 100% contaminated water." Bangalore, Times of India, 24 January, 2014 "Of the water samples tested in , 19% were found unsafe for consumption. This was far worse than in , when the tally of samples found undrinkable was 16%." Mumbai, Times of India, 24 April, 2013 "Suresh Rajya Thouti, 29, a Padmanagar resident, lost his 1-year-old son. Officials suspect that the water supply got contaminated by sewage water because of a sewage pipe that runs parallel to it." Mumbai, DNA, 13 February, 2013 "Every time we turn the taps on we get colored water, sometimes it is green and sometimes it is yellow, with an unbearable stench. Now, we are forced to buy bottled water for consumption." Hyderabad, Times of India, 11 November, 2015 "Tap water in most parts of the city is so contaminated that drinking it straight from the tap could be lethal. Metro water was supplying drinking water that contained diarrhea-causing bacteria and various toxins. Tondiarpet failed the corporation s potability tests 47 times in " Chennai, Times of India, 28 April, 2012 "Old, rusted or leaking water distribution pipelines lead to contamination of drinking water, putting health at risk, and municipal corporations must immediately address this problem." Pune, Times of India, 6 July, 2015 "Nearly 3,000 residents say they are forced to drink contaminated water after sewer water got mixed with fresh water due to damage in the pipeline. Reportedly, close to 400 people, including children from this 20-yearold residential complex, have contracted waterborne diseases and gastrointestinal disorders." Noida, Times of India, 17 February, 2016 This situation is, however, not unique to India. Even in advanced countries, "boil water" notifications are often issued by water utilities and there are incidences of lead contamination attributable to aging piping infrastructure, and uncontrolled ph. A female operator provides 20L cans for distribution in Rafi Nagar, Mumbai. In the absence of reliable quality of piped or groundwater, the market for treated water both as "point of use" (POU) home water purifiers and bottled water has grown strongly at 29 percent and is expected to grow further at CAGR of 23 percent. However, these are typically unaffordable for the urban poor, and reverse osmosis POU purifiers, if installed on municipal water, are wasteful. FIGURE 12. Growth of Home Water Purifier Market in India, (TechSci Research: Indian Water Purifier Market Outlook, March 2016) The growth of offline purifiers, which work without electricity and use gravity filtration, is far higher than that of online purifiers. From the expert interviews, it was found that 75 percent of the units sold are offline due to their lower cost. Market in India, No. of Units Sold % 2015 (E) Bottled Water Situation Growth of Bottled Water Market in India, FIGURE 13. Growth of Bottled Water Market in India, (Euromonitor International) INR Crores (USD) 160 (24m) 2011 In terms of initial costs applicable on offline and online purifiers, the startup costs for offline purifiers are in the range of INR 1,200-5,000 (US$ 18-75), versus online purifiers' INR 6,000-15,000 (US$89-224). Maintenance costs are INR 500-1,000 (US$7.5-15) per annum for offline systems, and ~INR 3,000 (US$ 45) per annum for online Euromonitor s research states that bottled water is the largest category of off-trade (retail) volume sales, with sales recorded at 12 billion liters in 2015 and expected to spur over The TechSci Research 9 predicts the offline water purifier segment to grow at over 21 percent CAGR during % 280 (42m) (72m) 2015 Estimated +21% (P) +15% 965 (145m) 2020 Projected 8 Euromonitor International Market Research: News and Resources (2015). India s Soft Drinks Scenario The Impact of Super-Fast Per Capita Growth on Multinationals. Retrieved from 9 TechSci Research: "India Water Purifiers Market to Grow at 21% till 2021". Retrieved from x

