Project Narrative Document

Transcription

1 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) Project Narrative Document A Joint Undertaking of the PEMSEA Resource Facility and the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity 25 April 2014 (Version 10)

2 Table of Contents LIST OF TABLES... 2 LIST OF FIGURES... 2 LIST OF APPENDICES... 2 ACRONYMS... 3 PART I: BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE Introduction The Convention on Biological Diversity and Protected Areas Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) as a Framework for Sustainable Development Implementation of the Sustainable Development Strategy for the Seas of East Asia (SDS-SEA) Key Principles in Establishing Effectively Managed Conservation Areas Perspectives on Tools and Approaches for Effectively Managed Conservation Areas PART II: SCALING UP THE COVERAGE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF MARINE CONSERVATION AREAS AND THREATENED SPECIES PROTECTION IN SOUTH EAST AND EAST ASIA THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) Introduction Component 1: Scaling up coverage of National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) Component 2: ICM Implementation in Selected mkbas and Planning Areas Component 3: Knowledge Management PART III: IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS Memorandum Between PEMSEA and ACB PART IV: REFERENCES AND APPENDICES Appendices References ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 1

3 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary information on status of NBSAP, PoWPAs and National Reports Table 2: IUCN Protected Area Categories Table 3: Summary data on KBAs, MPAs and ICM in selected countries Table 4: Number and Area of MPAs in Selected NE Asian Countries Table 5: Beneficial ecosystem services (products of ecosystem processes that have a direct impact on human well-being) Table 6. National CBD Focal Points Table 7. Provisional List of Proposed Project Sites LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Three (3) Habitat Map (source: ACB)... 8 Figure 2: Process-Oriented Common Framework for Sustainable Development of Coastal Areas through ICM Implementation Figure 3: Components of Total Economic Value Figure 4: ICM Project Development and Management Cycle Figure 5: The MPA MEAT schema Figure 6. Provisional Planning Areas for MPAs and MPA Networks LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX 1: Logical Framework APPENDIX 2: Review of Frameworks for National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) APPENDIX 3: Protected areas overlapping with key biodiversity areas in the ASEAN region APPENDIX 4: Summary of Relevant Donor Initiatives in EAS Region ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

4 ACRONYMS ACB - ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity ASOEN - ASEAN Senior Officials for Environment AZE - Alliance for Zero Extinction BIP - Biodiversity Indicators Partnership BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity CCA - Climate Change Adaptation COP - Conference of the Parties CTI - Coral Triangle Initiative DENR - Department of Environment and Natural Resources DRR - Disaster Risk Reduction EEZ - Exclusive Economic Zone F-TAP - Functionality Transparency, Accountability and Public Participation GEF - Global Environment Facility IBA - Important Bird Area ICM - Integrated Coastal Management IHQ - International Headquarters IIMS - Integrated Information Management System IMO - International Maritime Organization KBA - Key Biodiversity Area M&E - Monitoring and Evaluation MCPA - Marine and Coastal Protected Area MDG - Millennium Development Goals MEAT - Management Effectiveness Assessment Tool METT - Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool MMA - Marine-Managed Area MPA - Marine Protected Area MSN - MPA Support Network NBSAP - National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans PAWB - Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau PEMSEA - Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia PoWPA - Programme of Work on Protected Areas PRF - PEMSEA Resource Facility SDS-SEA - Sustainable Development Strategy for the Seas of East Asia SOC - State of Coasts TEEB - The Economics of Ecosystem Biodiversity TEV - Total Economic Value TURF - Territorial User Rights for Fisheries UNCLOS - UN Convention on the Law of the Sea UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC - UN Framework Convention on Climate Change WSSD - World Summit on Sustainable Development WDPA - World Database on Protected Areas ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 3

5 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERDSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) PART I: BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 This paper serves as a project narrative document to support the development of a joint project initiative between the PEMSEA Resource Facility (PRF) and the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB). The proposed project will support government implementation of marine biodiversity conservation actions at the regional, national and local levels in the South East and East Asia region. Specifically, it will demonstrate the application of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) as a process-oriented, holistic, science and ecosystem-based management system and driver for strengthening public and private sector commitments and investments in biodiversity conservation. 1.2 By applying the ICM approach to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, in the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the project will contribute to: a. mobilizing implementation of National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) and processes related to the Programme of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA) b. preventing the extinction of known marine threatened species (e.g., Chinese White Dolphin, Irrawaddy Dolphin, Humphead Wrasse, etc.) as a contribution to CBD Aichi Target 12 c. scaling up the coverage and resilience of habitat building species, namely mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs in areas of globally significant biodiversity and ecosystem services (CBD Aichi Target 11) d. improving the ability of ecosystems to retain their services and adapt to climate changes (CBD Aichi Target 10) that in turn will, e. sustain natural marine resource-based livelihoods and eco-businesses. 1.3 The importance of effectively managed coastal and marine areas to food and energy security, biodiversity conservation, community health, climate change resilience, sustainable livelihoods and economic growth, is increasingly acknowledged. This is especially true of the South East and East Asia region, which hosts an immensely rich marine environment, including 30% of the world s coral reefs, 35% of mangroves, about 18% of seagrass meadows. These ecosystems support the highest coastal marine biodiversity in the world along 234,000 kilometres of coastline, and provide the resource base and natural infrastructure which sustains a life support system for at least two billion people. 4 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

6 1.4 However, the ASEAN Biodiversity Outlook (ABO) 1 confirms that the region failed to meet the target of significantly reducing biodiversity loss by Natural wealth continues to degrade at a relatively high rate, with loss of 26.46% of mangroves in Southeast Asia and 33.40% in East Asia from 1980 to 2005, or an annual change rate of 1.06% and 1.34% respectively. 2 Coral reefs and seagrasses are also experiencing increased threats through habitat change, sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, over-exploitation and pollution. The Protected Areas Gap Analysis 3 in ASEAN region reports severe under-representation of marine habitats and ecosystems and absence of protection of 78%, or more than 6 million hectares, of the 82 identified marine Key Biodiversity Areas (mkbas). For those protected mkbas, management concerns remain an issue. Despite the increase in the proportion of MPA areas within the territorial waters of some countries, there have been notable declines in the quality and quantity of mangrove, seagrass and coral reef habitats within these MPAs. As a consequence, the population, health and resiliency of many threatened species, such as the Chinese White Dolphin, green turtle, and many others, remain a matter of concern. 1.5 Although, some coastal areas with sustained integrated management efforts have shown signs of environmental improvements, many threats to protecting and sustaining coastal and marine ecosystem services persist across the region, including: a. Land use transformation in coastal and upland areas b. Land reclamation in coastal and wetland areas c. Deforestation, erosion and sedimentation d. Degradation, destruction and over-exploitation of natural resources, including fisheries e. Continued trade in wildlife and endangered species f. Invasive alien species g. Increasing populations and economic activities in coastal areas h. Conflicting uses and demands among users for limited coastal and marine resources, such as tourism, port development/marine transportation and fisheries i. Inequitable access to resources, resulting in food security and sustainable livelihood concerns, especially among fishing communities j. Marine pollution from land-based and sea-based sources, and k. Climate variation and change including extreme weather events. 1.6 The term conservation areas straddles a number of different constructs, methodologies and approaches which are used to address the drivers of biodiversity loss in the region. These would include marine eco-regions, seascapes, corridors, key biodiversity areas (KBAs), terrestrial and marine protected areas (PAs), natural parks, national parks, sanctuaries etc. In brief, some distinctions are made below: 1 ACB, 2010a. 2 FAO, 2007a. 3 ACB, 2010b. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 5

7 a. Marine eco-regions: are areas of the sea identified and defined based on biogeographic characteristics. They would consist of relatively homogeneous composition of species, a small number of ecosystems and/or a distinct suite of oceanographic or topographic features. They could also comprise sufficiently large areas which encompass ecological or life history processes for most sedentary species. The Marine Ecosystems of the World (MEOW) is a classification system developed by international conservation organizations, intergovernmental bodies and academic institutions. 4 This project will cover the South China Sea, Sunda Shelf, Java Transitional and Western Coral Triangle marine eco-regions. b. Large marine ecosystems (LMEs): similar to marine eco-regions, these consist of large areas of 200,000 km 2 or more, covering the continental shelf, and characterised by distinct bathymetry, hydrography, productivity, and trophically dependent populations. 5 The boundaries are determined primarily by currents and large scale ocean processes, although challenging to apply from a management and governance point of view, due to trans-boundary concerns, which require regional coordinating mechanisms. c. Seascapes: represent large, multiple-use marine areas, defined scientifically and strategically as areas in which local and national governments and other stakeholders cooperate to conserve the marine biodiversity to promote human well being. Seascapes are managed by sustainable, multi-level governance structures within which issues and concerns related to biodiversity conservation can be addressed, for example, migratory-species conservation often requires trans-boundary responses, whereas small-scale coastal fisheries may be best managed through highly localized community models. Some well known seascapes in the region include the Bird s Head Seascape (Indonesia) and the Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape (Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia). 6 d. Corridors: would be an output of marine spatial planning, and may be referred to as habitat, ecological, wildlife or biodiversity corridors. They help maintain or recover a certain degree of cohesion in ecosystems that would otherwise be fragmented. By connecting fragmented habitats, the continued existence of animal and plant species can be improved due to enlargement of the area (ie to search for food through migration, allow migrating species to stop-over for mating and reproduction ), assisting in dispersal of young (ie larvae), and re-use of habitats previously vacated or empty. As a result of climate change the borders of habitats are continually changing or under different forms of stress, which also requires species to migrate over greater distances. e. Key biodiversity areas (KBAs): are sites identified based on globally accepted standards and criteria on species vulnerability and irreplaceability. These criteria are based on available information on the occurrence of animal and plant species. KBAs are defined with boundaries that are sufficiently large, interconnected and contiguous biogeographic areas which will support populations of the species for which they are important. (The discussion is expanded in Section 5 below.) 4 Spalding et al, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

8 f. Marine protected areas (MPAs) and MPA networks: For purposes of this paper, the IUCN and CBD definitions shall be considered. Recently the IUCN re-defined a protected area as: A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. 7 There are different types of MPAs depending on the purpose (e.g. no take zones) and the nature of the features of the ecosystem (e.g. intertidal or sub-tidal terrains). The term MPA network has been defined as a collection of individual MPAs or reserves operating co-operatively and synergistically, at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve. 8 This discussion is expanded in Section 6 below. 1.7 Work in this project will be anchored on species data analyses such as: a. the marine Key Biodiversity Area (mkba) concept in order to address the ecological gaps identified in the current practice, particularly the criteria of vulnerability and irreplaceability of species, among other relevant sub-criteria, and b. the Gap Analysis of Protected Areas conducted for the region. 1.8 In selecting project sites, the focus will be on those KBAs that are unprotected or partially protected areas which are underserved, and represent considerable challenges from an implementation perspective. KBAs are defined with boundaries that are sufficiently large, interconnected and contiguous bio-geographic areas which will support populations of the species for which they are important. KBAs are one form of conservation area. Other types of conservation areas to be considered will include Important Bird Areas (IBAs), Important Plant Areas (IPAs), Important Sites for Freshwater Biodiversity, Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) in the High Seas, and Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites. In addition to this, a number of other factors will also weigh into consideration of selection of project sites. These include: a. nature and extent of the drivers of biodiversity loss or threats to biodiversity conservation b. overlay between political jurisdictions and KBAs c. life history of flagship species (e.g., green turtle) d. accessibility and physical security e. prior ICM exposure or activities The most current overlay map related is presented below. An inter-habitat approach, which also juxtaposes Important Bird Areas (IBAs), will be a guiding factor in site selection UNEP-WCMC, 2008, p.17. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 7

9 Figure 1: Three (3) Habitat Map (source: ACB) 1.9 While considerable work has been done in this field, there is a need to accelerate efforts in order to meet mutual obligations related to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the PEMSEA Sustainable Development Strategy for the Seas of East Asia ( ). The paper covers the basic arguments and underpinnings related to development and management of protected areas under the CBD and in the context of the SDS-SEA. Of importance is that the initiative proposes to address directly, three of the CBD Aichi Biodiversity Targets (Numbers 10, 11 and 12), as well as indirectly address six (6) others. Given the emerging recommendations through the various CBD operational instruments such as the National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) and Programme of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA), it is appropriate and timely to launch an initiative which would apply the ICM framework to strengthen the effectiveness of conservation areas. Emerging results suggest that effectively managed mkbas can deliver benefits at multiple scales to local communities. 8 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

10 1.10 Section 2 provides an overview of the CBD, the Aichi and SDS-SEA targets that will be met in the context of the project, and an analysis of the National Strategic Biodiversity Action Plans and PoWPAs in this context. Section 3 is an orientation to the principal themes which are addressed through the Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) common framework for sustainable development, while Section 4 discusses the relevance of the SDS-SEA and its enabling targets and related actions. Conservation areas, in particular, those designated as key biodiversity areas (KBAs), MPAs and MPA networks are discussed in Section 5, while Section 6 discusses some of the tools that may be applicable in this context. Part II provides an framework for project design and implementation The proposed project initiative which is elaborated in Part II, has three components, 9 which focus on promoting good science, sound governance and management processes and enhancing learning through knowledge management, which would be implemented concurrently: a. Component 1 seeks to scale up the geographic coverage and effectiveness of existing NBSAPs in addressing marine biodiversity conservation issues. It will strengthen the scientific basis for identifying networks of Marine KBAs, and develop and demonstrate methodologies for delineating the importance of identified conservation areas. There will be assessments and launching of candidate project sites, for which surveys and baseline data will be captured, capacity-building undertaken, and ecosystem assessments and other tools defined at site level. b. Component 2 will focus more systematically on the ICM project development and implementation cycle, with a view to applying both existing and new / refined tools and methods to create a demonstration effect at the site level. The focus will be on assisting local and national governments to engage with community stakeholders in resource management. Action / management plans, sustainable financing mechanisms developed, monitoring and reporting systems in place and operational. c. Component 3 will develop and implement a comprehensive knowledge management strategy. It will help transform the scientific knowledge to accelerate learning, replication and adoption of best practices in ICM as they relate to strengthening effectiveness of marine conservation areas. Communities will be mobilized and relevant and timely data / information will be packaged to support decision-making and investment processes of local and national governments. 9 A Logical Framework is presented in Appendix 1. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 9

11 1.12 Below is summary information on the proposed initiative: Project Snapshot Title: Achieving the Aichi Biodiversity Targets through Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) Duration: Five years ( ) Sources of Financing: PEMSEA, ACB, selected donors and funding agencies, national and local governments Requested Financing: EUR 25,000,000 Co Financing Secured: EUR 12,324,320 Total Project Financing: EUR 37,324,320 Participating Countries: Co Implementing Agencies: Implementing Partners: South East and East Asia (including Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, RO Korea, Singapore, Timor Leste, Thailand and Vietnam) PEMSEA Resource Facility and ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity To be determined 10 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

12 2. THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS 2.1 At the CBD Conference of the Parties (COP) in October 2010, a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity was adopted, which included the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The strategic plan provides an overarching international framework, which will be implemented through national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs) that are mainstreamed into the planning initiatives in all sectors which have an impact on biodiversity. The national strategies should focus on conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt, to this end, existing strategies, plans or programmes of relevance to the Convention. 2.2 Recognizing the continuing concerns, experiences and lessons learned, the goals of the new strategic plan are fivefold: a. Initiating action to address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss: This would include addressing the trends in production and consumption and mainstreaming of biodiversity concerns at all levels of society b. Taking action now to decrease the direct pressures on biodiversity: The focus would be on engagement at a sectoral level and analysis of trade-offs between social/ environmental, and economic objectives using a number of available tools and methods. The key will be to reduce and prevent threats that lead to a tipping point in terms of biodiversity degradation. c. Continuing direct action to safeguard and, where necessary, restore biodiversity and ecosystem services: Support for targeted conservation interventions will be required, especially in critical ecosystems through such measures as habitat preservation, protected area development and management and species recovery. d. Efforts to ensure the continued provision of ecosystem services and to ensure access to these services, especially for the poor who most directly depend on them: Addressing climate change as principal threat to biodiversity will also leverage other opportunities to promote sustainable use and biodiversity conservation. e. Enhanced support mechanisms for: capacity-building; the generation, use and sharing of knowledge; and access to the necessary financial and other resources: Institutions need to be more effective in ensuring that planning processes lead to effective support for implementation. 2.3 A total of twenty (20) global targets have been identified for the aforementioned goals. Combined, the goals and targets should serve as benchmarks for regional and national target-setting, which needs to be integrated into national biodiversity strategies and action plans, based on their own priorities. Of direct relevance to this proposed project are Targets 10, 11 and 12 outlined in the box below. (The project also has less direct relevance to a number of other targets, including 1, 2, 6, 7, 14 and 15.) Associated with these national plans and targets are sets of indicators, the development of which are guided by an Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Indicators, supported by the Biodiversity Indicators Partnership (BIP). ( ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 11