12 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES USWEs can fill a gap in urban slums, where water provision for the poor is limited to groundwater, unreliable shared Private tankers often use an piped water supply, or tankers. USWEs can fill the water-access gap rapidly and at a lower investment to provide reliable illegal source of raw water, safe water to economicallyfigure disadvantaged populations while work provide Drinking piped water.water Sources by 14. Affordability andulbs Range oftovarious and the price is considered FIGURE 14. Affordability and Range of Various Drinking Water Sources by Income Group (according to expert interviews) Unreliability leads to coping expensive for the urban poor. Income Group FIGURE 14. Affordability and Range of Various Drinking Water Sources by Base of Pyramid Low Income Middle Income High Income Income Group Base of Pyramid Low Income Middle Income ( on the go ) mp, Local bulk Local bulk ker 15 Commercial bulk PipP TuTbeeidpewdatwera ubweewll,,thear,nd etlal,ntke Hapnumd p,u arn Price Price (INR/20L) (INR/20L) High Income Bottled ( on the go ) Pouches ( on the go ) Bottled ( on the go ) Pouches Commercial bulk stress and fights. UR UR R BA RU BA URA N For-profit SWEs RA N L For-profit SWEs L NGO-run SWEs NGO run SWEs Govt. tender SWEs Govt. tender SWEs 00 packaged drinking water is unaffordable for the urban poor and often operates with little regulatory compliance. Moreover, it does not reduce Income Income LevelLevel Free Free Unpackaged Unpackaged Packaged Packaged Local bulk supply of the need for tankers as it Typical Range of Consumers Typical Range of Consumers Relative Market Value (indicated by size) by size) Relative Market Value (indicated fulfills only drinking water needs. USWEs serve the base of the pyramid population beyond the pipe with reliable, safe water at affordable prices between INR 5-10 (US$ ) for 20 liters of water in a can. A USWE set up at Shiela Nagar in Gajuwaka area of Visakhapatnam, brought under Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) ambit. 11 x 12

13 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES Kiosks are the most suitable SWEs for partnering with governments to provide affordable, reliable, and clean drinking water supply. TABLE 1 Type of vendor Wholesale Distribution or Walk-in Customers Direct Typical delivery system Typical raw water source Value added by SWE Potential quality risk Quantity (liter/capita) Common SWE Characteristics and Suitability for Partnering with Governments Private tankers or gov t-authorised tankers Tube well/bore well/ illegally/legally drawn municipal water Community/HH-level delivery Raw water quality, recontamination in tanker Local bulk packaged water Tube well/bore well/ legally/illegally drawn municipal water Water treatment, home delivery Non-transparent, unreliable water treatment USWE kiosks 10 Municipal water/ private tankers/bore well Water treatment, community/hh-level delivery Water quality testing often irregular Resale of piped water Municipality water Community/HH-level access & delivery Recontamination in pipes >30 liters up to 7 liters up to 7 liters liters USWEs can supply the drinking water needs of slum populations, but additional water is required for other needs. Below is a comparison of different methods of water supply solutions for various sizes of population clusters: Pipe + Point-of-Use: Pipes bring water to the point-of-use system, which is installed at an HH level; the output from the process will be safe treated water. The POU often polishes piped water. Pipe: Piped water investments and operating costs vary depending upon the source water. Tanker: Tankers are used to deliver treated water from the government treatment facility, and if the water is not polluted during transmission, it can be considered safe. Kiosk: Kiosks draw water from nearby bore wells, and treat the water to deliver BIS quality. FIGURE 15. CapEx Per Capita under Different Water Supply Methods (for different size populations) Fig 15: CapEx Per Capita Under Different Water Supply Methods (INR/capita) INR 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 Quality Generally nonpotable/govt. supplies may be potable Potable Potable Potable & non-potable 2,000 0 Tanker SWE Pipe Pipe + POU Availability & Reliability On demand On demand 8-24 hours availability daily On demand 10,000 people Source: Safe Water Network, India Urban Sector Review Study 100,000 people Seasonal variation risk Affordability (INR paise/liter) Yes Yes No Yes (US$ ) (US$ ) (US$ ) (US$ ) FIGURE 16. OpEx Per Liter under Different Water Supply Methods (for different size populations) Trigger for consumer Insufficient water from HH/community taps, etc. Bad smell, color, or taste of other sources; health episodes Bad smell, color, or taste of other sources; health episodes Insufficient water from HH/community taps INR Compared with private tankers, local bulk, and resale of piped water, USWEs provide the following benefits: 0.10 reliable supply throughout the day and across seasons 0.05 treated drinking water often endorsed by ULB or local authorities; few ad hoc 0.00 Pipe SWE Tanker Pipe + POU 10,000 people 100,000 people Source: Safe Water Network, India Urban Sector Review Study 10 Includes walk-in kiosks, ATMs and other distribution channels x