13 RELEVANT AICHI BIODIVERSITYTARGETS Target 10 By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning. Target 11 By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscape and seascape Target 12 By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained. 2.4 Partners are furthermore encouraged to establish systems for implementation, monitoring, review and evaluation. Marine and coastal biodiversity is identified as one among several thematic programmes of work, which in addition to addressing biodiversity conservation, should consider cross cutting issues and contribute to development and poverty reduction. 10 In this connection, the CBD in collaboration with other partners, provides guidance on the preparation and implementation of the various Programme of Work related to each theme and sub-theme. The overall purpose of the programme of work on protected areas (PoWPA) is to support the creation and management for terrestrial and marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas which contribute to the achievement of the main objectives of the CBD and related targets. 2.5 Among other things, the PoWPAs should adopt the ecosystem approach as the principal framework for implementation. The ecosystem approach provides a framework within which the relationship of protected areas to the wider landscape and seascape can be understood, and the goods and services flowing from protected areas can be valued. The discussion on the ecosystem approach in relation to Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) is elaborated in a later section of this report. PoWPAs should be designed to address four inter-related elements (see below), each to be supported by recommended targets and activities. Element 1: Element 2: Element 3: Element 4: Direct Actions for Planning, Selecting, Establishing, Strengthened and Managing Protected Area Systems and Sites Governance Participation, Equity and Benefit Sharing Enabling Activities Standards, Assessment and Monitoring 2.6 Under Article 26 of the CBD Convention, countries are required to submit national reports to the CBD Secretariat, which outline progress towards targets, information on lessons ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

14 learned, capacity gaps and areas for continued guidance. The Fourth National Reports were due on 30 March 2009, and the Fifth National Reports are due on 31 March 2014, which will address the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The table below provides summary information on the status of NBSAP, PoWPAs and Fourth National Reports for 15 selected countries in South East and East Asia. Table 1: Summary information on status of NBSAP, PoWPAs and National Reports Country CBD Consent* NBSAP Status (24 March 2014) Submitted PoWPA Fourth NR Submitted (due 30 March 2009) Brunei Darussalam 2008 Under development No 11 August 2010 Cambodia 1995 Completed 2002 Yes 29 March 2009 DPR Korea 1992 Completed 1998, Revised 2007 No 23 December 2011 Indonesia 1992 Completed 1993, Revised 2003 Yes 08 September 2009 Japan 1992 Completed 1995, Revised 2002, No 30 March , 2010, 2012 Lao PDR 1996 Completed 2004 No 11 September 2010 Malaysia 1992 Completed 1998 No 24 April 2009 Myanmar 1992 Completed 2012 Yes 30 March 2009 PR China 1992 Completed 1994, Revised 2010 No 24 March 2009 Philippines 1992 Completed 1997, Revised 2002 Yes 21 April 2009 Republic of Korea 1992 Completed 1997 No 09 June 2009 Singapore 1992 Completed 1992, Revised 2002 No 01 September 2010 Thailand 1992 Completed 1997, Revised 2002 No 30 March 2009 Timor Leste 2007 Completed 2011 No 01 May 2012 Vietnam 1993 Completed 1994, Revised 2007 Yes 21 April 2009 *includes ratification, ascension, etc. 2.7 The CBD review and analysis of the Fourth National Country Reports is clear about implementation priorities that require more attention through new commitments and funding. There are suggestions that delivery of PoWPAs has been less than satisfactory. In the area of MPAs in particular, targets are not being met, and Increased emphasis needs to be placed on links to food security, ecosystem based adaptation to climate change and human welfare. Coastal protection efforts are insufficient, with progress limited by vested interests in fisheries sector (government and private sector) a. In this connection, transboundary PAs, connectivity through biological corridors and integration of PA networks into wider landscape and seascape frameworks need to be encouraged, particularly in view of the impacts of climate change. PoWPAs need to articulate this more b. Systems to monitor biological restoration need to be installed and operational for purposes of tracking success over the long term, and also link to sustainable financing mechanisms such as carbon credit c. Recognize and quantify role of PAs in carbon storage, mitigation through sequestration and ecologically-driven adaptation, especially to involve indigenous peoples and local communities. POWPA should be deployed as a CCA and mitigation tools strengthen climate and biodiversity implementations ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 13

15 d. While efforts have been taken to address the rights of local communities and in particular, indigenous people, some inequalities still persist due to variable nature of delivery of assistance. Strengthening partnerships and participation around protected areas appears to be one of the best ways forward, with emphasis on shared values and climate finance opportunities. Action plans need to be more realistic in this regard, ensure that resources are devoted to facilitate this dialogue. Best practices in good governance need to be internalized in M&E systems, and promoted in parallel with appropriate governance mechanisms, including co-management and use of indigenous, community and privately conserved areas. International organizations need to be more active in cases where human rights issues are brought to the fore e. Inroads have been made into recognizing the value of ecosystems services from protected areas, and efforts to identify and achieve targets and optimize benefits consistent with the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, need to continue. This will be particularly important in the context of wider landscape and seascape resource use frameworks. In this connection, understanding the costs and benefits of these services, as well as distribution of the benefits, need more scientific attention, beyond anecdotal evidence f. Targets for areas under protection are being met, however there is a shortfall in achieving such targets for endangered and endemic species. This will require continued efforts to ensure accuracy and timeliness of data, including use of IUCN Red List and Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) systems of standardized approaches g. Monitoring and reporting systems should be aligned with the World Database on Protected Areas, and also adapt to other systems, such as the databases on transboundary protected areas, management effectiveness of protected areas, and adopt these as working tools for PoWPA implementation. Moreover, some work needs to be done to improve monitoring of outcomes, quality of governance, integration of indigenous knowledge, progress towards targets and actual accomplishments, and h. While technical assistance has focussed on capacity building related to good governance and management, greater efforts need to be taken to implement results of assessments, apply adaptive management approaches, synthesizing and internalizing lessons learned and best practices, establishment of regional scale assessment systems and more inclusive approaches to protected area management in areas characterized by resource use and other types of conflict. In addition to this, protection of economically valuable species susceptible to poaching is of paramount importance, which suggests an urgent need to strengthen law enforcement A review of National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) would draw the following conclusions 12 : Appendix 2 contains a more detailed analysis of the NBSAP and POWPA processes 14 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

16 a. The NBSAP process should have closer linkage with an action planning process, and set targets with indicators and timelines. The process should be participatory, inclusive, transparent and results communicated widely b. Given the wide scope of the biodiversity agenda and the cross cutting sectors and themes, consideration should be given to integrating the NBSAP into a broader policy and strategic planning process related to the environment agenda c. Biodiversity related policy and planning might be well served to take on a summitry type of approach. This means the high level inter-ministerial meetings need to be convened, with legislations endorsed by highest levels of government. In these fora, appropriate implementation mechanisms need to be defined and empowered d. Regional level BSAPs will help to advance some policy related processes, and also sharing of knowledge and experiences e. Sub-national BSAPs will help catalyze local level support and serve as a platform for participatory processes. In countries that have a moderate to high degree of decentralization of governance processes, local level policy formulation, adoption and implementation can be facilitated f. Greater efforts to treat biodiversity as a natural resource asset, supported by valuation studies will help increase understanding of the contribution of biodiversity to long term economic growth g. NBSAPs objectives and targets should be coordinated with other, related country commitments under such programmes as the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI), the PEMSEA SDS-SEA, the UNEP Regional Seas Programmes, and others h. NBSAPs should be more realistic and achievable. In this connection they should be linked closely to the various protected area programmes of work. In the marine and coastal sector, the POWPA process would benefit significantly from a number of related actions. These include: i. Ensure that protected areas are within designated key biodiversity areas (KBAs) to address representativeness and address ecological gaps ii. iii. iv. Governance approaches and all other management gaps need to be addressed systematically Thorough species identification and taxonomic studies need to be undertaken to ensure that all flora and fauna are accounted for (using scientific and local names). This will need to go beyond bird species, and be gathered, documented and encoded into a data base which uses a common system Reporting systems for MPA management should cover data sets for all three types of habitats seagrass, mangroves and coral reefs. Noting that Indonesia and Philippines account for most of the marine biodiversity in the region, efforts should be proportionate to ensure range and adequacy of protection, and ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 15

17 v. Continuous programmes to support scientific and technical capacity should be supported, with results flowing into the monitoring, evaluation and reporting processes, so that policies and decisions will be taken on sciencebased evidence. 16 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

18 3. INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) AS A FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 3.1 Over half of the world s people live within 100 kilometres of coastal shorelines, with populations in these areas increasing at a rapid pace. The global economy is inextricably linked with the oceans and seas, with coastal areas providing a range of life-supporting ecosystem services. Countries in South East and East Asia are also connected in an ecological sense, through a number of large marine ecosystems (LMEs) which are fed by ocean and tidal currents which generate upwelling zones and contribute to high productivity of the region Due to the increased pressures from human settlements, urbanization and economic development activity, coastal areas are subject to multiple uses, which most often erode land and sea resources. Integrated coastal management (ICM) emerged as a paradigm to manage, regulate and coordinate activities in coastal areas, and to integrate the use of coastal resources with land use planning. The primary purpose of ICM is to increase efficiency and effectiveness of coastal governance in terms of its ability to achieve the sustainable use of coastal resources and the services generated by the ecosystems in coastal areas. It aims to do this by protecting the functional integrity of these natural resource systems while allowing economic development to proceed ICM provides a common framework for sustainable coastal development (refer to schema below). ICM provides a governance system, and some issue-specific management systems which are important in achieving overarching goals of sustainable development, the objectives outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and more specifically, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets articulated in Section 2 above. ICM offers a set of practical tools and approaches to address the constraints to implementation of national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs), which are outlined in other sections of this report. 3.4 Applications of ICM help to set up the appropriate institutional arrangements to operationalize interagency and multi-sectoral coordinating mechanisms. This is done through stakeholder processes in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and continuous improvement of programmes in sustainable coastal development. The ICM framework is used to develop and implement national and local legislation which support new and existing policies, foster interagency and multi-sectoral institutional arrangements, land- and sea-use zoning schemes, registration and licensing, marketbased/revenue generating instruments covering access and use of resources, monitoring and reporting, education, awareness creation, knowledge management, surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. These are all challenges faced by countries in trying to advance national biodiversity policies, strategies and action plans. 13 Chua (2007), p Ibid p. 14 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 17

19 Figure 2: Process-Oriented Common Framework for Sustainable Development of Coastal Areas through ICM Implementation (Source: PEMSEA) 3.5 The ICM framework is instrumental in establishing sustainable financing mechanisms which support conservation of resources and required environmental infrastructure improvements through public- and market-based sources, such as appropriation of annual budget allocations; user fees, tariffs, taxes, penalties and fines; and adoption of a corporate management approach to utilities and resource management. 3.6 Applied ICM is used to reduce threats to biodiversity conservation, including those which impact on the regular supply of public goods and services generated through ecosystems, and are essential to coastal populations. It allows local governments and stakeholders to identify and define threats to sustainable coastal development, and put in place the appropriate management regimes to address these threats. There are five key management elements of relevance: a. Natural and human-made disaster prevention and response management: Increased frequency of natural and human-made disasters, including earthquakes, tsunamis, tidal storms, flooding, sea level rise, landslides, red tides, oil and chemical spills, coastal erosion and land reclamation, is now common in the region. ICM helps to identify and estimate likelihood of a disaster event, estimate the possible social, economic and environmental risks, the potential consequences, and the impact these might have on the lives and property of coastal populations, as well as ecosystem health. Applicable tools include: prevention and preparedness procedures and controls; contingency and emergency plans; public education and awareness building; training of response teams; access to adequate resources (equipment and materials, staff and financial resources); and humanitarian and emergency relief. Review of the NBSAPs suggests that these elements need to be integrated further. 18 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

20 b. Natural coastal habitat protection, restoration and management: Habitat management initiatives, including increasing the vegetation coverage in metropolitan areas, can be developed and implemented to provide protection, conservation and restoration of natural environmental assets such as coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, and other wetlands. These have been identified as priority concerns for development and management of marine protected areas. Moreover, these initiatives help strengthen capacity to address impacts of climate change, particularly as an adaptation and risk reduction measure to buffer against storm surges, among others. In this connection there is also scope to advance opportunities for carbon sequestration (see references to Blue Carbon below). c. Water use and supply management: Well-conceived water resource management programs are important elements of a sustainable development strategy, particularly in metropolitan areas where water supply shortages occur more frequently. Instruments include sound water use policy, tariff systems, water allocation/licensing, water conservation and reuse, protection of water sources (i.e., watershed or river basins; surface and ground water), and ensuring the quality, adequate supply and accessibility of water services to common citizens. d. Pollution and waste reduction management: Among the critical challenges faced by cities and municipalities is the protection of land, air and water from various forms of waste and pollution, at sea or generated through land-based sources, which find their way into groundwater, rivers and coastal seas. Sustainable management programs include an understanding of the sources and characteristics of contaminants and waste materials entering the environment, what is required to change behaviors to reduce or eliminate pollution, and the types of policy reforms, legislation, capacity development, market-based procurement and management instruments, awareness building, incentives and enforcement mechanisms to address these threats. e. Food security and livelihood management: Sustainable fisheries, is both a target and an outcome of sustainable development. The fishing sector itself requires management and, in particular, the implementation of various codes of conduct. Activities in sustainable coastal and marine areas affect fisheries, and therefore a sustainable supply of fisheries can also be an outcome of good management of these other issues. It is also important to ensure the accessibility of the poor to fisheries resources, given its role as a major traditional source of animal protein for the coastal poor. Supplemental livelihood programs for coastal communities can also be set in place to reduce stresses on the fishery and to increase income and well-being from other forms of livelihood. Biodiversity conservation and sustainable use through MPA development and management addresses these concerns directly PEMSEA, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 19

21 4. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY FOR THE SEAS OF EAST ASIA (SDS-SEA) 4.1 The SDS-SEA has evolved through twenty years of practical experience in application of ICM in the context of the Seas of East Asia, primarily through project-based financing from the Global Environment Facility (GEF), implemented through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), along with assistance from other donors, national and local governments. In 2007, the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA) Executive Council, took steps to formulate a plan which would transform PEMSEA from a project facility to an International Headquarters (IHQ), with juridical personality supported, inter alia, by a multilateral agreement (referred to as the Haikou Partnership Agreement of 2006) signed by member countries, an agreement with the Philippines Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to provide office and related facilities, and agreements with a number of collaborative Non-Country Partners. The PEMSEA IHQ status was affirmed in an agreement signed with the Government of the Philippines in August A PEMSEA Resource Facility (PRF) is in place to provide Secretariat and technical services for the EAS Partnership Council. 4.2 In 2010, PEMSEA Country and Non-Country Partners formulated the SDS-SEA implementation plan, which is characterized by: a. A more inclusive approach to involve government and other stakeholder partners b. Target-focussed actions plans, which would be achieved through regional consolidation c. Use of a common platform for coastal and ocean governance to mobilize resources, and d. Greater enabling of advocacy, monitoring and evaluation of progress and impacts. 4.3 The SDS-SEA incorporates the main principles, objectives and action programmes of a number of international and regional instruments and agreements, including the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Global Programme of Action for Protection of the Marine Environment from Land- Based Activities (GPA), the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and a number of conventions associated with the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The SDS-SEA contains six strategies and 227 action programmes for sustainable development of coasts and oceans (PEMSEA, 2012). More recently, in 2012, ten countries signed the Changwon Declaration: Towards and Ocean-Based Blue Economy, which formalized the adoption of the SDS- SEA, and charted a number of substantive actions to accelerate mainstreaming of ICM, and implement the strategy over a five year course ( ). 4.4 Among its four broad-based targets, Enabling Target 3 is of relevance, as it deals with ICM programs for sustainable development of coastal and marine areas and climate change adaptation covering at least 20% of the region s coastline. As of 2011, 20 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

22 approximately 11% of the region s coastline was covered by ICM programmes, however it is recognized that Partner countries need to exert greater effort collectively and individually in order to reach the milestone during the SDS-SEA implementation period. A review of gaps and constraints in SDS-SEA implementation (national plans of member countries) up to 2011 highlighted five main actions to address perceived challenges: a. Need for continued efforts to reduce overlapping mandates, programming lapses, policy conflicts, competition and uneven management interventions among relevant government agencies b. Need to reduce reliance on external funding and expertise, which suggests continued human capital development for local ICM managers c. Need to continue experimental initiatives with sustainable financing, share lessons and experiences and scale up models within the context of a regional knowledge platform d. Need to ensure that ICM is being applied consistently and effectively as a process and management framework in the design and execution of various activities, which include biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction and management e. Local governments will need to take systematic efforts to measure progress towards targets using a common protocol and shared set of performance indicators as part of an overarching monitoring and reporting system. 4.5 Activities under Enabling Target 3 envision a number of interventions which would Action 3.1: Action 3.2: Action 3.3 Action 3.4 Maximize local government capacity to contribute to national planning and policy processes Realize climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction measures in vulnerable coastal areas through ICM 16 Integrate sustainable use of coastal and marine ecosystems into ICM programme in biodiversity and fisheries hotspots, and Advance water supply conservation and management, pollution reduction and waste management through ICM programmes in priority coastal and watershed areas. (PEMSEA, 2012) 4.6 These Actions are aligned with the CBD and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets 10, 11 and PEMSEA is now marshalling efforts to scale up implementation of the SDS-SEA, with a view to catalyzing actions and investments at the regional, national and local levels to rehabilitate and sustain coastal and marine ecosystem services and build a sustainable 16 Among the indicators of progress identified in the SDS-SEA is the development of new sources of financing, including the private sector, to support adaptation measures (p. 29). ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 21