14 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 2. NEED FOR URBAN SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES SWEs have been established in rural areas and are now gaining increasing acceptance as a safe drinking water source in peri-urban slums. As per the study: SWE schemes have been piloted at scale in rural areas with state government support in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan, etc., with varying degrees of success owing to lack of capacity and supervision. SWEs are gradually expanding in urban areas and the first few cities to pilot them are Hyderabad, New Delhi, Vizag, and Bengaluru. A typical slum in Hyderabad city. One out of three persons in Hyderabad is a slum dweller, as per the 2011 Census. The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM), with 42 percent of HHs in slums, does not endorse SWEs currently. SWEs only provide treated water for drinking; ULBs are required to send water tankers to provide water for all other needs. SWEs serve as a reliable source of treated drinking water, and many have been set up by private operators to cater to the demand. TABLE 2 Snapshot of USWEs in Four Project Cities City Exposure to USWEs ULBfacilitated pilots Year of first kiosk launch 11 Primary reason for kiosks No. of ULBfacilitated kiosks Plans HYDERABAD Piloted by HMWS&SB and also set up by private operators Yes 2009 Reliable safe drinking water access 10 1 kiosk per slum (n = 1500) MUMBAI NGO managing two kiosks in Mumbai suburbs No N/A N/A N/A None NEW DELHI Few privately managed kiosks Yes 2013 Reliable drinking water access to resettlement colonies 4 kiosks with 15 ATW machines 29 kiosks with 280 ATW machines VISAKHAPATNAM No Yes 2014 Compliance to statewide NTR Sujala scheme only in notified slums 12 No firm plan 11 As of September 2015 before any ULB facilitated kiosk intervention x

15 S E C TIO N 3 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 3. CONSUMER VOICE CONSUMER VOICE We hear directly from consumers about the daily stress and challenges they face in accessing safe water to meet their family s basic needs, the burden of collecting water, how that responsibility directly impacts their lives, resulting in drudgery faced by women, missed work and school days, and how convenience and reliability are the key drivers behind willingness to pay. This section shares insights gained from primary research conducted among consumers in the urban slums of the four cities. (Refer Annexure: Methodology). There is a fairly strong understanding, across cities, of the co-relation between health and clean drinking water among the urban poor, albeit the factors vary by city. Political leadership of Delhi and Andhra Pradesh are committed to free water or inadequately low tariffs for water for basic necessities. FIGURE 17. Willingness to Pay INR 5/20L (US$0.08) FIGURE 17. Willingness to pay INR 5/20L Hyderabad 97% 2% 1% Mumbai 99% 1% New Delhi 28% 35% Visakhapatnam 9% Unwilling FIGURE 18. Factors Contributing to Consumers Willingness to Pay for Clean Water 37% 35% May or May Not 57% Willing FIGURE 18. Quality, Availability, Collection Time and Process Reinforce Consumers Willingness to Pay for Clean Water Children collecting water from an SWE. Water Quality Water Collection Process Willingness of the customer to pay for clean water Reliable Water Access Water Collection Time Willingness of the customer to pay for Clean Water TABLE 3 Relationship between Age of USWE and Price Age of kiosks (yrs) Prevailing price (INR)/ 20L for walk-in customer12 Prevailing price, (USD) 20L for walk-in customer HYDERABAD MUMBAI NEW DELHI VISAKHAPATNAM < City NTR Sujala plant operators at Bapuji Nagar (ward no. 37). Plant operators are local self-help group members Home delivery typically costs more. 18

16 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 3. CONSUMER VOICE INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 3. CONSUMER VOICE In the four cities surveyed where SWEs have been operating for longer, prices are higher, indicating a higher willingness to pay as consumers become used to buying clean water. In Visakhapatnam, a majority of the SWEs did not have sufficient surplus after meeting their operating costs to meet the cost of long-term large-value spares. USWEs serve reliable clean water to urban poor. High availability of USWEs leads to lower water collection time in slums, though there is an additional need to increase USWE distribution points and channels (including home delivery). It is generally males who are responsible for collecting water from USWEs. Though it is encouraging to see more males responsible for collecting water at USWEs, additional research is needed to understand the implications of an increase in male children being responsible. FIGURE 19. Drinking Water Availability and Frequency of Supply in the 4 Cities Surveyed Municipal Tap Tanker Kiosk 5% 7% 75% Throughout the Day 1-2 Hrs Every Day >5 Hrs Every Day <1 Hr Every Day FIGURE 20. Collection Time at USWEs vs. Other Delivery Mechanisms 95% 93% 3-5 Hrs Every Day Up To 3 Times/Week 25% 100% FIGURE 21. Responsibility for Water Collection 15x better availability of USWEs vs. piped water In the slums where USWEs are set up, collection time has improved significantly 9% 13% 11% 57% 17% 42% 34% 24% 47% 47% fewer females collect water from USWEs vs. those collecting piped water Primary potable water source in slums without USWEs Slums with USWEs 17% 11% 18% Stand-Post Taps Tanker USWEs 6% 9% 35% 8% Female Adult Female Child Male Adult Male Child 18% 22% 56% 29% 59% 38% 69% 36% 33% 82% 100% Hyderabad Mumbai New Delhi Hyderabad Mumbai New Delhi <30 Minutes Minutes >60 Minutes x