23 coastal and ocean-based economy in the East Asian region. Efforts will focus on three broad areas: a. Partnerships in Coastal and Ocean Governance: to improve understanding and building consensus on the importance of coastal and ocean policies, promote integration of relevant targets into medium term development plans, including policies aimed at reducing vulnerability of coastal communities to natural and human-made hazards, initiating national and local programs to transform policy into actions and investments b. Healthy and Resilient Marine and Coastal Ecosystems: to achieve a target of ICM coverage of at least 20% of the coastline (45,000 km) of the EAS region by using ICM tools, methods and approach to strengthen local governance of, and services provided by coastal and marine areas and resources, as well as build partnerships and leverage investments in on-the-ground interventions. This would include, among others, habitat restoration and management in biodiversity hotspots, sustainable fisheries management in threatened fishing areas, pollution reduction in priority river basins and coastal areas, improving capacity for disaster risk reduction and management, and demonstrating innovative financial and economic instruments and other incentives designed to drive positive changes in behaviour at ICM sites, and c. Knowledge Platforms for Building a Sustainable Ocean-Based Blue Economy: to increase resource allocations to ICM, strategic action plan, climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction implementation, through adoption and mainstreaming of coastal and ocean related policies, objectives and targets into national and local government medium-term development plans. Also included will be accredited ICM skills training, enabling networks of learning centers and centers of excellence, promoting investments in enterprises, technologies, practices and services that contribute to a sustainable ocean-based blue economy, mobilizing donors, domestic and foreign investors and other concessional sources of funding to help address program gaps in means and capacity, and promoting the replication of innovative financial and economic instruments and other incentives designed to drive positive changes in behaviour. 22 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

24 5. KEY PRINCIPLES IN ESTABLISHING EFFECTIVELY MANAGED CONSERVATION AREAS Source to Sink Dynamics 5.1 The concept of source to sink dynamics is gaining traction in the science community. The model is used by ecologists to describe how variations in the quality of habitats may or may not have an effect on the population growth or decline of species. Early work suggested that in the source habitat, birth rates were greater than death rates, and therefore populations grew. The excess individuals were expected to leave the habitat, making emigration rates higher than immigration rates, so that sources were a net exporter of individuals. In a sink habitat, death rates were higher than birth rates, resulting in declines of population to the point of extinction unless enough individuals emigrated from the source habitat. Rates of immigration rates were expected to be higher than rates of emigration making sinks a net importer of individuals. All totalled, there would be a net flow of individuals from the source to the sink Source to sink theory has been advanced and tested over the years to the point where a considerable body of knowledge exists, especially as it pertains to terrestrial habitats. Some key findings are that: a. Some sinks can actually be pseudo-sinks in the sense that habitat patches may appear to be sinks if populations extend the carrying capacity of the habitat b. Understanding sources and sinks requires long term study of parameters of each habitat. Temporary variations in parameters, such as climate variability of natural disasters, may lead to misclassifications c. In relation to the above an appreciation of full complexities of systems is required. For example, variabilities and natural cycles can lead to possible scenarios where the same habitat patch can be a source at one point in time, and a sink during another through adaptation processes (referred to as inversion ) d. From the perspective or reproductive dynamics, emigrants from source habitats can be juveniles remaining in one habitat for a period (e.g. one year), and then dispersing to reproduce in another habitat the following year e. Some source habitat patches can contribute to emigration to many different sinks, and sinks can be host to individuals from many different sources. This can (and does) occur on continental scales f. Research needs to provide estimates of per capita reproduction, probability of survival, and probability of emigration to differentiate source and sink habitats. If emigration information is not fully captured, then individuals that emigrate may be mistaken for mortalities, and cause sources to be classified as sinks. This is important if the source-sink concept is viewed in terms of habitat quality, and as such any 17 Pulliam, H. R Sources, sinks, and population regulation. American Naturalist 132: ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 23

25 approaches would need to integrate source-sink dynamics with populations and ecological modelling in order to differentiate sources and sinks g. Movements and dispersal patterns of organisms are key to understanding source to sink dynamics. Dispersal can be passive (e.g. transported by water currents), or active (e.g. individuals movements correspond to carrying capacity of the habitat). Some studies suggest further, that the dominant, older individuals in a population may use the best resources in the source area, and drive younger, subordinate individuals to the next best territory available in the sink. As the subordinate, younger individuals become older, they may be able to return to the source, but new subordinate juveniles from the source will have to move to the sink. Some sinks may have better qualities to support breeding, and h. When applied to ecology, source to sink dynamics explains how species can successfully occupy areas in the context of competition with other species. A habitat that is a source for one species may be a sink for another, and so coexistence may depend on immigration from a second habitat rather than the interactions between two species. In the same way, source-sink dynamics may influence the regional coexistence and demographics of species within a metacommunity or group of communities connected by the dispersal of potentially interacting species. Moreover, source to sink dynamics also provides and explanation of how organisms may prefer a sink habitat over a source habitat The above overview of source to sink dynamics is intended to lead into a discussion on how these rationale are being applied to the design and development of marine conservation areas, and in particular, the fisheries, and other, benefits which are expected to be derived. The theoretical models have been applied with some success in terrestrial ecology, but less so, in aquatic systems. There are basic differences in the application of the theory. In marine systems, larval dispersal, has been emphasized in defining sources and sinks. While this approach is a logical extension of the perceived importance of dispersal in marine systems, however, sources are viewed simply as upstream habitat from which larvae come, where a patch s location relative to ocean currents becomes the defining characteristic of a source or a sink, and the underlying habitat quality is all but ignored. Currents play a role in larval dispersal, but systems are too complex and unpredictable to track dispersed larvae to the original, physical source. Oceanographic models of larval transport based on wind and tide-driven occurrences show that classes spawned from the same area can end up in very different places in different years as a result of minor differences in oceanographic conditions The implications of the above are important, because source to sink dynamics are among the key factors considered in siting of marine conservation areas. Spatial planning and related exploratory efforts will need to factor in: a. Credible baseline information b. Strategies with respect to placement of reserve areas (e.g. source-only, sink only, random) 18 sink_dynamics 19 Crowder, L. B. et al. (2000), p ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

26 c. Effects of displacement of fishing effort using different combinations (e.g. reserve vs non-reserve areas) d. Effects of proportion of source and sink habitat (e.g. varying percentages of source vs sink habitats in a defined conservation area) e. Effects of current (e.g. current direction is rarely uniform, therefore consider different dispersal fields) 20, and f. More recent factors to consider would include climatic variations (e.g. sea water temperature), and human made conditions (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorous and other elements which affect sea water quality). KBA and related approaches 5.5 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are sites of global significance for conservation of biological diversity. Globally accepted standards and criteria are used in identifying KBAs. These criteria are based on the occurrence of species from all animal and plant groups. KBAs are defined with boundaries that are sufficiently large, interconnected and contiguous biogeographic areas which will support populations of the species for which they are important. KBAs are one form of conservation area. Other types of conservation areas include Important Bird Areas (IBAs), Important Plant Areas (IPAs), Important Sites for Freshwater Biodiversity, Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) in the High Seas, and Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites. 5.6 A KBA can be a protected area or can be entirely outside of protected areas, and be identified at national, sub-national or regional level. They focus on land, freshwater and marine environments within national jurisdictions, while EBSAs are under development for areas beyond the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). National conservation organizations map KBAs using consistent criteria and gap analyses in line with the CBD. KBAs are also relevant for the private sector, particularly with respect to watch lists of areas in which economic development activities will require a high degree of assessment and oversight in order to address or avoid negative impacts on biodiversity. There are about 20,000 KBAs in over 200 countries today The process of identifying and delineating KBAs through a scientific stakeholder process is continuous, although there is expected to be a maximum of 20,000 terrestrial KBA sites eventually. The two main criteria for defining a KBA are vulnerability and irreplaceability, which are supported by sub-criteria and data on thresholds. Vulnerability means that a significant population of a globally threatened species exceed a threshold based on the IUCN Red List. Proposed thresholds include a single individual of a Critically Endangered or Endangered species, or thirty (30) individuals of a species considered Vulnerable. Irreplaceability refers to a KBA which hosts a significant proportion of the global population of a particular species at any stage in the lifecycle of that species. These can include: 20 Ibid pp ( ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 25

27 a. Restricted-range species with thresholds currently proposed as 5% of global population of species with a global range less than 50,000 km 2 at site b. Species with large but clumped distributions with thresholds currently proposed as 5% of global population at site c. Globally significant congregations with thresholds currently proposed as 1% of global population seasonally at the site d. Globally significant source populations with currently proposed threshold such that the site is responsible for maintaining 1% of global population, and e. Bioregionally restricted assemblages with thresholds to be determined To date, KBAs have been identified and are being protected in over 100 countries with support from the BirdLife International partnership, the Alliance for Zero Extinction, among others. These can be considered a starting point for gap analyses and conservation initiatives at local, national and regional levels. It is important to note that conservation activities can begin even before a KBA is identified. Priority areas such as Important Bird Areas (IBAs), Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites, and Wetland of International Importance (RAMSAR) sites are, in effect, subsets of the KBAs. Countries need to follow the KBA identification and delineation process so that other groups of species which are not part of the above taxonomic process can be identified and prioritized for conservation. The Philippines alone, has completed the KBA identification and delineation process by identifying sites of terrestrial and marine species such as corals, mollusks, elasmobranchs, reef fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, that are critical for conservation Multi-stakeholder processes are the key to identification, protection and monitoring of KBAs, most often with the participation or support of international conservation organisations including IUCN, Plantlife International, and BirdLife International. In the Philippines, for example, the KBA process was guided by IUCN-recommended guidance 24, initiated by Haribon Foundation, Conservation international and the Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (PAWB-DENR). The process to identify terrestrial and freshwater KBAs was completed in 2006, while the marine KBA identification process was done in The results of two KBA definition processes were combined and then refined to draw up an integrated set of KBAs. KBA analyses have also been completed in six ASEAN Member States (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam), using data on globally threatened mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and plants. 25 Similar work has also been done in the south western part of China, which identified141 KBAs for threatened amphibians, mammals, birds, reptiles, and freshwater fish, as well as for restricted-range and congregatory birds, using confirmed local information for each target species. In addition, 58 sites were identified as candidate KBAs, or research priorities ACB, 2010b. 24 Langhammer et al., Ambal et al Conservation International China, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

28 5.10 The KBA approach helps determine priorities for investment and to guide international support for important biodiversity conservation sites. The management regime, legal and ownership status for KBAs varies by area. If an area is identified as a KBA, this does not automatically imply recognition and legal protection by a national government authority, although about 63% of KBAs to date are located within existing protected areas. In some cases, having an area designated as a KBA can trigger protected area status. A number of multilateral and bilateral institutions use the KBA criteria as part of their assessment of potential environmental impacts of project initiatives that they might support. Businesses can also be guided by KBA designations to avoid risk of biodiversity and habitat loss in their activities, and also identify new opportunities. Depending on the area, local and indigenous communities may be involved in use, protection and management of KBAs, which can contribute to preservation of social and cultural values Appendix 3 presents mapping information on the overlap between MPAs and KBAs in selected countries of the region. Marine protected areas (MPAs) and networks 5.12 In the biodiversity literature the lexicon related to marine protected areas (MPA) is wide-ranging. Such terminology as marine sanctuaries, marine reserves, marine managed areas (MMAs), marine natural parks, marine national parks, have been used to describe conservation areas that are broadly similar, but differ in scope, scale and management approach. In some cases, MPAs are defined in primarily in the context of fisheries development and spatial management28, and in others, MPAs have taken multidimensional, multisectoral and multinational characteristics For purposes of this paper, the IUCN and CBD definitions shall be considered. Recently the IUCN re-defined a protected area as: A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. MPAs can exist as relatively small sites, each strictly protected on an individual sitebasis, or as a number of larger multiple-use areas within which protected areas exist and are strictly protected. In order to quality as a bona fide MPA, there must be an effective programme of ecosystem management covering the marine ecosystem and the land areas that are influenced by it. 30 A MPA, which may contain designated no take zones, is one type of resource management approach that can co-exist with other forms of property or territorial user rights for fisheries (TURFs) union/secretariat/offices/iucnmed/iucn_med_programme/species/key_biodiversity_areas/ 28 Sanders et al, ACB, 2010b ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 27

29 5.14 The CBD uses the term Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (MCPAs) to emphasize that the designation applies to coastal areas or areas that cross the land/sea interface such as estuaries and marine salt marsh MPAs are increasingly recognized as an important way of conserving marine biodiversity and fisheries. From an historical perspective, the idea of placing areas as refuge from fishing has a long pedigree. The practice is known to have started centuries ago in Pacific Island nations as a way of having a period of resting before fishing. There are reports of offenders being clubbed to death in Hawaii for violations. In Europe the trend for protecting areas from fishing was formalized in the late 1700s and early 1800s, mainly as a way to restrict bottom trawling for extended periods, with noticeable results in catch abundance. Formal guidance on managing marine reserves in France was given as early as 1912, with specific reference to maintaining herring and sardine stocks. Benefits of marine protection were rediscovered in the 1970s in such countries as Chile, Philippines and New Zealand, where small protected areas were set up as research stations, with noticeable blossoming of ecology, especially rapid increases in density and sizes of commercially important marine species. 32. Since then intergovernmental agencies, national and local governments have responded, although unevenly across countries, with legislations, enactments and some regulatory frameworks related to protecting coastal and marine areas In 1988, the IUCN created a framework for the systematic establishment of MPAs. Since then, a good number of MPAs fall within the ambit of one or more of the IUCN protected area categories (see Table below). An Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Marine and Coastal PAs of the CBD has defined the following scientific criteria for identifying and establishing MPAs and relevant networks: a. Area contains either unique, rare or endemic species, population or communities and/or distinct habitats or ecosystems and/or unusual geomorphological or oceanographic features b. Area of special importance for life-history stages of species and required for their population to survive and thrive c. Area containing habitat for the survival and recovery of endangered, threatened, declining species or area with significant assemblages of such species d. Area having a relatively high proportion of sensitive habitats or species that are functionally fragile or with slow recovery e. Area containing species, populations or communities with comparatively higher natural biological productivity f. Area contains comparatively higher diversity of ecosystems, habitats, communities, or species, or has higher genetic diversity, and Roberts, p ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

30 g. Area with a comparatively higher degree of naturalness as a result of the lack of or low level of human-induced disturbance or degradation IUCN, 2008a. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 29

31 Table 2: IUCN Protected Area Categories 34 IUCN Category I II III IV V VI Definition main use of the area a. science or as a Strict Nature Reserve b. wilderness protection Ecosystem protection and recreation; often called a National Park Conservation of specific natural features; often called a National Monument Conservation through management intervention (e.g. habitat/species management areas) Land/seascape conservation and recreation Sustainable use of natural ecosystems (e.g. multiple-use protected area) 5.17 The range of types need to be considered when developing protected area systems, bearing in mind that these areas should not be seen as stand alone or isolated entities, but an inherent part of a wider ecosystem across watersheds, landscapes and seascapes No Take Zones (NTZs), whether standalone MPAs or zones within a multiple use MPA, are an essential element of an effective MPA system. These areas can also be called marine reserves and characterized as being highly protected or fully protected. By the IUCN definition, a MPA can be used for extractive purposes provided that the primary objective is protection of biodiversity. Given that an entirely no take area is impracticable to enforce, in the South East and East Asian context, these sites may be those that are minimally disturbed, but where people are welcomed for recreational or non-extractive purposes Most MPAs are considered multiple use areas since they permit a wide range of uses, and are often managing through spatial plans or zoning. These MPAs would likely have at least one NTZ, buffered by surrounding zones for different uses There are many small, community-managed MPAs that have been set up, most notably in the Pacific States. National agencies may not always recognize these MPAs in an official sense, so they do not appear on national or international lists or classifications. There are also internationally designated MPAs and managed areas which help to highlight areas of cultural importance, demonstrate general principles, harmonise approaches, and facilitate trans-boundary cooperation. These include: World Heritage Sites 36, Biosphere Reserves 37 and Ramsar Sites Fishery management areas have been set up to promote sustainable approaches to fisheries, and not formally recognized as protected areas by IUCN definition, even if there are restrictions on trawling, or some areas closed to use of specific gear types or fishing for certain species. If these areas are covered by legislation to preserve fishery habitats, including river basins, estuaries and seagrass beds, then they may qualify as 34 Adapted from 35 UNEP-WCMC, 2008, p ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

32 MPAs. 39 Areas can also be closed on a seasonal or temporary basis. These would include important conservation areas such as fish spawning aggregation areas or migratory routes, where species are vulnerable at specific and predictable times of the year but may not need any greater management than surrounding areas at other times. Whale sanctuaries and mangrove forest reserves have also been established in some countries, while not explicitly as MPAs, but may still merit further review Reference to MPA networks and systems is often synonymous, although the latter more often refers to protected areas in general (including terrestrial), and the former more widely used among MPA practitioners. The IUCN defines a MPA network as: A collection of individual MPAs or reserves operating co-operatively and synergistically, at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve The distinction between networks and systems is variable, nevertheless. The CBD recognizes networks at the global level in the programme of work, although there is no legal mandate or management authority; and also recognizes systems at the national and regional levels. 42 There is also a social side to use of the term networks, as there are MPAs managed by a number of different groups of people, projects or institutions sharing information and knowledge (as in the Philippines, Vietnam or Pacific Islands) The importance of effectively managed coastal and marine areas to food and energy security, biodiversity conservation, community health, climate change resilience, sustainable livelihoods and economic growth, is increasingly acknowledged. This is especially true of the South East Asian region, which hosts an immensely rich marine environment, which includes 30% of the world s coral reefs, 35% of mangroves, about 18% of seagrass meadows and ecosystems that support the highest coastal marine biodiversity in the world along 234,000 kilometres of coastline. These marine ecosystems provide the resource base which sustains a life support system for at least two billion people. There is a considerable body of knowledge which identifies problems, issues, gaps and concerns which cut across the coastal and marine management diaspora, and there are also a number of existing frameworks, tools and approaches designed and implemented to improve management of these areas Natural wealth in the South East and East Asia region is degrading at a relatively high rate, with 26.5% of mangroves disappearing from 1997 to 2005, and most of coral reefs under multiple forms of threat. These threats include, but are not limited to, unsustainable resource use, pollution, conversion to aquaculture and other land use, and climate change. While there has been a trend towards increasing the number of MPAs to protect the hotspots of biodiversity in the region, loss of mangrove forests continues, and the vast majority of corals reefs are in serious decline MPAs are increasingly viewed as an important global management tool to address declines in marine biodiversity and fisheries. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002 and the 5th World Parks Congress in 2003 called for 39 FAO. 2007b. 40 UNEP, 2008, p IUCN/WCPA. 2008a ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 31