17 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 3. CONSUMER VOICE INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 3. CONSUMER VOICE FIGURE 22. Modes of Transporting Water FIGURE 22. Modes of Transporting Water USWEs have not been accessed by those who either use groundwater or by those who already pay for clean water. 67% 63% 53% FIGURE 24. Reasons for not trying USWEs FIGURE 24. Reasons for Not Trying USWEs 439 1% 6% 345 5% 5% 424 3% 7% 17% 16% 9% 22% 5% 6% 13% Piped Water Tanker Home Delivery 9% 20% 7% get their water delivered to USWEs Cycle their home. 25% Walking Percent values rounded to the nearest whole number. USWEs provide clean water23. to customers having to compromise at work or school. FIGURE Averagewithout Number of Missed Work/ missed Schooldays Days 6% 23% Groundwater Users Tanker Users (bore wells, hand pumps, tube wells) by Primary Drinking Water Sources (for last 3 months) 3% 3% 2% 14% 13% 23% 22% 2% of users of freely available groundwater and tanker water are unwilling to pay 54% Fewer USWE customers collect water by walking compared with customers of piped water and tankers. FIGURE 23. Average Number of Missed Work/ School Days by Primary Drinking Water Source (for last 3 months) 54% on average, tanker users who cite irrelevance, price, or issues at source as reasons for not trying USWEs About 8% of USWE customers 8% 1% 24% 15% 19% Scooter/Motorcycle 24% 2% 3% 19% Tap Users Not Relevant Expensive/Not Free Distance Issues at Source Availability Issues Quality Issues Other Reasons 1% 12% 90% Customers of piped water missed 3.1 work or school days in the last three months 90% of tap water users do not value the treated water proposition of USWEs 54% of users of freely available groundwater and tanker water are unwilling to pay 24% on average, tanker who cite irrelevance, price or issues atgroundwater source as reasons for not cite the cost of water from USWEs Unsurprisingly, users trying USWEs as the biggest deterrent in trying them, and tap users don t find them 90% of tap water users do not value the treated water proposition of USWEs relevant. Tanker users cite cost and issues at the source as major reasons for not trying USWEs. Customers of tank water missed 2.9 work or school days in the last three months 58% 59% 65% Piped Water Tanker USWE Not Missed 1-2 Days 3-4 Days >4 Days Don't Recall x Customers of USWEs missed 2.7 work or school days in the last three months Avg. Days Missed People collect water from tankers, which may pose water quality risks. Customers of piped water missed 3.1 work or school days in the last three months Customers of tank water missed 2.9 work or school days in the last three months Customers of USWEs missed 2.4 work or school days in the last three months 21 Customers collecting water from a SMAAT RO Water ATM. 22 x

18 S E C TIO N 4 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 4. POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT SWEs as a quick decentralized complementary solution to piped water provision in urban slums is critical. This section describes the prevailing USWE models facilitated by ULBs and private entrepreneurs, the economics of the various models, and the impact of government facilitation on enabling USWEs to provide water access to the urban poor. The study found that USWEs facilitated by ULBs have low pricing while independent operators dynamically link prices to the local market. The ULBfacilitated USWEs have been provided with access to land, raw water, and an electricity connection, whereas capital expense is generally borne by USWE implementers. There are no performance criteria or benchmarks established for USWEs to evaluate these pilot projects, since USWEs are not part of the drinking water provisioning policy. Our findings suggest that ULB-facilitated projects need to include information, education and communication (IEC) activities on consumer awareness for safe water and provide a fully loaded pricing structure for concession to ensure long-term sustainability. INR 2-4 (US$ )/20L) of drinking water at government-facilitated USWEs vs. INR 5 (US$0.07/20L) at private entrepreneurial kiosks Self-help Group operator of GHMC-facilitated USWE in Hyderabad. Attendants and visitors collecting drinking water from an RO treatment facility in Andhra Medical College (AMC), Visakhapatnam