33 establishment of a representative global network of marine protected areas by In 2008, the 9th CBD Conference of the Parties (COP), encouraged Parties and to increase the effective protection and management of marine ecosystems. A dramatic rise was seen in the designation of MPAs following the WSSD 2012 targets Literature on the benefits of individual MPAs and their role in biodiversity conservation and coastal / marine resource management is extensive. Since MPA networks are a more recent phenomenon, there is less documentation available on practical experience. However, potential benefits of MPA networks are summarized in a recent UNEP report as follows: a. Ensuring that all types of biodiversity (both species and ecosystems) are protected b. Helping to maintain the natural range of species c. Ensuring that protection of unique, endemic, rare and threatened species is spread over a fragmented habitat d. Enabling adequate mixing of the gene pool to maintain natural genetic characteristics of the population e. Ensuring protection of ecological processes f. Essential for ecosystem functioning, such as spawning and nursery habitats, and large- scale processes, such as gene flow, genetic variation and connectivity, that promote an ecosystem based approach to management g. Ensuring that social and economic connections between protected areas are addressed h. Bringing sectoral agencies together, and helping conservationists, fishery managers and other stakeholders with diverse interests to find a common goal i. Facilitating the sharing of information and lessons learned, and j. Allowing for a more efficient use of resources, through cost sharing Connectivity between national and regional MPA networks would provide additional benefits, including: a. Ensuring the protection of an ecosystem or species that cannot be adequately protected in one country, such as migratory species b. Ensuring that trans-boundary protected areas are given adequate attention c. Sharing effective conservation approaches across similar sites in different regions d. Developing collaboration between neighbouring countries to address common challenges and issues, and 32 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

34 e. Strengthening capacity by sharing experiences and lessons learned, new technologies and management strategies, and by increasing access to relevant information Case studies that are based on more local experiences South East and East Asia, suggest that a number of related benefits can accrue: a. Fish abundance and catch increased: Fish can be spilling over from the nofishing zone areas, and improved fish catches contribute to poverty reduction many sites. Local fishers report improved catches and less effort. b. Fish size and biomass increased: The average size of some species of fish is noticeably larger, as juveniles are able to grow out to adulthood. Data indicate fish biomass increases in MPAs after 3-5 years, while fish biomass outside the MPAs show decreasing trends. c. New jobs created in tourism sector: In some cases, fishers who switch to new occupations in the tourist industry earn considerably higher incomes. Some alternative livelihoods are risky and susceptible to market forces (e.g., commodity prices for seaweed). Larger, capital-intensive investments in tourism are more likely to lead to long-term gains in non-fishing income. In some cases, there could be diversified job creation. d. Better local governance: Improved governance processes, marked by functionality, transparency, accountability and participation have the effect of increasing community confidence and sense of stewardship over resources. A management body, new regulations and ordinances (e.g. zoning schemes) support local initiatives, help to mitigate user conflicts and serve as platform for continued dialogue. Traditional fishing rights may receive greater recognition if stakeholders participate in MPA design and implementation. e. Community health improvement:. Greater fish catches lead to higher protein intake in regular diets, and a perceived improvement in children s health in particular. More incomes permit increased investments in health-related and preventive care expenditures at the household level. Local government investments other components of ecosystem management, such as solid waste, septage treatment and waste water management, led to reduced effluent flowing into the MPA. There is likely increase in awareness of the importance of good sanitation practices. f. Benefits to women: MPAs help to empower women economically and in some cases socially. Participation in community level resource management decisions have increased commensurate with livelihood opportunities. g. Improved social and economic resilience: Diversity in sources of income and livelihood reduce exposure to economic downturns. In these circumstances, individuals and households participate in making local institutions operation more effectively. 43 UNEP,2008, p.24. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 33

35 Country h. Improved ecological resilience: Mangrove restoration associated with MPA development has helped buffer communities from storm surges, which have in the past, led to injury, loss of life, economic damages and local service disruptions. i. Faster adoption and replication of best practices: As capacity improves and initial benefits are perceived, communities are confident to adopt changes in behaviour, cooperative spirit is uplifted, and with improved popularity, politicians are more likely to continue to encourage additional conservation and related infrastructure investments, such as mangrove restoration or better public market. 44 Aligning KBAs and conservation areas with MPAs in the ICM Framework 5.30 Summary data for selected countries is presented in the table below. It is apparent that more work needs to be done to align KBAs, MPAs within the ICM framework. Number of Protected KBAs Table 3: Summary data on KBAs, MPAs and ICM in selected countries Number of Partially Protected KBAs Number of Unprotected KBAs KBAs MPAs ICM Number of Marine KBAs out of Total Number of KBAs as both Terrestrial and Marine out of Total Total Number of MPAs Total hectares % of Total marine area covered by MPAs Length of Coastline with ICM programs (km) Brunei Cambodia China , DPRK Indonesia , Japan Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines , ROK , Singapore Thailand Timor Leste Vietnam , Source: WDPA and 44 Leicher et al, n.d.; Samonte et al, 2010; EcoGov Project, 2011a; EcoGov Project 2011b; Fernandez et al, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

36 5.31 As the definition of a MPA has not been applied evenly across countries, it should be noted that sources of data vary depending on the country, the purpose of the protected area, and institution collecting data. For example the North East Asia Regional Programme for Environmental Cooperation (NEASPEC), has recently presented the following data for selected countries (See Table 4). Table 4: Number and Area of MPAs in Selected NE Asian Countries Country Total National Level Provincial Municipal/ County Protection Type Wild Natural Animals/ Ecosystem Plants Nature Heritage Number China Japan ROK Total Area (ha) China 1,367,206 1,150, ,149 22,532 1,355,210 1,343,716 1,359,955 Japan 436, , , , ,000 ROK 357, , , , ,718 Total 2,160,774 1,944, ,149 22,532 2,148,778 2,133,661 2,114,673 Source: NEASPEC, Of the 789 KBAs identified in the ASEAN region, only 82 (10 percent) are located in the marine realm. These include 10 KBAs that are protected, eight partially protected and 64 unprotected. In addition, there are 70 KBAs that cover both terrestrial and marine areas: 25 are protected, 12 partially protected and 33 unprotected. Marine habitats and ecosystems are severely under-represented in the identification of KBAs. 45 For those that are protected, management concerns remain to be an issue. There has been an increase in the proportion of MPA areas within the territorial waters of ASEAN Member States, with average annual growth of 5% between 1999 and 2000, and modest increases of 0.5% since then up to There have been notable declines in the quality and quantity of mangrove, seagrass and coral reef habitats. Mangrove forests declined at a rate of 1.06% between 1980 and 2005, while protection of existing mangrove forests needs to be stepped up to address the negative impacts of species extinction, reduced fisheries production, increased incidence of mangrove cuttings. Coral reefs and seagrasses are also experiencing increased threats through habitat change, the impact of climate change, over-exploitation, and pollution For seagrasses, the aggregate protection areas fell under the 10 percent target at 8.33 percent protection, while Thailand and Indonesia surpassed the 10-percent target at 35% and 17%, respectively. Cambodia, the Philippines and Viet Nam did not achieve the 10% mark. There is a need to expand communications related to economic values of seagrasses in the region to increase appreciation and conservation efforts for this ecosystem. Seagrasses provide a nursery function for various fishes and invertebrate larvae, and make this ecosystem a key resource for inclusion in MPA planning and implementation frameworks. For coral reefs, about 14 % of the coral reef areas are protected, hence achieving the CBD target. Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam, demonstrated a high degree of conservation rigour in their coral reef protection activities, 45 ACB, 2010a. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 35

37 while in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines, protection activities remain to be a challenge Although some coastal areas with sustained integrated management efforts have shown signs of environmental improvements. many threats to protecting and sustaining coastal and marine ecosystem services persist across the region, including: a. Land use transformation in coastal and upland areas b. Land reclamation in coastal and wetland areas c. Deforestation, erosion and sedimentation d. Degradation, destruction and over-exploitation of natural resources, including fisheries e. Continued trade in wildlife and endangered species f. Increasing populations and economic activities in coastal areas g. Conflicting uses and demands among users for limited coastal and marine resources, such as tourism, port development/marine transportation and fisheries h. Inequitable access to resources, resulting in food security and sustainable livelihood concerns, especially among fishing communities i. Marine pollution from land-based and sea-based sources, and j. Climate variation and change including extreme weather events The root causes for these continuing threats can be traced to one or more of the following: a. Lack of national policies on coasts and oceans and outdated national policies that conflict with the objectives of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development of coastal and marine resources b. Inadequate institutional mechanisms to facilitate coordination across communities, sectors, local and national governments, national agencies and national boundaries c. Inadequate legislation and the capacity to enforce regulations d. Insufficient mechanisms and incentives to engage local governments and the business sector in conservation investments e. Limited access to training and capacity building opportunities to build up human and financial capital to effectively manage protected areas 46 Ibid. 47 Shadie, 2007; Arnason and Keller, 2009; IUCN, 2010; PEMSEA, 2012; Fernandez, L. et al, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

38 f. Inadequate resources and capacity for scientifically sound environmental monitoring and reporting, coupled with lack of coordination of environmental monitoring efforts across agencies, programs and projects g. Inadequate funding for applied research on social and economic values of coastal and marine ecosystems and their contributions to sustainable development and security h. Limited knowledge or awareness of the value of coastal ecosystems services and the consequences of their degradation or loss i. Limited knowledge sharing on best practices and case studies within countries and across the region, and j. Limited buy-in by local governments and local stakeholders on the benefits of MPAs. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 37

39 6. PERSPECTIVES ON TOOLS AND APPROACHES FOR EFFECTIVELY MANAGED CONSERVATION AREAS 6.1 Marine protected areas cannot be established as stand-alone initiatives. They should be developed in the context of a larger management framework, particularly since they will be influenced by various internal and external forces, and will require a functional governance system. In Component 1 it will be essential to establish criteria and select appropriate sites/locations for all participating sites, and refine scientific tools and methods for a number of sites within a designated MKBA, MPA/ MPA network within an ICM site, or adjoining ICM sites. 6.2 Criteria for site selection should be established through consultative, multi-stakeholder processes and consider the following factors: a. Focus on IUCN Categories IV, V and VI b. Build on an existing, trans-boundary, geo-spatial model (e.g., Verde Island Passage as part of SSS) c. Experiment with MPA network development in areas where MPAs exist and share the same KBA or bio-geographic region d. Create new models in areas where the oceanographic science confirms connectivity patterns, MPAs are in nascent stages, and capacity is limited, with a view to scaling up to networks and seascapes e. Diversify range of habitats, while addressing priority hotspot areas, with some added emphasis on sustainable fisheries management 48 f. Complement other, existing and similar initiatives (e.g., ADB-GEF, International Coral Reef Initiative, UNEP-Regional Seas Programme) g. MPA development and management included in SDS-SEA implementation plans, NBSAPs/PoWPAs and mainstreamed with national planning and development processes. 6.3 ICM/MPA planning will require a number of actions, including identification of responsible management authorities, biophysical assessments and surveys, socioeconomic profiles, engagement of local stakeholders, coastal use zoning, demarcation of boundaries, formation of research partnerships (i.e., local universities), M&E system, financing strategy, and more. Site selection should transcend political and economic considerations, and ensure that MPA networks are focussed on biologically representative priorities One of the important gaps with respect to sustainable coastal management within marine protected areas is the shortage of useful data. Marine biodiversity surveys represent an 48 A stocktaking report commissioned by GEF identified fisheries issues as an area where additional investments are required in order to meet MDG targets, and address food security concerns (Tengberg and Cabanban, 2011, pp 42-43). 49 There is a suggestion that the recent establishment of large areas of marine reserves in Australia primarily caters to mining and fishing commercial interests by determining areas that are residual to biodiversity, and therefore have limited effectiveness (Pressey, 2012). 38 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

40 essential first step in understanding the key species within an ecosystem, understanding the threats to biodiversity, filling in gaps and establishing baseline data, installing a monitoring and reporting system, and forming the scientific basis for designation of key biodiversity areas and the rationale for protection and sustainable use. There are a number of different survey methods, some of which include sampling/stock assessments, satellite imagery, camera tows, manta tows or line transects. Surveys should target zooplankton, plants, invertebrates, fish and mammals with a view to documenting information and (IUCN) status of species (and subspecies), current distribution, breeding status, habitats, among others. It would be important to ensure consistency in recording species using the commonly recognized taxonomy (supplemented by local names). Capacity-building and information management activity should be conducted for all participating sites with actual surveys undertaken at a minimum number of sites. Using the Ecosystem Assessment Framework and related tools to build scientific and technical capacity 6.5 Marine ecosystems provide direct and indirect benefits to human populations through provision of services. A well-managed coastal area, MPA or network of MPAs serves as a way in which these services can be maintained over a long term. There is a need, however, to have an analytical framework which will help scientists and practitioners understand how these services can be valued and internalized within local government planning and development processes and management and investment programs. It is generally agreed that a classification system on the basis of a single ecosystem service is not entirely appropriate, rather, a classification system should be customized to apply to a particular context The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) defined ecosystem services as being either: provisioning, regulating, cultural, or supporting, 51 a system which was further refined by The Economics of Ecosystem Biodiversity (TEEB), which distinguishes between core and beneficial ecological processes and the ecosystem benefits being delivered to society. The table below shows these components. Table 5: Beneficial ecosystem services (products of ecosystem processes that have a direct impact on human well-being) Category Definition Food capture fisheries, wild sources, aquaculture, fertilizer and feed Raw materials salt, ornamental materials, industrial products Energy biofuels, thermal power Physical well being medicines, protection from natural hazards, regulation of pollution, environmental resilience, carbon storage Psychological/ Social wellbeing social resilience, tourism, recreation, sport, spiritual, cultural, aesthetic, nature watching, aquaria Knowledge research of the natural world, and education about the natural world, awareness of need to change behaviour Source: Adapted from TEEB, 2009 and Fletcher An ecosystem assessment framework helps to define the contours of scientific discourse. Integrated ecosystem assessments use approaches which address probability that 50 Fletcher, Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 39

41 ecological or socioeconomic properties of systems will move beyond or return to within acceptable limits as defined by management objectives. 52 In the context of the Ecosystem Assessment framework, these types of assessments also factor in the human well-being dimension, and through scientific and consultative processes, develop medium and long term scenarios to show decision makers the possible consequences of changes in ecosystems services, and guide future options and policy choices. 53 The assessment framework provides the context in which various scientific tools and methods are developed, tested and implemented. The concept is presented in the Box below. 6.8 Stakeholders in mkbas, MPA / MPA networking areas should be trained in applying the ecosystem assessment framework, based on the most recent guidance. Assessments will have the most impact where consideration is given to both process and products, where stakeholders are fully engaged, and where assessment design follows scoping of user needs. There are three stages in the assessment process that are normally conducted in sequence but can also be overlapping and iterative: the exploratory stage, the design stage, and the implementation of the assessment workplan. Assessment practitioners, among other things, will become better versed in scenario development, modelling and design of interventions Levin et al, MEA, 2003 pp Ash et al ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

42 Box 1: Ecosystem Assessment Conceptual Framework Changes in factors that indirectly affect ecosystems, such as population, technology, and lifestyle (upper right corner of figure), can lead to changes in factors directly affecting ecosystems, such as the catch of fisheries or the application of fertilizers to increase food production (lower right corner). The resulting changes in the ecosystem (lower left corner) cause the ecosystem services to change and thereby affect human well-being. These interactions can take place at more than one scale and can cross scales. For example, a global market may lead to regional loss of forest cover, which increases flood magnitude along a local stretch of a river. Similarly, the interactions can take place across different time scales. Actions can be taken either to respond to negative changes or to enhance positive changes at almost all points in this framework (black cross bars). GLOBAL REGIONAL LOCAL Human Well Being and Poverty Reduction Material minimum for a good life Health Good social relations Security Freedom and choice Ecosystem Services Provisioning (e.g., food, water) Regulating (e.g., climate, water, disease) Cultural (e.g., spiritual, aesthetic) Supporting (e.g., primary production, soil formation) Strategies and interventions Indirect Drivers of Change Demographic Economic (e.g., globalization, trade, market and policy framework) Sociopolitical (e.g., governance, institutional and legal framework Science and technology Cultural and religious (eg consumption choices) Direct Drivers of Change Changes in local land use and cover Species introductions or removals Technology adaptation and use External inputs (e.g., fertilizers, pest control, irrigation) Harvest and resource consumption Climate change Natural physical and biological (e.g., volcanoes, evolution) uninfluenced LIFE ON EARTH: BIODIVERSITY Short term Long term Source: Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 41