19 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 4. POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 4. POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT TABLE 4 Prevailing USWE Models Facilitated by ULBs and Private Entrepreneurs FIGURE 25. Setting up a USWE: Mapping Timelines for Approvals City Who provides infrastructure? Land Raw water source Electricity connection Governance Pricing (20L, at kiosk) Months to set up Number of kiosks set up (till Jun 15) Facilitation by contracting ULBs 30 Days 30 Days 60 Days Months HYDERABAD GHMC GHMC (ULB provider bore well) GHMC Donor funded, ULB & NGO facilitated, SHG managed INR 4 (US$0.06) Local NGO supported with rent-free building, electricity connection, and raw water access (bore well); GHMC also pays electricity bill for some kiosks APMAS (Donor funded, ULB facilitated) Hyderabad Apnalaya (Philanthropic, Private) Mumbai MUMBAI NEW DELHI Local landowner Sulabh International Private tanker (pay per use) Private tanker (pay per use) Provided with building Part of Sulabh s mega toilet complex Donor funded, NGO facilitated, SHG or private operator managed Company owned, company operated (COCO) INR 10 (US$0.15), Reject water also INR 3 (0.04) for 35 liters INR 10 (US$0.15) N/A 1 1 N/A Sarvajal (ULB tender COCO) New Delhi Sulabh Intl. (Philanthropic, Private) New Delhi GVMC (ULB owned) NEW DELHI DUSIB DJB (ULBprovided bore well) Relevant private power discom ULB tendered/ facilitated, COCO INR 3-4 (US$ ) (15 ATWs) Recommendation letters for land and electricity connection approval; access to bore well Vizag Single-point Clearance Land Raw Water Electricity Connection INDICATIVE Kiosk Commissioned VIZAG GVMC GVMC (ULBprovided bore well) GVMC ULB funded & facilitated, SHG managed INR 2 (US$0.03) 1 12 GVMC community hall with electricity connection; bore well NOTE: Sulabh International (New Delhi) and Apnalaya (Mumbai) do not have access to fixed raw water sources. They depend on tanker water supply. Findings: Time taken to set up a kiosk in cities is subject to clearance from multiple authorities. Where the contracting ULB is the apex municipal body, only then the approvals have been speedily provided, e.g., in the case of Visakhapatnam. Approvals pertaining to securing land, raw water source, and electricity connection for USWEs lies with multiple authorities; for a non-ulb supported USWE, it is a challenge to set up. There is a need to set self-regulation standards to govern water quality from SWEs. Over 24 months was needed for New Delhi to pilot its first USWE, following a tender award, to facilitate land, building, and all the necessary permissions x