43 6.9 There are a number of targeted scientific methodologies and processes for data collection and analysis which support actions within the ICM management framework (reference Section 3.4 above), and would support implementation of MPA management plans Risk assessments and gap analysis. Risk assessment, including ecological risk assessment, is an established discipline. Determining thresholds and understanding the potential for irreversible change are important elements to support decision-making processes at all levels. In the same vein, environmental impact assessments which evaluate the impact of particular projects and strategic environmental assessments which evaluate the impact of policies - are both key instruments used to integrate the results of an ecosystem assessment into decision-making processes. 55 Among the principal tools in ICM is the risk assessment methodology. It is essential that local communities understand the nature and extent of the risks that they might face. Some scientific inputs that are used to support risk assessment would include: a. Nutrient cycling studies: to understand factors, such as marine microbes which are responsible for most of the world s primary production, influence nutrient cycling (movement of key life-supporting elements such as phosphorous, nitrogen, sulphur, carbon, iron and silicon) b. Pollution load and water quality assessments: by estimating priority pollutant loadings (e.g., biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); nutrients; bacteriological levels) and their impacts on water quality; identifying primary sources of priority pollutants (e.g., tanneries, slaughterhouse, farming, household) and, combined with hydrological and water quality models, allowable pollution loadings can be calculated, investment scenarios created and remedial actions formulated c. Hydrodynamic and larval dispersal modelling: These types of studies help understand oceanographic characteristics such as tidal patterns, currents, land features, etc., which influence the flow and dispersal of nutrient particles and larvae. This information will help to support actions to maintain connectivity (from source to sink) between ecosystem areas through MPA networks, corridors and seascapes, and d. Vulnerability assessments for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction: Given the prevalence of extreme weather events and international and national response mechanisms that have been formulated, a number of site-level actions are required: i. Establishment /reinforcement of existing data gathering mechanisms to monitor or map, geohazards, sea level rise, tidal patterns, etc. ii. iii. iv. Determination of an appropriate methodology for vulnerability assessments Conduct of vulnerability assessments (covering physical, social, economic and environmental aspects) Coordinate assessment with on-going ecosystem valuation studies and financing plans v. Ensure that disaster risk reduction strategies are developed with a view to increasing resilience, and flow into management plans (in line with the 55 MEA, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

44 vi. vii. viii. Hyogo Framework for Action) and climate change adaptation (CCA) strategies Align CCA with international human resettlement concerns/issues Encourage infrastructure investments as part of the above, and Explore opportunities for climate change mitigation based on carbon sequestration properties of restored mangroves, seagrass beds and saltwater marshes. 56 Moreover, the ACB gap analysis demonstrated there is a need to encourage countries to continually review and improve systems using a commonly accepted format, in order to understand the ecological, representational and management gaps that exist within their protected area systems Ecosystem valuation studies. The notion of total economic value (TEV) defines the degree to which a good or service satisfies individual or group preferences. These are expressed in terms of utility, measured by the amount of money an individual is willing to pay for a good or service or the amount of money an individual or group is willing to accept as compensation not to use the good or service. Direct use value is most commonly determined for (non-environmental) goods, and also some natural resources, for example, crude oil. Other natural resources are also valued for indirect use, which can be one part of their overall worth, for example, lakes, rivers, oceans, forests, etc., which have multiple use values (e.g., recreation, food provision, shelter, energy, etc.). Many environment-related goods and services also have non-use values. Examples of non-use values would include the role upland forests play as carbon sinks and in the prevention of soil erosion; or the role of wetlands, which offer flood control and contain nutrients and sediments. Environmental economists and other practitioners try to assess the relationships between, and elements of, this total value. Using the results of the economic valuation, awareness raising activities will be supported, targeting decision makers through production of information materials, encouraging key stakeholder dialogue and greater public understanding. Figure 3: Components of Total Economic Value Source: 56 CI, 2008; UNEP, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 43

45 6.12 Environmental economics is considerably more complicated however. The notion of TEV actually serves as a framework within which a number of different ecosystem valuation tools can be applied to different types of circumstances by different types of actors. While it is not realistic to expect local government and other staff to be trained in all these techniques, it would be of benefit for them to have an understanding of their applications particularly because this language and data will be increasingly used in proposals for development funds. The wider range of ecosystem valuation tools, such as contingent valuation method, natural resource damage assessment, etc., will also be used in capacity building as many of these are site and situation-specific. What needs to occur is a greater systems-wide understanding of ecosystem valuation, and the various tradeoffs, which need to be packaged and support decision-making processes. Moreover, the process of understanding ecosystem processes, services and their value is of tremendous benefit to MPA managers since it will help them understand which values are being captured or not, and which benefits will flow to which types of groups. Some sample ecosystem valuation study results In Hon Mun Marine Protected Area in Vietnam, the total value-added from the support function of coral reefs was estimated at $2 million for the local fishing and aquaculture industries. Total recreational benefits from the reef-related recreation industry were estimated at USD 4.2 million. Domestic visitors Willingness To Pay (WTP) per visit was USD 3.10 and that for international visitors was USD Given visitation patterns, the total conservation value of Hon Mun s coral reefs was estimated to be approximately USD128,245 for domestic visitors and USD114,945 for foreign visitors. The average yearly household value of the Veun Sean wetland, Cambodia was USD 3,200 in 2005, with USD 425 per household per year in fisheries value, or USD 650 per year to poorer households from income earned from selling fish, mainly used to purchase the food staple, rice. The Total Economic Value of coral reefs in Indonesia s Wakatobi National Park in Southeast Sulawesi was estimated to be USD 308,000 or USD 12,100/ km². The Net Present Value over 20 years with a 10% discount rate is estimated at USD 2.6 million. Fisheries produced an average of USD10,340 per km² annually and had a present value (PV) of over USD 2.2 million, calculated over 20 years with a 10% discount rate. Eco-tourist revenues provided almost USD 1,320 per km² in 2004 and an expected PV of USD 286,000. The indirect benefit of coastal protection was estimated to be worth USD 1,320 annually or USD 473. Coral reefs, seagrass, mangroves, and mudflats around Olango Island in the Philippines provide goods and services from fisheries, seaweed farming, bird habitat, tourism (SCUBA diving and snorkeling), and wood harvest. Annual net revenue was estimated to be USD 38,300 to USD 63,400 per km², or USD 1.5 to USD 2.5 million for the entire 40 km² reef area. Another $389,000 was added when wetlands were considered. The costs of managing Olango Island coral reefs and wetland habitats for improved net revenues and conservation would amount to less than USD100,000 per year. Source: CI, Blue carbon. Many countries are developing policies and programs which aim to reduce the carbon footprint which is generated through economic growth, and pursuing strategies to conserve and sustainably manage natural systems, particularly through activities linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the REDD+ 57 mechanism. In this context, there is an emerging consensus that the management of coastal blue carbon ecosystems, through conservation initiatives which avoid loss and degradation, restore and promote sustainable use, can serve as a transformational tool in effective management of natural carbon. There is today, sufficient scientific understanding of emissions from coastal 57 Reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation 44 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

46 ecosystems, and how carbon is sequestered, which will help to develop carbon management policies and related incentives, including financial incentives to support mitigation and adaptation through coastal blue carbon initiatives Coastal and marine ecosystems have, until very recently, been vastly overlooked in climate change mitigation and adaptation debates. Climate change is having a significant impact on the distribution and availability of fish species, and increasing the vulnerability of coastal populations in the EAS countries. In this connection, there is an emerging consensus that coastal and marine ecosystems play an important role in the sequestration of carbon. Vegetated coastal habitats tidal marshes, seagrass beds and mangrove ecosystems remove carbon from the air, store it in plants and deposit in the sediment through natural processes. These areas represent blue carbon sinks and account for 50% and 71% of all carbon storage in ocean sediments. They comprise only 0.05% of the plant biomass on land, but store a comparable amount of carbon per year, and thus rank among the most intense carbon sinks on the planet (IUCN, 2009). While the estimated burial rates of these ecosystems are subject to continual scientific inquiry, there is evidence to suggest that this is more significant than the forest carbon equation To illustrate, a recent groundbreaking study conducted under the auspices of the IUCN, CI and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO, confirmed that seagrass meadows can store up to two times the amount of carbon as temperate and tropical forests. Seagrass beds are able to store up to 83,000 metric tons (MT) of carbon per square kilometre (mostly in the roots and soil), compared to terrestrial forest stores of about 30,000 MT per km 2. There are estimates that seagrass meadows constitute only 0.2 per cent of the oceans, but are responsible for over 10% of carbon buried at sea on an annual basis. This is in contrast to the fact that almost 30% of the world s seagrasses have been destroyed, with annual loss rates of 1.5% per annum. Destruction of seagrasses through dredging and water quality degradation contributes significantly to carbon emissions. 58 Seagrasses provide important ecosystem services, and if properly restored, seagrass meadows can sequester carbon at a relatively fast rate. (Photo: Nellerman, 2009) 58 Fourqurean et al, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 45

47 6.16 The main focus of recent technical assistance activity as it relates to blue carbon considers the following: a. Establishment of a blue carbon policy framework building on existing knowledge, in collaboration with current initiatives, 59 and integrate this into policy and financing processes related to UNFCCC mechanisms b. Building of local and national capacity to undertake the scientific and technical analyses (data collection, mapping, stock assessments, reporting and accounting guidelines, methodologies, verification systems, etc.) for financing of coastal carbon management activities c. Expanding corollary efforts to promote effective integrated ecosystem management at the local level, with emphasis on habitat restoration and management of remaining seagrass meadows salt marshes and mangrove forests. This will have multiplier benefits in addressing human well-being (reduced vulnerability), food security (increased fish abundance), and economic security (livelihood formation), among others 60 d. Integrating blue carbon standards and activities into existing carbon finance mechanisms (e.g., funds, facilities, projects), involving end users (local stakeholders) in the process e. Establishing demonstration sites to serve as model for baseline data and best practice guidance f. Developing working relationships with companies and organizations that are involved in the transactional side of carbon trading in order to understand how the market mechanism operates (e.g., working within the ambit of the UNFCCC, packaging CDM and JI projects, the effect of international carbon price, etc.), and g. Engaging key private and public sector stakeholders to consider creation of a blue carbon fund over the longer term, to support extension of activities to some representative pilot projects across the region. Integrating marine biodiversity conservation into the ICM framework 6.17 The ICM project development and implementation cycle is systematically applied at project sites. There are six stages, as depicted in the figure below, each consisting of a set of important steps that serve as a pre-condition to moving on to the next stage. During preparation, it will be essential to evaluate candidate sites to determine or validate suitability for ICM implementation. In addition to the site selection criteria identified in earlier sections of this document, this will also require: a. commitment from local governments and stakeholders b. understanding the nature of environmental management issues 59 An International Blue Carbon Policy Working Group is operational (Herr, D. & Pidgeon, E. 2011). 60 Nelleman et al, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

48 c. a degree of manageability (e.g., logistics, financing) d. replicability in the sense that approaches used are transferable e. factors conducive to ICM application, including political will, local support, funding or presence of scientific /academic institutions, and f. assessment of barriers to management intervention. 61 (source: PEMSEA) Figure 4: ICM Project Development and Management Cycle 6.18 Activities and processes at each stage in the cycle will need to be followed on a sequential basis. Among others, scientific support will include environmental profiling and establishment of a coastal strategy, which consists of a causal analysis of environmental management issues and the social and economic implications. A more issue-focused MPA / MPA network plan would be a component of this The process of developing mkba, MPA / MPA network management plans involves a number of interrelated steps. Management / action plans should provide clear vision, objectives, strategies to achieve objectives and operational and developmental action items. User friendliness of the management plan should be emphasised. The plans will, however, need to be customized depending on the bio-geographic, physical and sociopolitical situations of each mkba. The process of MPA plan development will need to involve all stakeholder representatives, and will consist of at least the following basic steps: 61 Chua Thia-Eng, 2007, p ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 47

49 a. Stakeholder analysis: this would include a review of the roles of various actors and institutions that may impact or benefit from the natural assets of the MPA government agencies, non-government organizations, private sector, civil society, indigenous peoples b. Threats analysis: if a Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) is being applied, then based on the information from the METT assessments (see below), perceived threats will need to be qualified and quantified to the extent possible. This will be followed by an assessment of various and appropriate threats reduction strategies, some of which would require scientific and technical inputs. c. Barrier removal: Management barriers would need to undergo various iterations, particularly to pin down and understand precisely the nature and root causes, and then prioritized into an action-oriented framework on how to address these concerns using science-based approaches d. Capacity needs assessment: A logical extension of the above would be to identify and prioritize capacity building needs. For example, Increase research capacity for ecosystem valuation, would need to be expanded to identify what types of research for what type of valuation, should be undertaken and the resource requirements to make it happen e. Plan development and implementation: Efforts should be made to build operational capacity at the level of MPA managers, deputies, senior and middle level managers and technical team leaders to develop work and action plans, assess and mitigate risk, allocate resources efficiently, undertake results based management, monitoring, personnel management and oversight, delegation of tasks and authority, situation analyses, report preparation, etc Special considerations are sometimes given to developing sections related to: a. ICM/MPA governance processes b. human resource development sub-plan c. formation of technical committees or working groups with clear terms of reference and representatives from key government and non-government institutions d. improved partnership building and outreach approaches with emphasis on engaging communities and corporations e. incorporate structural or institutional innovations which will serve as a platform to carry out elements of the plans (e.g., law enforcement, revenue generation, etc.) f. strengthen the institutional mandate of the mkba, MPA/ MPA network authority, with a view to recommending legislative changes to make such plans mandatory, and g. documentation of best practices to support replication and scaling up to other sites or conservation areas. 48 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

50 6.21 There will be a need to converge MPA planning and implementation with ICM planning and implementation. In view of South East and East Asia as the global centre for biodiversity, there have been accelerated efforts in the scientific and technical community to understand the coastal and marine ecosystems in the region. Early experiences in establishing MPAs within an ICM framework have been relatively successful. At one level, there is documentation on how integrating the strengths of ICM and biodiversity conservation are complementary and mutually reinforcing in terms of focus, goals, site selection and project design, site-based approaches and strengths, international approaches and strengths, and scaling up approaches and trends. More specifically, there are a set of guiding principles and process development approaches for managing MPAs in an ICM context Any training and capacity building will need to using existing ICM tools, which include: a. State of the Coast report (baseline) b. Rapid appraisal for coastal environment c. Coastal strategy implementation plan d. Environmental risk assessment / risk management e. Integrated information management and decision-support systems f. Functional sea use planning and zoning, covering: i. Fisheries zone development and management ii. Tourism zone development and management iii. Habitat conservation and protection zone management g. Ecosystem valuation, and h. Sustainable financing 6.23 There may also be requirements to modify or adapt existing ICM tools, or create new tools. Some examples might include: a. Introducing fisheries bio-economic modelling approaches at the community level, which are simpler, user friendly and involve participation of local stakeholders b. Develop training and certification programmes for MPA leadership (elaborated below) c. Scale up participatory M&E, which involves local government, community members and research institutions, to ensure that applications are more habitat-specific (e.g., mangrove, coral reef and reef fish assessments) Chua, 2007, pp Uychiaoco et al, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 49

51 d. Initiatives to promote sustainable livelihood and eco-business development (to reduce ecosystem pressure) and improve well being e. Emphasis on coastal law enforcement, and f. Implementation of a blue carbon strategy, including packaging of pilot projects. Governance processes 6.24 Governance principles (e.g. functionality, transparency, accountability, participation) will be inculcated at the local government(s) and community level, targeting institutions with jurisdiction over the mkba, MPA/ MPA networks(s). The approach to governance will need to be defined according to the policy environment in a particular country or locality. Governance of natural resources will vary from various degrees of centralization to decentralization, with opportunities for co-management or community-based management. A functional, representative resource management unit or organization could consist of a national or local government unit, an inter-governmental alliance, a non-government agency, a private sector corporation, or a mixed consortium of stakeholders: a. Functionality would be a measure of the extent to which the resource management body embodies form and structure and internalizes a set of rules, processes and procedures to obtain the overarching objectives, results or products. There is a growing recognition of the importance of governance in reducing threats to biodiversity, and in particular, increasing the management effectiveness of MPAs. In addition to functionality, governance requires the application of principles associated with transparency, accountability and public participation (F-TAP) b. Transparency would be a measure of the extent to which civil society is able to have access to timely, accurate and complete operations of the resource management body. Accountability is a measure of the extent to which resource managers are able to take responsibility for their actions in relation to targets and standards. Public participation is a measure of the extent to which the general public has opportunity to provide effective and meaningful inputs into activities related to managing natural resources. In order for this to happen, there should be mechanisms to ensure prior knowledge/timeliness and accessibility. An illustration of how these elements connect in the context of one aspect of MPA development and management (law enforcement), and some process indicators is provided below: Governance Sample Process Indicators Function Functionality Transparency Accountability Public Participation Law enforcement Formulation and updating of ordinances consistent with national laws Public posting of proposed ordinances or amendments to ordinances Clarity in roles, responsibilities and powers of law enforcers Public consultations and hearings (from lowest political unit) Laws and ordinance strictly enforced and violators punished Logistical Public consultations and hearings Information, education and communications M&E status of law enforcement Sanctions for erring law enforcement officers Deputized law enforcement officers Multi sector collaboration (government, civil society, private 50 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