20 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 4. POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 4. POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT TABLE 5 Model (No. of kiosks studied) Land, building, raw water access by Donor funded, ULB & NGO facilitated, SHG managed (No. 4) Donor funded, NGO facilitated, SHG managed (No. 2) ULB facilitated COCO (No. 4) ULB Donor, NGO ULB ULB ULB funded & facilitated, SHG managed (No. 3) City Hyderabad Mumbai New Delhi Visakhapatnam Daily 20L can sales (liters) Distribution/ATM volumes (estimates, %) Price 1 (at kiosk, INR/20L) Price 2 (home delivery/ ATM, INR/20L) Kiosk-Level Economics of the USWEs Studied (May/Jun 15) (Jul 15) (May 15) 40% 10% 70% 13 4 (US$0.06) 6 (US$0.09) 10 (US$0.15) 15 (US$0.22) 3-4 (US$ ) (US$ ) (Mar 15) 2 (US$0.03) N/A Higher CapEx costs in the company-owned model push up the price to ensure financial viability. This model offers technical and OpEx-level sustainability at fairly high volumes of L cans per day. A blend of ULB facilitation and social aggregator seems to be a promising model for PPPs for technical and financial viability as well as for affordable safe water to the poor. Balancing Safe Water for the Poor and within the Political Environment Key Takeaways: Free water continues to be a political priority to align the urban poor. This reduces the willingness to pay among users. USWE implementers and NGOs face challenges even for affordable water delivery. SWEs are not a priority with ULBs owing to a single-minded focus on piped water provision. While piped water is imperative, one must augment drinking water delivery mechanisms using SWEs as they are a simple, easy, decentralized option for safe and reliable water supply. USWE site selection should be needs-based for the public good rather than influenced by local politicians or dictated by a few. ULBs are better suited to develop plans for optimal utilization of various water sources. This will also ensure harmony between piped water and kiosk plans for a city. There is a need to assess and thereafter increase awareness about the feasibility of piped water supply for all urban poor. Revenue generated per month (estimated) (INR) 15,000-25,000 (US$ ) 30,000-40, (US$ ) 40,000-70,000 (US$ ) 5,000-10,000 (US$75-150) We need to address the issue of recontamination of water during transmission. Electricity cost (INR) 4,000-6,000 (US$60-90) 2,000 (US$30) 10,000-20,000 (US$ ) 500-1, (US$ ) Salary (INR) 4,000-5,000 (US$60-75) 18,000-25,000 (US$ ) Raw water (INR) 16 10,000-15,000 (US$ ) N/A Other recurring costs (INR) 5,000-7,000 (US$75-105) 15,000-17,000 5,000 (US$ ) 17 (US$75) 3,000 (US$45) Kiosk-level operating cost per month (INR) 13,000-18,000 (US$ ) 27,000-34,000 (US$ ) 33,000-49,000 (US$ ) 3,500-4,000 (US$53-60) Kiosk-level operating margin after deducting long-term amortization cost per month (INR) 18 5,000-7,000 (US$75-105) 1,000-4,000 (US$15-60) 7,000-20,000 (US$ ) 1,500-6,000 (US$23-90) NOTE: The calculations do not provide for replacement reserve, consumer activation (e.g., education to drive demand), or administration costs that are necessary for quality and long-term sustainability. Infrastructure supported by ULBs for access to raw water, land, building, and electricity connection are significant costs that enable affordable pricing. However, USWEs set up without ULB facilitation have to price water higher to cover these costs. SHG-run USWEs seem to be covering kiosk-level OpEx cost but with nil or insignificant savings for themselves or capital maintenance (except in Hyderabad where there is a fixed salary for operators). This poses a threat to longer-term financial interest and technical sustainability %-70% volume split between kiosk and remote ATMs 14 Includes sale of reject water for cleaning purposes (~INR 1,000-1,500) (US$15-23) 15 Electricity bills for several NTR Sujala kiosks are paid by the local municipality 16 ULB-facilitated kiosks have bore well, land, and building. Private kiosk owners operate from their houses, have private bore wells; others pay tankers for raw water 17 Includes rent 18 INR 2,000 (US$30) per month for a 1,000 liters per hour RO plant x

21 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 4. POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 4. POLICY AND ENABLING ENVIRONMENT TABLE 6 Impact of Political Environment in USWE Sector City Political considerations Impact on USWE pilots HYDERABAD The newly elected government has an ambitious, statewide piped water grid for all by 2019 with a water tap connection to each HH. Additionally, Hyderabad has been shortlisted to be upgraded to a "smart city" by the state and central government. 20 Hyderabad has a plan to expand the pipe network further and has recently launched INR 1 (US$0.015) scheme for tap connection. HMWS&SB has plans to set up 1,500 USWEs in slums across Hyderabad to provide immediate safe drinking water access till piped water reaches all the slums. Lifeline for the urban poor: Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation tankers refilling at TSR Complex. MUMBAI Largest regional political party, with a stronghold in municipality, also believes in free water supply for poor. Kiosk pilots have thus never been considered by the city municipality. NEW DELHI Elected government has promised 20kL/HH/month free water to all through piped network. Government is focused on improving basic piped water infrastructure for urban poor and plans to reach all households by "Free water" regime and better piped water access in resettlement colonies 19 has decreased the willingness to pay among people. Piped water, though, has erratic supply, and consumers, therefore, have to wait for free water from tankers. All slums are not covered by piped water and the residents suffer daily water stress, especially in summer. VIZAG Statewide "NTR Sujala Scheme" for USWEs launched by newly elected government as promised in June 2015 with significant political buzz. Vizag city has great access to raw water, and the municipality is committed to water supply. With the priority for 24/7 piped water supply pilots, SWE scheme did not resonate well with GVMC s plans for water supply and is considered of limited utility for the city. Even after detailed discussions with SWE kiosk implementers and consultants, pricing had to be maintained at a level next to "free water" (INR 2 per 20 liter) (US$0.03) due to the political connotations of the scheme. Local politicians and party workers have exerted a significant influence on site selection. This has resulted in cases of slums with piped water supply being supplemented with USWEs. Thus, USWEs are underutilized. Slums with inadequate water supply are not covered by this scheme. 19 Resettlement colonies comprise slum cluster households that have been resettled from their original informal settlements. 20 Central government s "100 Smart City" program is about developing cities into "smart" cities, which will leverage more information and communication technologies (ICT) to enhance quality, performance, and interactivity of urban services x