52 Governance Sample Process Indicators Function Functionality Transparency Accountability Public Participation requirements of law enforcement officers are met activities to support local ordinance enactment Rewards for good performers sector) Regular and sufficient budget allocations for law enforcement Training of law enforcement officers Posting of law enforcement statistics Incentives for public participation in law enforcement Communications/ feedback protocols (e.g., text brigades, hot line numbers, complaint boxes) c. The process of establishing a management plan and implementing it is as important as the plan itself. This is why a robust and comprehensive monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system is a critical tool for implementation of an integrated fisheries/coastal resource management plan. There are a number of existing governance-related capacity-building tools for governance at the level of a local or national government agency, non-government organization or corporation. Some of these are also applicable in specific sectors, and can combine self-assessment, third party assessment or joint assessment techniques. Associated with these are governance indices, which are associated with different levels of performance. Performance monitoring and evaluation (M&E) 6.25 The Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) which is part of the GEF BD- 1Tracking Tool, provides a useful basis for gauging the performance of individual MPAs. It is a simple, user-friendly, self-assessment tool for measuring progress toward achieving management effectiveness of individual MPAs. It collects important baseline information on perceived threats, the gravity of the threats and insights on root causes. It is also useful in that, with the right stakeholder participation, it allows for interactive self-assessment. However, a critical limitation of the tool is that it is not designed to compare the performance of different MPAs and it is weak in assessing outputs and impacts of the MPAs in relation to biodiversity health and conditions. It is also prone to subjectivity on the part of assessors. The METT could be strengthened in a number of ways. First, to have the process facilitated by a professional and in this way it would be a guided self-assessment, which would also benefit from a supplementary guidebook on how to perform the METT assessment. Second, to ensure that governance principles (such as functionality, transparency, accountability and participation) are embedded in the design and are an integral part of the process. Third, to ensure that there is a common understanding, or levelling off of expectations among all the parties. This will be essential in order to make sure that questions and responses are clearly understood.. Fourth, threats analysis and other technical information should be supported by sciencebased, as opposed to anecdotal, evidence only. Fifth, more attention needs to be paid to the comments and explanations and next steps parts of the assessment. Providing a numerical score would give the appearance of subjectivity, if there are insufficient qualifying explanations. Defining very clearly the next steps would be the basis for prioritizing needs, issues and concerns, and making them actionable from a management perspective. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 51

53 6.26 Project initiatives should build on the METT and other existing tools such as the financial sustainability scorecard, and support development of a performance measurement system that is to be used for the performance based incentive establishment. Through an extensive stakeholder consultation process, a set of indices could be developed and adopted for individual MPAs and MPA networks to quantify various outputs and requirements in MPA management processes. It will be essential to ensure that the indices are: clearly measurable, verifiable, fair and equitable As an extension of the METT, capacity building can focus on organizational development for local resource management units (i.e., economic enterprises, inter-lgu alliances, cooperatives, government body). Functional capacities of MPAs refer to organisational framework and systems which enables delivery of necessary MPA management activities for biodiversity conservation. These activities include law enforcement, biodiversity and habitat monitoring, management oriented research, tourism and management infrastructure development and maintenance, population demographics, tourism management (visitor control and management, tourism facility management, tourism concession development and management, etc.), risk management and educational activities. For individual MPAs to be able to fulfil these functions, they will need to have an adequate organisational structure, staff compliments, clear work processes and reporting mechanisms, and adequate management infrastructure and equipment. Based on the METT assessment of individual MPAs, the proposed project could consider support for development of an action plan to emplace sufficient functional capacity of MPAs so that they can fully meet the performance criteria under national, regional or international standards. The support could include, inter alia: a. Development of an enabling organisational structure and staffing as well as establishment of sound governance processes throughout the MPA management unit b. Development of clear job descriptions for the MPA positions, with defined roles and responsibilities and lines of reporting c. Development of MPA staff handbook or policy manual which conforms to legal requirements in Malaysia d. Establishment of reward or incentive systems to motivate MPA personnel e. Compilation of the guidelines for finance and accounting staff on governmentmandated reportorial requirements, as well as those of other agencies (sub-national, national and international) f. Improve revenue and fee collection mechanisms to enhance transparency and accountability g. Emplacement of sufficient oversight mechanisms between various levels of management and technical staff, including well defined, individual performance assessment/evaluation process based on performance expectations and targets h. Establishment of reporting, monitoring and evaluation procedures in place for technical personnel in the conduct of their work 52 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

54 i. Development of mechanisms to capture technical and management information and promote learning and sharing with the organization j. Provision of requisite tools and resources to MPA staff to conduct their duties k. Establishment of mechanisms in place to permit exchange of ideas, discussion and interaction between and among team members, and l. Establishment of protocols to engage external partners and stakeholders. This would include Technical Working Groups for individual MPAs or MPA networks with defined terms of reference, among others There are number of different models for monitoring and evaluation of MPAs and MPA networks. The METT serves as one important tool, particularly for gathering of baseline data It may also be instructive to review other M&E tools, in particular, the MPA Management Effectiveness Assessment Tool (MPA MEAT), developed and tested in the Philippines and being scaled up in the context of the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI) countries. The MPA MEAT has a benchmarking function, applies indicators and weighted importance values, and applies certain threshold governance processes, to help gauge some outputs/outcomes and define effectiveness. 64 Figure 5: The MPA MEAT schema 64 UP Marine Science Institute, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 53

55 6.30 There will be a need to review the current State of Coasts (SOC) indicators and ensure that these are aligned with various indicator guidance provided by the IUCN, Biodiversity Indicator Partnership (BIP) and CBD technical working groups. Work on core indicators relevant to biodiversity is on-going. Refining existing indicators and developing new sets of indicators may be in order depending on the priorities of the MPA or MPA networks. In this sense, there would need to be scientific basis, such as the conduct of hydrodynamic modelling, ecosystems carrying capacity, consumption patterns for fish and other seafood products. As such, some additional focus could be considered for: a. Sustainable livelihood indicators in MPA context. 65 b. Fish intake and nutritional status indicators 66, or c. Risk, vulnerability and resilience indicators in coastal communities. Sustainable financing mechanisms 6.31 Work in marine conservation has also focussed on helping MPAs / MPA networks in the development of specific and customized business plans as an integral part of the broader planning processes. Business plans would have a long term view aligned with the management plans, but could be subject to annual review and adjustments as required. Elements of a typical business plan would include: a. breakdown of MPA management cost based on the management needs b. cost-effectiveness maximisation measures c. investment priorities d. basic and optimal costs for effective MPA management e. mapping of potential sources of finance, and/ or f. revenue generation and financing strategy As most MPAs and MPA network managers would not have all the necessary skills and resources to develop and execute financing plans, a combination of capacity-building and use of short term technical assistance is sometimes employed. Any capacity-building should focus on the mechanics of MPA business plan development, approaches to conservation finance, and further emphasize two key aspects of the financial planning process: a. financial analysis that identifies funding needs and gaps, and b. pre-selection and analysis of different financial mechanisms and an understanding of the legislative and regulatory framework for their implementation. 65 Wattage, Kawarazuka, ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

56 6.33 In advance of developing sustainable financing mechanisms, however, there would normally be customized scanning and feasibility studies undertaken based on the natural resource assets in the mkba, MPAs / MPA networks, current statistical information, identify and qualify the various opportunities. For example in ecotourism, it may be a requirement to undertake destination development planning which would identify the ecotourism product, and assess the market potential, review the infrastructure requirements, qualify the investment opportunities and required financing, evaluate risk, and engage key stakeholders (e.g., Ministry of Tourism, investors, tour operators, etc.). More fundamental, however, would be the methodology below: a. Accurately updating the current financial baseline prepared for the MPA, including analysing the MPA management costs, reviewing different income sources, determining the current resource use and identifying cost-reduction opportunities b. Using financial planning tools (e.g., scenario logic), identifying the projected financial needs for the MPA, and determining the financial gap c. Assessing the functionality of the financial management system of the MPA institutions, including accounting (income and expenditure), salaries and benefits, classification of expenses (standardisation), cash flow, transparency (availability of, and access to, information), and auditing (internal and external) d. Selecting the most appropriate financial mechanisms to ensure the diversification of financing sources for the MPA. The focus of this activity would be on ensuring the maintenance, and increase in income, from conventional financial sources (governments, donors, and trust funds), as well as developing innovative alternatives (e.g., payments for environmental services, market mechanisms, etc.) e. Develop financial management and revenue diversification models to optimise financial management across the sites, and f. Defining the legal and institutional framework that is required to mobilise financial resources, adopt business management principles with optimisation of financial management across the sites, and to establish innovative financial mechanisms. Effective coastal law enforcement 6.34 Analysis of gaps in enforcement (compliance monitoring, surveillance, incarceration, case handling etc.) should be undertaken at regional, national and sub-national levels with activities conducted to strengthen capabilities in this regard. Coastal law enforcement is among the principal governance challenges in successful implementation of conservation area management. For proposed demonstration sites and networks, a number if interlinked initiatives should be considered, including a. Policy reviews to ensure uniformity and enforceability of various laws, codes and ordinances that would apply in a MPA or MPA network context b. Capacity building which would encourage multi-stakeholder participation and community-based empowerment ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 55

57 c. Capacity building /training for law enforcers in investigation protocols, evidence handling and case management, including powers to arrest d. International/cross border law enforcement collaboration and information sharing with government and non-government agencies (e.g., Wildlife Enforcement Network, TRAFFIC, CITES Secretariat) e. Development of relevant indicators (e.g., number of incarcerations, number of convictions, number and coverage of patrols conducted, etc.) f. Financing initiatives to ensure that law enforcement authorities have equipment which would enhance their capabilities (e.g., GPS, vessel/traffic management systems, fast boats, camera traps, etc.) Developing a new cadre of leaders (i.e., MPA managers) 6.35 The need for effective site-level MPA management has been alluded to above. Addressing human resource gaps at the individual level, will be among the main factors for success. In addition to the financial gaps alluded to in sections above, MPA systems will experience a paradigm shift in the way they are managed and sustained into the future. This means that there will need to be a commensurate shift in the types of skills that are brought to bear. MPAs normally operate in skeleton, or basic staffing situations. At one level staffing (at best) consists of MPA managers, marine biologists, officers, guides/navigators, enforcement officers /assistants, information officers, administrative and finance staff In order to implement a comprehensive management plan and a multifaceted financing plan the human resource configuration will require new types of people with different skills sets and competencies. This would include, but not be limited to: i) fisheries specialists ii) reef scientists, iii) seascape/spatial development specialists, iv) zoologists, v) mapping and survey specialists, vi) policy and governance specialists, vii) information technology specialists, viii) ecotourism specialists, ix) law enforcement specialists, x) marketing and communications specialists, xi) project managers, xii) financial analysts, xiv) environmental economists, xv) business development managers, and more. A management/action plan should be as explicit as possible as to which personnel comprise the core MPA team, and how the complementary skills can be tapped to provide inputs to various activities and initiatives. There are a number of options to be explored, including strategic alliances with research organizations/councils, universities, conservation NGOs, industry, other government agencies, financial institutions, business support organizations, etc Effectively addressing concerns related to leadership and motivation, may require some new models. These include representations to local governments in particular, to find ways of absorbing more personnel, in addition to finding innovative ways of engaging and rewarding new staff. Capacity building should target senior level personnel in order to ensure that there is continuity in management. Leadership training could focus on core skills at different levels such as: 56 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

58 a. Leadership development: learning how to translate strategy into action b. Functional leadership: enhancing the ability to lead while balancing short term and long term strategic perspectives c. Organizational leadership: maximizing the potential of leaders to transform organziations and accelerate results and commitments, and d. Women s leadership (combined with other trainings) Given that motivation is critical concern for MPA management, capacity building should also focus on the middle and lower level cadres of the organization in addition to the leadership. This would involve approaches which promote collaborative leadership or active self-leadership processes and models, where all staff within an organization feel a personal responsibility for its success, an important condition to enhance motivation. Champions at all levels will need to be cultivated. An adjunct to this element of motivation will be opportunities for self-paced learning through cross visits, participation in technical meetings and fora, and participation in various communities of practice in the biodiversity conservation field, at national, regional and global levels. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 57

59 PART II: SCALING UP THE COVERAGE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF MARINE CONSERVATION AREAS AND THREATENED SPECIES PROTECTION IN SOUTH EAST AND EAST ASIA THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Against the discussion presented above, and in an effort to help the PEMSEA Resource Facility (PRF) and the ACB take steps towards helping their constituencies address the manifold challenges and achieve the SDS-SEA and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, a new project initiative is proposed. PEMSEA s experience in ICM development and implementation at the local government level over nearly 20 years has demonstrated that ICM is successful in addressing the complex challenges to coastal and marine biodiversity loss and degradation. The PRF and ACB as partners, have taken some steps forward to document lessons learned from MPA management, including: a. interagency and multisectoral mechanisms for planning and managing coastal and marine areas b. land and sea use zoning to reduce conflicting uses and facilitate equitable access and sustainable use of resources c. sustainable financing through strengthened resource commitments of local governments, sharing of responsibility among sectors of the community, and the implementation of user pay/polluter pay schemes d. community participation, ownership and management of resources e. engagement of the business community as partners, and f. capacity development and knowledge sharing across local governments and communities. 1.2 Among other things, the proposed new initiative addresses a pressing need, to scale up many of the lessons learned and best practices in order to address systematically the problems associated with biodiversity loss across the region. What makes this imperative is the interconnectivity between ecosystems and species across the seascapes and landscapes within the region. Other critical aspects of this project, and the joint collaboration between PEMSEA and ACB, are the political and geographical areas of coverage, PEMSEA s eleven partner countries extend from Northeast to Southeast Asia; ACB coverage includes ASEAN countries. The project is an opportunity to bring the Northeast and ASEAN stakeholders together to address trans-boundary challenges to the 58 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

60 conservation and sustainability of the region s rich biodiversity. This context is significant, for it comes at a time when disputes over islets and seas among countries in the region appear to be escalating. By focusing on biodiversity challenges that cross boundaries, the project can also be a small step to facilitating dialogue among national and local governments, coastal communities, scientists and other stakeholders in the region. Component 1: Scaling up coverage of National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) Primary Objective: TO SCALE UP THE GEOGRAPHIC COVERAGE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF EXISTING NBSAPS IN ADDRESSING MARINE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ISSUES IN SOUTH EAST AND EAST ASIA REGION Secondary Objectives: 1. To assess/determine the coverage and management status of existing MPAs identified in the NBSAPs of South East and East Asian countries 2. To identify and promote the expansion of protected coastal and marine areas in participating countries by selecting mkbas that are ecologically representative and have high marine conservation success potential 3. To develop and demonstrate methodologies for delineating the importance of identified conservation areas, (i.e. socially, economically and ecologically), including the functional integrity of ecosystems, and benefits derived from their goods and services, strengthening their resilience to change, at the local, national and regional levels, and 4. To build a core team of competent individuals/institutions to facilitate continuing scientific input to and assessment of NBSAPs, their effectiveness, impacts and benefits derived. Principal Output A: Scientific basis for identifying marine KBAs derived. Output 1.1 Core team of competent individuals / institutions identified and scientific expert group convened Activities for Output Identify scientific and technical skills and knowledge in sustainable ocean and coastal management required to provide periodic advice during project development and implementation Establish terms of reference for an Expert Advisory Group ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 59

61 1.1.3 Convene Expert Advisory Group at least two times during life of project. An initial workshop should establish the parameters for site selection / validation Ensure that advice is disseminated to project management and other stakeholders Output 1.2 Project management established and steering committee created through national level CBD focal points Activities for Output Review human resource requirements for proposed project and establish staffing plan Establish terms of reference for key personnel, including senior management, technical directors / officers, administration etc Conduct formal recruitment process and engage personnel according to project work plan Establish terms of reference for Project Steering Committee Engage CBD Focal Points (see Table below) to assist in identifying national level representatives to serve on Project Steering Committee. Table 6. National CBD Focal Points Country Brunei Darussalam Cambodia China Indonesia Japan Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Republic of Korea Singapore Thailand Timor Leste Vietnam National focal points for protected area management Forestry Department, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources Department of International Convention and Biodiversity, General Department of Administration for Nature Conservation and Protection, Ministry of Environment Division of Protected Area Management, Department of Nature and Ecology Conservation Directorate General of Forest Conservation and Nature Protection, Ministry of Forestry Natural Park Division, Nature Conservation Bureau, Ministry of Environment National Protected Area Management Division, Department of Forestry Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Nature and Wildlife Forest Division, Department of Forests Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources Nature Policy Division, Nature Conservation Bureau, Ministry of Environment National Biodiversity Centre, National Parks Board Biological Diversity Division, Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning National Directorate for Protected Areas, Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries Biodiversity Conservation Agency, Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment 60 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

62 1.2.6 Convene Project Steering Committee on annual basis to provide direction and advice as required Develop mechanics of project implementation (e.g. institutional arrangements, work plans, budgets etc). Output 1.3 Reviews of National Biodiversity Action Plans (NBSAPs) conducted Activities for Output Conduct gap analysis to support NBSAP preparation at national levels Conduct regional technical workshops to assess and finalize NBSAP processes to meet CBD reporting obligations Facilitate preparation of Programmes of Work for Protected Areas focussing on coastal and marine areas Output 1.4 Project sites validated and prioritized Develop / finalize criteria for site selection Conduct suite of technical studies and assessments (e.g. oceanographic, hydrological, biological, socio-economic etc), to select up to nine (9) potential mkba ICM sites Validate site selection through scientific and peer review, and encode / document information. Output 1.4 Marine KBA, habitat relationships and threats data reviewed and information integrated with other secondary data to generate the list of select set of sites for MPA expansion, networking and on the ground ICM interventions Support threats analysis, technical reviews and related biophysical assessments on proposed sites and adjacent areas to determine connectivity potential to support MPA network development Ensure that data is encoded and documented Prepare and disseminate profiles and technical reports. Output 1.6 Feasible MPA networks identified and included in WDPA to support conservation efforts Conduct national and regional technical workshops to review scientific data on proposed planning areas, MPA sites and expansion areas. Presented below in Figure 6 are areas in the region based on data available for 3 habitats, 2 habitats, important coastal and marine ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 61

63 bird areas, and unprotected mkbas. Other areas will be proposed for North East Asia (Vietnam and China) based on best available information. Figure 6. Provisional Planning Areas for MPAs and MPA Networks Delineate proposed sites and ICM interventions. Table 7 below provides some initial information on some proposed sites under consideration, while others are yet to be determined Prepare data and maps to meet WDPA requirements and present to IUCN for uploading. 62 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

64 Table 7. Provisional List of Proposed Project Sites Proposed Site Primary Threats Priority Approach Pearl River Estuary, China China White Dolphin is threatened species. Other flora and fauna also exposed. Landbased activities/ pollution, shipstrikes from marine vessels, absence of effective institutional coordination and policy, low management capacity, lack of awareness, absence of reliable data Pollutant reduction; integrated river basin and coastal area management planning; enhancing scientific bases to support decision making; scale up ICM implementation to improve management effectiveness and sustainability of MPAs and MPA networks. Focus on charismatic species. Hat Chao Mai National Park Koh Ngai Ko Muk, and Tarutao Marine National Park, Thailand Verde Island Passage, Philippines Pulau Kecil Kuala Terrengganu, Malaysia Lack of connectivity with Ko Libong, the low lying mangrove areas fringed by mudflats; unsustainable land use pratices in vicinity of the park and headwaters of Trang River leading to increased siltation at the Park; over use of wildlife and migratory bird species in intertidal areas; and increasing number of tourists during peak season in Tarutao Marine National Park Sediments suffocating the breathing of corals in the existing MPAs during raining seasons; marine litter from landbased sources; potential impact from irresponsible diving activities; illegal fishing and lax law enforcement which collectively result in degradation of ecosystem services, habitats and species in marine environments Reduced turtle population from frequent oil spills from nearby oil production platforms and oil tankers; egg poaching; inappropriate diver interaction with underwater environment, etc Extending the boundaries of Hat Chao Mai National Park to encompass some areas of mangrove; alternative livelihoods; scale up ICM programs to improve management effectiveness and sustainability of MPAs and MPA networks Strengthen and scale up existing MPA networks, integrating MPA management within larger landscape and seascape, sustainable financing for alternative livelihoods to offset pressure on capture of larva and yearlings; public and private partnership; sustainable land management; CCA and DRR as part of ICM implementation Oil spill emergecy response planning; coastal use zoning; public participation; monitoring; etc ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 63

65 Proposed Site Primary Threats Priority Approach Tomini Bay, Indonesia Overexploitation in selected threatened fishing grounds Protected areas continue to be threatened/over exploited resulting in loss of ecosystem services, habitats and species in marine environments Incorporate EAFM into ICM framework and process to improve management effectiveness and sustainability of priority fishing grounds Scale up ICM programs to improve management effectiveness and sustainability of MPAs and MPA networks Output 1.7 MPA network performance and monitoring parameters / indicators defined/refined Activities for Output Conduct national and regional technical workshops on indicator development (in relation to SOC indicators) and establishment of integrated information management systems and M&E platform On the basis of surveys, establish baseline information at each site Develop targets and performance parameters for each site to be integrated into wider M&E system Link to healthy habitats and healthy fisheries monitoring and reporting system (ref: Output 2.7) Principal Output B: MPA / MPA networking candidate sites launched Output 1.8 Consensus-building processes conducted with local governments and stakeholders engaged / committed Activities for Output Support stakeholder processes and consultations to secure local institutional arrangements and coordinating mechanisms Negotiate and sign memoranda or partnership agreements with local governments and other stakeholder groups Establish and initiate locally-based, multistakeholder technical working groups. Output 1.9 Surveys conducted and baselines established Activities for Output ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

66 1.9.1 Conduct community assessments at each mkba, MPA / MPA networking site Carry out baseline surveys to gather biophysical data on coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass habitats for each proposed site. Cross reference with information gathered in support of Output Conduct water quality testing to establish baselines for pollution and nutrient loading studies Prepare and disseminate technical reports. Output 1.10 Geographic coverage of MPAs and MPA networks presented to stakeholders / Number of hectares of proposed new coastal and marine areas validated Activities for Output Convene technical working groups at site levels and present information from baseline surveys and related studies (ref: Output 1.6 and 1.9), to secure inputs / concurrence on planning areas and site selection Prepare maps and related GIS information for tracking purposes. Output 1.11 Capacity-building, ecosystem assessments and other tools defined at site level Activities for Output Conduct training / knowledge needs and gaps assessment at each mkba, MPA / MPA networking site Prepare training / capacity building plan Conduct pilot ecosystem assessments (e.g., valuation of ecosystem services, vulnerability assessment, ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management etc.) in selected sites and document experience for scaling up to other sites. Output 1.12 Core set of project collaborators (e.g. scientific groups, local institutions /NGOs, universities, private sector, other stakeholders ) identified and mobilized Activities for Output Identify potential Non-Country partners to contribute to ICM implementation at each site Establish and initiate an accreditation / recognition system for Non-Country partners. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 65

67 Develop memoranda and/or partnership agreements outlining roles and responsibilities of parties Mobilize Non-Country partners during project implementation as required. Output 1.13 Resources allocated to support site-based activity Activities for Output Establish project organization fiscal / administrative guidelines and procedures Develop site-based budgets (quarterly, annual and five year) to align with work plans, and integrate into a project level budget Allocate resources to site-based activities based on fiscal and administrative guidelines. Output 1.14 Mechanics of implementation developed and shared at project implementation level / Resulting methodology as well as lessons learned appropriately documented Activities for Output Establish project and site level work plans (with budgets from Output 1.13) for review by Project Steering Committee Create quarterly, semi-annual or annual accomplishment reporting template / process Document lessons learned based on roll out of project implementation methodology Component 2: ICM Implementation in Selected mkbas and Planning Areas Primary Objective: To develop and implement ICM programs focused on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use in priority areas across the South East and East Asia region, in partnership with national and local governments, coastal communities, businesses and other stakeholders Secondary Objectives: 1. To partner with national governments to scale up ICM practices and capacities with a particular focus on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, and reinforcing them through national policy, legislation and incentives 66 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

68 2. To work with a number of priority sites in each country to build and strengthen core capacities, knowledge, experience, stakeholder commitment and responsible governance, particularly at the local level 3. To demonstrate effectively and equitably managed coastal and marine areas of particular importance to marine biodiversity conservation, specifically those identified as priority locations in the NBSAPs of participating nations, through application of management tools, mechanisms, approaches and instruments, and 4. To establish effectively managed MPA networks that will be the ecologically representatives and address source to sink fisheries related issues, reduce headlands to oceans threats, and support coastal livelihoods and other sustainable economic activities. Output 2.1 Action/management plans, trans-boundary/joint implementation plans, sustainable financing mechanism(s) and monitoring and reporting system in place and operational Activities for Output Conduct of needs assessments related to ICM capacity in order to develop and initiate appropriate enabling programs at MPA / MPA networking sites Facilitate stakeholder and consultative processes to develop action / management plans which include sustainable financing, monitoring and reporting systems etc. Action / management plans will incorporate baseline data and focus on priority needs of the area Develop, adopt and initiate habitat protection, restoration and management programs within ICM frameworks of local governments. Output 2.2 Ecosystem assessment tools and methods applied and evaluated for each mkba, MPA or MPA network Activities for Output Conduct valuation studies on ecosystems services in selected mkba, MPA and MPA networking sites with focus on mangroves, coral reefs and seagrass habitats Support risk/vulnerability assessments of mangroves (i.e., blue forests) and coastal communities, with focus on threats from anthropogenic and natural hazards (e.g., oil spills, climate change) Prepare and disseminate case studies and related technical documentation. Output 2.3 Local governments, MPA managers and practitioners capacitated in ICM implementation Activities for Output 2.3 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 67

69 2.3.1 Identify, assess and build capacity of ICM Learning Centers (LCs) to be accredited by PEMSEA. Facilitate networking of LCs, and assist in delivery of training and support services to local governments and stakeholders at mkba, MPA / MPA networking sites Develop / refine ICM training modules to be compliant with standards for PEMSEA certification. Modules will include special skills training relevant for CCA/DRR, risk / vulnerability assessment, EAFM, MPA/MPA networking, marine spatial planning, coastal use zoning, State of Coasts, IIMS etc. Translate ICM training modules into local working languages as required, and disseminate to ICM Learning Centers Collaborate with national agencies, universities and certification institutions to develop / finalize and initiate ICM professional certification system. Develop and initiate ICM leadership training modules. Output 2.4 Number of MPAs/mKBAs integrated into coastal use zoning scheme and / or land use planning processes Activities for Output Support the development, adoption and demonstration of innovative administrative, legal, economic and financial instruments for effective management of mkbas, MPAs /MPA networks. These would include, but not be limited to planning and zoning schemes, legal and economic instruments, access /user rights, good practices in sustainable fisheries and aquaculture management etc Prepare and disseminate case studies and technical reports. Output 2.5 MPA/mKBA, climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction targets embedded into local coastal strategies and implementation plans Activities for Output Facilitate the development and adoption of climate smart policies and/or legislation at national and sub-national levels. This will be done through policy reviews / assessments and convening of policy forums at regional and national levels Build capacity of local and national governments / agencies to prepare hazard / vulnerability maps, particularly to identify and evaluate vulnerable coastal and watershed areas, resources, habitats, coastal communities and sectors of coastal communities. This would include delineation of vulnerable sectors of society, including the poor, women and youth Conduct studies on the socio-economic impact of specific natural and anthropogenic hazards, including climate change in priority mkba, MPA / MPA networking sites Support studies / assessments of the effectiveness of emergency response, compensation and other factors related to community resiliency, including community awareness and linkages between local and national systems. 68 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

70 Output 2.6 Number of hectares of new coastal and marine area under improved management increased / Number of local governments active and implementing ICM programs in mkbas, MPA /MPA networking sites Activities for Output Support technical working group contributions towards the development and adoption of national ICM programs, with emphasis on delineation of policy, legislative, institutional and priority mkba, MPA / MPA networking areas Consultations with Expert Advisory Group combined with regional / national technical workshops, testing at selected mkba, MPA/ MPA networking sites and documentation /dissemination of best practices, will accelerate the adoption and initiation of the ICM Code and Recognition System. Having the system operational will help to assess and recognize the efforts of local governments in the strengthening of governance and sustainable development of marine and coastal areas and resources. Output 2.7 Improved sustainable fisheries development parameters (e.g., stress reduction indicators, environmental status indicators, governance indicators, fish density, size, biomass, etc.) Activities for Output Set up/adapt coastal community monitoring and reporting systems at ICM sites to track indicators of ecosystem health and resilience Develop/adapt and implement a healthy habitat monitoring and reporting system at mkba, MPA / MPA networking sites Develop/adapt/refine and implement healthy fisheries monitoring and reporting systems at mkba, MPA/MPA networking sites. Output 2.8 Improved water quality and measurable reductions in nutrient over enrichment in selected sites Activities for Output Provide training and capacity building in modeling of pollutant loadings and ecosystems responses in priority river basins and coastal areas. Prepare Total Allowable Pollutant Load reports Conduct social, economic and ecological evaluations of relevant watersheds and coastal areas, water users and water functions Establish / strengthen integrated water quality monitoring programs, and build capacity for respective agencies to develop / implement a system for water quality report ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 69

71 preparation which will be provided to local governments and other relevant coordinating bodies Support regional / national technical workshops to analyze water use / conservation and pollution reduction options in priority river basins and coastal areas Build consensus among local governments and stakeholders on strategies, technologies and good practices based scientific data / information generated through water quality monitoring and other reports. Output 2.9 Areal extent of coastline covered by ICM programs / Extent of biomes, ecosystems and habitats covered by ICM programs Activities for Output Establish regional / national M&E and performance indicators based on PEMSEA State of Coasts (SOC) Reporting System, and other relevant guidance (e.g. Biodiversity Indicator Partnership etc) Train MPA practitioners, local government officials and other stakeholders on SOC and integrated information management systems Develop and initiate regular reporting protocols and format Prepare and disseminate case studies and technical reports. Output 2.10 Coastal communities, including women, recognized and engaged in MPA management through participation, co-management and other communitybased initiatives or benefit-sharing schemes for livelihood and income generation Activities for Output Develop and implement alternative / sustainable livelihood programs (eg ecotourism, seaweed culture, sustainable aquaculture etc) in priority fisheries / biodiversity hotspots, mkbas, MPAs/ MPA networks. Programs would focus on building capacity of local governments, fisher households (with special emphasis on women) and other community stakeholders in the following areas: a. Governance mechanisms for sustainable utilization of fishery and coastal resources b. Increasing resilience of fisher communities to respond and adapt to various hazards, risks and vulnerabilities c. Strengthening support institutions and improved capacity for post harvest handling d. Diversifying sources of income for fishing households by applying new knowledge and skills 70 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

72 e. Providing better access to finance for actors in the fishery supply chain, as well as in alternative enterprise f. Improving nutrition and health status for fishing households g. Better access to knowledge and information to enable livelihood development Assess benefits of alternative / sustainable livelihood programs (particularly for women) Prepare and disseminate case studies on best practices. Output 2.11 Site-level tracking tools developed and applied to monitor management effectiveness Activities for Output Conduct regional and national technical reviews of the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) and MPA Management Effectiveness Assessment Tool (MEAT). The reviews should come up with a harmonized approach to monitoring progress on effectiveness Develop baseline data and performance indicators at each mkba, MPA / MPA networking sites, and train MPA practitioners, local governments, community leaders, academics and other stakeholders to implement the system at the site level Install and operationalize the management effectiveness assessment / tracking system as an integral component of overall M&E systems. Output 2.12 Investment and other partnership opportunities, including corporate social responsibility, identified and packaged for prospective support Activities for Output Develop and disseminate case studies on good practices in sustainable financing and blue economy, with focus on a range of possible approaches and modalities Conduct testing of financing mechanisms at mkba, MPA/MPA networking sites and document the experience (e.g., destination development and investment planning for ecotourism) Provide training and capacity building for local governments on best practice in developing enabling governance frameworks for blue economy investments Support national and regional workshops/forums focused on blue economy to promote the replication and scaling up of good practices Identify investment/collaborative opportunities and facilitate signing of agreements with local governments implementing ICM, committing private sector support to ICM scaling programs. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 71

73 Develop and publish studies on good practices in CSR in the context of ICM implementation at mkba, MPA / MPA networking sites, emphasizing the business case, as appropriate Organize and conduct a Blue Economy Business Forum (in collaboration with partners and stakeholders) serving as a marketplace for blue economy projects with local governments implementing ICM programs Develop and implement a CSR Recognition System for businesses engaged and investing at ICM sites. Component 3: Knowledge Management Objective: To develop and implement region-wide coastal and marine knowledge management (KM) strategies, applications and programs aimed at increasing awareness and mainstreaming increased political commitments and public and private sector investments in achieving the 2020 Aichi Biodiversity Targets Principal Output A: Comprehensive KM strategy and implementation program developed and applied towards targeted groups / South East and East Asia region promoted as a working model for achieving biodiversity conservation through ICM It is insightful to distinguish between communications and knowledge management (KM). The literature on this is considerable, however, simply stated, communications refers to a relationship between senders of a message, and receivers of the message. KM has deeper implications as a way to internalize knowledge to improve performance of an organization, or individuals within an organization. The way in which the knowledge management paradigm evolves depends on a number of factors, and primarily linked to the way in which the organizations sees performance as contributing to its goals and objectives. Output 3.1 Knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) of local government, private sector and other target groups assessed Activities for Output Conduct literature review and use survey methodologies, focus group discussions and other community assessment techniques to identify gaps and constraints to application of knowledge to reduce threats to biodiversity conservation in coastal and marine areas Identify and validate messages designed to change behaviour of specific target groups (e.g. policy and decision makers at local and national levels, large foreign and domestic industries / businesses, small and medium scale industries / businesses, academic, research and scientific professionals, conservation-driven non-government organizations, other civil society organizations, etc.). The essential thing will be to identify and cultivate agents of change. 72 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

74 3.1.3 Assess available multimedia communications tools and methods, including print, broadcast, web-enabled, and informal / traditional channels, and their potential application in a KM strategy. In this connection, it will be useful to develop some of the following elements: a. the institutional framework and multiple pathways for dissemination of information b. required investments in training and human capital development c. strategic alliances with media-based organizations / groups d. transforming scientific / technical knowledge into useful knowledge products that highlight good practices e. establishment of selected mkbas, MPA / MPA networks as living laboratories, learning centers or destinations, and f. public affairs / outreach to foster community mobilization and participation Finalize and initiate a comprehensive KM strategy. Output 3.2 Outreach and public advocacy targets key constituencies Activities for Output Design multimedia public affairs and outreach element of the KM strategy (as above) with a view to creating awareness and understanding at the level of civil society and the private sector of how and where they can participated in ICM activities at local and national levels, and for local governments to create enabling conditions for such engagement. The rationale is that an informed public can exert pressure on governments through various participatory processes. An informed public will be able to better articulate their concerns and strengthen arguments in various fora. This would also cultivate a pull through effect whereby there would be demand created for biodiversity conservation efforts in support of other components of the KM strategy Develop specific advocacy campaigns (specific to the language and local context) which will influence knowledge and attitudes towards removal of barriers and eventual changes in behaviour. Campaigns should be developed through participatory approaches to coalesce a number of stakeholders and partners Establish collaborations with local, national and international print media. Project-linked specialists should be active in securing placements with newspapers, broadsheets, magazines and peer-reviewed scientific journals Establish collaborations with local, national and international broadcast media (television, radio and web). Actions would include interviews, talk shows, product launches, documentaries, etc. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 73