22 S E C TIO N 5 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 5. MARKET POTENTIAL MARKET POTENTIAL For a capital investment of INR 4,000 crores, or about half a billion US dollars (US$1 per person per year), USWEs can provide 35 million people, or about 50 percent of urban slum dwellers, with sustainable safe water. This would provide safe drinking water immediately and ensure an entire generation can enjoy good health while the government rolls out its piped water system for full coverage of the country s population. Around 14,800 USWEs are needed with distribution capabilities to serve 35 million people, with a CapEx requirement of INR 4,000 crore (US$592 million).21 If these stations operate for 15 years, there is guaranteed safe water access for a CapEx of about INR 67 (US$1) per person per year.22 Each USWE with distribution capabilities can serve about four average-sized slums. FIGURE 26. Opportunity for SWEs to Serve Urban Poor (lakh households) FIGURE 26. Opportunity for SWEs to Serve Urban Poor (million people) (Census, 2011; assumes 4.7 members per HH) In millions million people Total Slum HHs Treated Tap Water at Home Shared Tap Hand Pumps Bore well/ Tube well Others Source: Census 2011; assuming 4.7 members per household Consumers collecting water from a GHMC-sponsored urban small water enterprise. Recognizing the need for safe water, the mayor and commissioner of GHMC allocated budgets to set up small water enterprises, which provide reliable and affordable safe water for drinking and cooking to slum dwellers while generating employment opportunities and providing for a quick solution. t INR 2.66 million (USD 40,000) per kiosk; INR 1.66 million (USD 25,000) for system (including 7 years of maintenance) and INR 1 million (USD 15,000) for programmes, A eg: consumer activation. 22 At INR 2.66 million per kiosk, capex = INR 1124 (USD 16.91)

23 S E C TIO N 6 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 6. RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS For USWEs to reach their potential to quickly and cost-effectively serve the urban poor, a more conducive enabling environment is needed that allows for fair pricing, self-regulation, and political and funding support. The adoption of recommended performance standards for SWEs is important to support 360-degree SWE sustainability. The report outlines the following recommendations for consideration: U SWEs need to be facilitated with a policy environment that officially sanctions and legitimizes them to function within an administrative water governance framework of the urban local body. This would enable setting and monitoring of standards and facilitate funding to provide treated, affordable drinking water. A singlewindow award of license to operate by ULB will signal multiple authorities to refrain from imposing regulatory hurdles that can drive up the cost of operations. U SWE benchmarks are needed to standardize service and compare performance across USWEs. This can be achieved by the introduction and adoption of mutually acceptable USWE benchmarks against which USWEs can be measured for performance by ULBs/RWSS, and tools enabling USWEs to self-regulate, supplemented by social or external audits. Monitoring and evaluation of performance parameters on the score of social, operational, financial, institutional, and environmental (SOFIE) criteria should govern inclusive and equitable water access, quality, reliability, and fair pricing. N eed for affordable yet fair pricing. The prescribed price for 20 liters of water at INR 2-3 (US$ ) is financially unsustainable at current volumes as it does not cover the monthly operating costs, maintenance fees, and provision for large-value spares. In the urban context, a price of INR 5-7 (US$ ) per 20L of water seems sustainable, given the cost structure and volumes. USWE models that are facilitated by ULBs have lower capital investment as they receive subsidized water supply using legitimate bore wells or other water sources, free/low rent for land and buildings, and an electricity connection. Such facilitation can enable water provision to be affordable for the poor. R isk mitigation strategies for ULBs and aggregators are essential for thriving PPPs. ULBs face the biggest risk of adherence to quality, pricing, and continuity of operations. These can be addressed by engaging responsible social entrepreneurs or reputable nonprofits with a track record of execution with commensurate warranties. Competitive bids are often secured by equipment manufacturers, with little interest in long-term sustenance once the profits from the sale of equipment are realized. The USWE aggregators, on the other hand, face risks, such as nonavailability of raw water, low demand, and restrictions imposed by authorities without jurisdiction, and handling those who benefit from the current gaps in the reliable water access. Safe Water Network field assessment team member with NTR Sujala plant operators and Mission for Elimination of Poverty in Municipal personnel at Bapuji Nagar (ward no. 37). Plant operators are local selfhelp group members

24 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 6. RECOMMENDATIONS INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 6. RECOMMENDATIONS Recommended Performance Standards for SWEs In a stakeholder consultation led by Safe Water Network after assessment of the SWEs in the cities of Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Visakhapatnam on their social, operational, financial, institutional, and environmental (SOFIE) criteria, the following indicators were agreed for self-regulation by SWE implementers and aggregators so that safe, reliable, and affordable supply of potable water can be delivered to those beyond the pipe. The central tenets of SWEs are equity, inclusiveness, and sustainability so that affordable water reaches the poor and this generation does not miss out on the economic good that water brings. For USWEs to reach their potential to quickly and cost-effectively serve the urban poor, a more conducive enabling environment is needed that allows for fair pricing, self-regulation, and political and funding support. FIGURE ⁰ Sustainability of SWEs: 23 Recommended Performance Standards for SWEs SOFIE Sustainability OPERATIONAL Quality Quality Assurance Reliability SOCIAL Coverage Affordability SOFIE FINANCIAL OpEx OpEx + Service Charge OpEx + Service Charge + Sustainability Fund ENVIRONMENTAL Reject Water Produced, Utilized, & Disposed Groundwater Recharge INSTITUTIONAL Institutional support Capacity building activities 23 Handbook of Performance Standards for SWEs, as per Stakeholders Consultations. 35 x 36 x

25 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 7. ANNEXURES SECTION 7ANNEXURES This Annexure section highlights the methodology and process used to conduct primary research of urban slum dwellers in the four cities of Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Visakhaptnam and shows a summary of research findings in these four cities. 7.1 Methodology Safe Water Network Assessment 2015 Safe Water Network conducted household-level research in the four project cities of Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Vizag with Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), and independent consultants. 2,162 households were interviewed in slums with USWEs. 1,000 households were interviewed in slums without USWEs. City-specific research teams were created that comprised professionals from Safe Water Network, professors from TISS and JNU, along with post-doctoral students and independent market research consultants (ex-imrb). These teams selected sites for interviews, and engaged with ULBs and other stakeholders in this knowledge effort. The project scope for Hyderabad, Mumbai, and New Delhi was similar. In Vizag, the scope was broadened to include an assessment of the entire city water supply. 7.2 Process Flow of the Project Secondary Research Development of Questionnaires for Households, Entrepreneur, Operator Agreement on Methodology of Assessment by all Stakeholders Formulation of Hypotheses Training the Surveyors for Use of Questionnaires Developed Data Collection on Consumer Research, and Interviews Shortlisting of Partners for Consumer and Stakeholder Research Finalization of Objectives and Slums to Assess USWEs Augmenting Piped Water Supply Data Collation and Analysis; Review of Report by Stakeholders A man collecting water from a treatment kiosk in Hyderabad. GHMC recognizes the need and importance of SWEs as a quick solution for affordable safe water in slums, and has promoted the approach. Stakeholder Meetings: GVMC, GHMC, MCGM, HMWS&SB, DJB, DUSIB, MoUD, and USAID Development of Indicators Development of Recommendations 37 38

26 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 7. ANNEXURES INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 7. ANNEXURES 7.3 Snapshot of Research Results: Hyderabad 7.4 Snapshot of Research Results: Mumbai 39 x 40

27 INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 7. ANNEXURES INDIA URBAN SECTOR REVIEW 2016 SECTION 7. ANNEXURES 7.5 Snapshot of Research Results: New Delhi 7.6 Snapshot of Research Results: Visakhapatnam 41 x 42

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