75 Output 3.3 Scientific and technical information/knowledge products packaged and disseminated to a range of constituencies, using multimedia approaches Activities for Output Develop/refine ICM training modules to be compliant with standards for PEMSEA certification. Modules will include special skills training relevant for CCA/DRR, risk / vulnerability assessment, EAFM, MPA/MPA networking, marine spatial planning, coastal use zoning, State of Coasts, IIMS etc. Translate ICM training modules into local working languages as required, and disseminate to designated ICM Learning Centers Collaborate with national agencies, universities and certification institutions to develop / finalize and initiate ICM professional certification system. Develop and initiate ICM leadership training modules Identify/ assess and engage potential Regional Centers of Excellence to provide specialized scientific and technical advice for oceanographic and species relevant concerns, M&E, risk/vulnerability assessments and management, among others Update/build up national and regional task forces of professionals, experts and service providers which can be mobilized to deliver training and technical assistance services for project management and mkba, MPA /MPA networking sites Create and promote demonstrations, models, learning opportunities and proof of concept of knowledge, technologies, good practices and other policy-related issues in implementation of NBSAPs, scaling up of ICM and CCA/DRR. Output 3.4 Business leadership and policymakers forums and site visits organized and conducted Activities for Output Work with local, national and regional support institutions of PEMSEA and ACB to develop and initiate leadership training for local chief executives Collaborate with national / local agencies, business organizations and other stakeholders in the region to host and annual Blue Economy Business Forum, combined with site visits and opportunities for cross-learning Jointly develop projects for funding by donors and other financing bodies. Output 3.5 Responsible Ministers convened to report on need, progress, challenges and solutions Activities for Output ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

76 3.5.1 Support the Triennial Ministerial Forum as part of the EAS Congress, and the ASEAN State Officials for Environment (ASOEN) as key venues, to engage leaders and policymakers to secure commitments on decisions affecting the blue economy Support the triennial EAS Congress and the ASEAN Working Groups on National Conservation and Biodiversity (NCB), Coastal and Marine Environment (CME), Climate Change (CC) which serve as venues for information exchange, multi-donor collaboration and participation in initiatives to scale up ICM implementation. Output 3.6 National or regional network or association of local governments practicing ICM in support of biodiversity conservation established to advocate ICM practices and expansion, sharing of information and experiences, standardize methodologies and approaches in meeting international standards, and build capacities Activities for Output Support continued operations and action plan implementation of the PEMSEA Network of Local Governments (PNLG) Secretariat Support relevant networking activities of other national and regional organizations representing local governments in South East and East Asia Facilitate the development of value added services of these network organizations for their local government members Encourage representation in other relevant international fora, including APEC, Conference of the Parties of CBD and UNFCCC among others. Primary Output B: Monitoring and evaluation data integrated into development of KM products, processes, sharing and using these as inputs to adaptive management Output 3.7 Local level data tracked, collected and managed through interoperable databases that feed into a region-wide knowledge-based M&E platform Activities for Output Facilitate capture of data from local / site levels (METT / MEAT) into a system of interoperable databases, including Asia Biodiversity Conservation Database Network (ABCDNet), Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI), etc Support national and regional training on relevant databases, integrated information management systems, SOC reporting systems, etc. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 75

77 3.7.3 Engage national and local governments, corporate sector, universities and other stakeholders to establish/ strengthen marine water quality monitoring programs. Forge partnership agreements Strengthen, develop/activate internet-based information access through websites, portals that are regularly updated, refreshed and maintained with functionalities that permit data mining, query, keyword searches, trending reports, etc. Output 3.8 Targeted research identified and funded/gaps in scientific knowledge about marine key biodiversity areas and ecosystem services being provided by mkbas/mpas to local economies filled and quantified in specific locations Activities for Output Conduct gap analysis and establish key research themes at each mkba, MPA / MPA networking site Convene / activate Expert Advisory Group to guide, review and validate possible priority areas for scientific research Jointly develop proposals for research funding with relevant partners, collaborators and funding agencies Provide support for implementation of targeted research and ecosystem valuation projects which generate new data, knowledge, technologies and best practices in priority areas Develop and disseminate case studies, technical reports and policy briefs that will deliver evidence-based science to key constituencies, including policy and decision-makers. Output 3.9 Experiences and good practices scaled up as national level policy, standards, criteria and incentives / Good practices in application of tools, skills, knowledge, mechanism, approaches and technologies documented and disseminated in local languages for replication at national and region levels Activities for Output Organize and convene policy forums to increase awareness and understanding of policymakers, supported by focus group discussions (or individual consultations) with key government departments and agencies, with emphasis on finance, budget and planning, public works, etc with a view to mainstreaming and scaling up biodiversity conservation in coastal and marine areas into medium term development and investment plans Convene regional and national technical workshops to disseminate knowledge on good practices Translate and disseminate knowledge products targeting specific groups. 76 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

78 3.9.4 Support advocacy campaigns which internalize knowledge, and accelerate adoption of good practices at local and national levels Review, assess, and consolidate the experiences of other, like-minded and related initiatives in the region. Appendix 4 summarizes past and current bilateral and multilateral projects supported by the World Bank, Global Environment Facility (GEF), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The forms of financing include loans, technical assistance, grants or combinations thereof. All totalled there are 715 bilateral projects and 68 regional (multi-country) projects, which have contributed to the body of knowledge in this field. Output 3.10 Incentive system for corporate sector participation in biodiversity conservation initiated, including a recognition system for good corporate practices and behaviour, partnerships with local government, etc. Activities for Output Prepare, disseminate and promote a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Roadmap Identify investment / collaborative opportunities and facilitate signing of agreements with local governments implementing ICM, committing private sector support to ICM scaling programs Develop and publish studies on good practices in CSR in the context of ICM implementation, emphasizing the business case Organize and conduct a Blue Economy Business Forum (in collaboration with PNLG and other organizations) serving as a marketplace for blue economy projects with local governments implementing ICM programs Develop and implement a CSR Recognition System. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANGEMENT (ICM) 77

79 PART III: IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS A Letter of Cooperation currently defines the collaboration arrangements between PEMSEA Resource Facility (PRF) and the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) and remains in effect until December 31, Upon the approval and awarding of the LifeWeb support, this will be augmented with a separate agreement and workplan that will define and the respective roles and accountabilities. 1. MEMORANDUM BETWEEN PEMSEA AND ACB 1.1 Project management will be defined in a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) between the PEMSEA Resource Facility (PRF) and the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB). As implementing partners, the institutions have complementary technical mandates, as well as political and geographic coverage. Generally, the Memorandum will distinguish the roles and responsibilities of the institutions. More specifically, the agreement will cover the following items, among others: a. Preamble relevance of the initiative b. Project organizational structure c. Locus of the central Project Management Office d. Key personnel (part time and full time) e. Country-level project management and coordination f. Nature and extent of respective technical collaboration and contributions g. Roles of in-country focal points, partner agencies and institutions h. Coordination mechanisms i. Financial management and financial obligations of the Parties j. Communications and reporting protocols k. Intellectual property rights l. Dispute resolution and applicable law 78 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSTIY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

80 PART IV: REFERENCES AND APPENDICES APPENDICES APPENDIX 1: Logical Framework Component 1: Scaling up coverage of National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) Objective: To scale up the geographic coverage and effectiveness of existing NBSAPs in addressing marine biodiversity conservation issues in South East and East Asia region Expected Outcomes Expected Outputs Strategic Actions Risks and Assumptions 1. Coverage and management status of existing MPAs identified and assessed in the NBSAPs of South East and East Asian countries 2. Protected coastal and marine areas in participating countries with mkbas that are ecologically representative and have high marine conservation success potential identified, assessed and expanded. 3. Methodologies for delineating the importance of identified conservation 1. Science basis for identifying networks of Marine KBAs derived. a. Core team of competent individuals / institutions identified and scientific expert group convened (2x). b. Project management established, and steering committee created through national level CBD focal points. c. NBSAP reviews conducted. d. Project sites validated and prioritized. e. mkba, habitat relationships and threats data reviewed and information integrated with other secondary data to generate the list of select set of sites for MPA expansion, networking and on the ground ICM interventions. f. Feasible MPA networks identified and included in WDPA to support conservation efforts. 1. Define and develop project coordinating arrangements, management and operations, including Expert Advisory Group, Project Steering Committee 2. Gap analysis of NBSAPs and preparation for Fifth submission in 2014, including PoWPA development for coastal and marine areas 3. Technical studies and scientific assessments to support validation of candidate sites 4. Development of indicators, integrated information management system and M&E platform 5. Stakeholder and consultative processes, Assumptions Proposed sites meet all oceanographic, biophysical and related criteria. National and local governments maintain a strong sense of commitment and ownership throughout the project implementation. Externalities and fluctuations (socio-economic and financial) do not affect implementation and financial commitments of core funding agencies and co-financing partners. Sufficient technical capacity and baseline information exists to enable development and refinement of tools and methods at the three proposed sites Governments and key stakeholders prioritize ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 79

81 Component 1: Scaling up coverage of National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) Objective: To scale up the geographic coverage and effectiveness of existing NBS APs in addressing marine biodiversity conservation issues in South East and East Asia region Expected Outcomes Expected Outputs Strategic Actions Risks and Assumptions areas, (i.e., socially, economically and ecologically), including the functional integrity of ecosystems, and benefits derived from their goods and services, strengthening their resilience to change, at the local, national and regional levels, developed and disseminated. g. MPA network performance and monitoring parameters / indicators defined/refined. 2. Launching of candidate MPA sites: community assessments, baseline surveys, mapping etc to engage local governments and others 6. Develop formal relationships with project Non- Country Partners 7. Formalize implementation plan and related processes NBSAP and PoWPA processes Risks Changes in political leadership may affect the priorities on protected area conservation and financing 4. Core team of competent individuals/institutions to facilitate continuing scientific input to and assessment of NBSAPs, their effectiveness, impacts and benefits derived, established. a. Consensus-building processes conducted with local governments and stakeholders engaged / committed b. Geographic coverage of MPAs and MPA networks presented to stakeholders c. Number of hectares of proposed new coastal and marine areas validated d. Capacity-building, ecosystem assessments and other tools defined at site level e. Core set of project collaborators ( scientific group, local institutions /NGOs, universities, private sector, other stakeholders ) identified and mobilized f. Surveys conducted and baselines established g. Resources allocated to support site-based activity h. Mechanics of implementation developed and shared at project implementation level i. Resulting methodology as well as lessons learned appropriately documented.. Central and local authorities do not come to grips with separating issues related to jurisdictions Political, economic or other distractions reduce priority of relevant actions 80 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

82 Component 2: ICM Implementation in Selected Marine KBAs and Planning Areas Objective: To develop and implement ICM programs focussed on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use in priority areas across the region Expected Outcomes Expected Outputs Strategic Actions Risks and Assumptions 1. National governments scaling up ICM practices and capacities with focus on biodiversity conservation, reinforcing them through national policy, legislation and incentives. 2. Priority mkba, MPA / MPA networking sites acquire core capacities, knowledge, experience, stakeholder commitment, responsible governance at local and national levels. 3. Effective and equitable demonstration of importance of coastal and marine biodiversity conservation, specifically priority locations identified in NBSAPs through application of management tools, mechanisms, approaches and instruments. 4. Established and effectively managed MPA networks that will be ecologically representative and address source to sink 1. ICM implementation in at least 9 mkbas / MPA / MPA networking sites 2. Action / management plans, trans-boundary / joint implementation plans, sustainable financing mechanisms and monitoring and reporting systems in place and operational 3. Ecosystem assessment tools and methods applied and evaluated for each mkba, MPA or MPA network 4. Local governments, MPA managers and practitioners capacitated in ICM implementation 5. Number of MPAs/mKBAs integrated into coastal use zoning scheme and / or land use planning processes 6. MPA/mKBA, climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction targets embedded into local coastal strategies and implementation plans 7. Number of hectares of new coastal and marine area under improved management increased 8. Improved sustainable fisheries development parameters (eg. stress reduction indicators, environmental status indicators, governance indicators, fish density, size, biomass etc) 9. Improved water quality and measurable reductions in nutrient over enrichment in selected sites 10. Number of local governments active and implementing ICM programs 11. Areal extent of coastline covered by ICM programs 12. Extent of biomes, ecosystems and habitats covered by ICM programs 13. Site-level tracking tools developed and applied to monitor management effectiveness 14. Coastal communities, including women, 1. Needs assessments, stakeholder consultative processes, development and adoption of habitat protection, restoration and management programs within ICM frameworks. 2. Conduct valuation studies on ecosystems services and support vulnerability and other types of assessments in mkbas and MPAs/MPA networking sites 3. Build capacity of network of learning centers. Develop / refine ICM training modules to include special skills training in EAFM, CCA/DRR, risk vulnerability assessment, MPA /MPA networking, marine spatial planning, coastal use zoning, SOC, IIMS etc and collaborate with local universities and academic institutions 4. Support development, adoption and demonstration of innovative legal, administrative, economic and financial instruments for effective management of mkbas, MPA / MPA networks. 5. Build capacity of local and national governments to prepare hazard maps, identify and evaluate vulnerable coastal areas, resources, habitats, communities and sectors, including women and youth. Conduct studies on socio-economic impact of natural and human made hazards, including climate change; and support assessments of effective emergency response, compensation and other factors related to resiliency. 6. Develop and initiate the ICM Code and Recognition System for priority coastal areas. Assumptions Sites selected comply with relevant criteria, with support and commitment demonstrated by local and national governments Absorptive capacity exists at the local community level to internalize knowledge related to ICM implementation The individual MPA management institutions maintain a clear mandate and authority to fulfil oversight and management obligations for the MPA or MPA network Risks Site-based activities difficult to coordinate due to differences in capacity Overlaps and conflicts in policies are difficult to overcome Governance processes related to MPA establishment and legitimizations are protracted Local governments and other stakeholders yield to other vested interests which do not support conservation values Human resource and financial limitations impede project implementation ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 81

83 Component 2: ICM Implementation in Selected Marine KBAs and Planning Areas Objective: To develop and implement ICM programs focussed on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use in priority areas across the region Expected Outcomes Expected Outputs Strategic Actions Risks and Assumptions fisheries related issues, reduce headlands to oceans threats and recognized and engaged in MPA management through participation, co-management and other community-based initiatives or benefitsharing 7. Develop and implement healthy habitat and healthy fisheries reporting systems. support coastal livelihoods and other sustainable economic activities. schemes for livelihood and income generation; 15. Investment and other partnership opportunities, including corporate social responsibility, identified and packaged for prospective support d. Conduct pollution loading assessments, economic, social and ecological evaluations of relevant coastal areas and water users. Establish integrated water quality monitoring programs an d build capacity to analyze water use and pollution reduction options. 9. Establish regional and national M&E and performance monitoring systems, including the SOC reporting system and provide relevant training. 10. Develop and implement alternative / sustainable livelihood programs in priority fisheries/ biodiversity hotspots, mkbas, MPA/MPA network areas. 11. Harmonize METT and MPA MEAT to track sitelevel performance. 12. Implement sustainable financing plan, identify investment/collaborative opportunities with private sector and local governments, organize blue economy forum and implement CSR recognition system. 82 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

84 Component 3: Knowledge Management (KM) Objective: To develop and implement a region-wide coastal and marine knowledge management strategy aimed at increasing commitments and investments to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity targets Expected Outcomes Expected Outputs Strategic Actions Risks and Assumptions 1. Comprehensive KM strategy and implementation program developed and applied towards targeted groups. South East and East Asia region promoted as a working model for achieving biodiversity conservation through ICM. e. Comprehensive KM strategy and implementation program developed and applied towards targeted groups: 1. Conduct survey, FGDs, literature reviews et to identify gaps and constraints to application of knowledge to reduce threats to biodiversity. Identify and validate messages to specific target groups. Assess available media / communications tools, approaches and methods. Assumptions There is a common understanding of knowledge requirements and formats for presentation Data and information gathered is consistent and comparable across sites 2. Monitoring and evaluation data integrated into development of KM products, processes, sharing and using these inputs as adaptive management. a. Knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) of local government, private sector and other target groups assessed b. Outreach and public advocacy targets key constituencies c. Scientific and technical information / knowledge products packaged and disseminated to a range of constituencies, using multimedia approaches d. Business leadership and policymakers forums and site visits organized and conducted e. Responsible Ministers convened to report on need, progress, challenges and solutions. Leadership forums and site visits conducted f. National or regional network or association of local governments practicing ICM in support of biodiversity conservation established to advocate ICM practices and expansion, sharing of information and experiences, standardize methodologies and approaches in meeting international standards, and build capacities, and g. South East and East Asia region promoted as a working model for achieving biodiversity conservation through ICM. 2. Implement public affairs strategy, including advocacy campaigns, collaborations with local and national media 3. Develop / initiate ICM training modules with specialized knowledge (see above). Establish learning center network, centers of excellence, national and regional task forces, demonstration sites and proof of concept 4. Support blue economy forum and specialized training for local chief executives. Promote site visits and develop joint projects. 5. Support PEMSEA Triennial Ministerial Forum, EAS Congress, ASEAN OEN, ASEAN working groups to increase awareness and support scaling up investments. 6. Support PNLG and other LGU associations to provide value added services and represent interests in international forums. 7. Capture and encode data from METT/MPA MEAT, M&E systems into ABCDNet, and other interoperable databases, portals and information platforms. Capacity exists at local levels to engage in community mobilization (e.g., strong civil service organizations) Barriers to reduction of biodiversity threats are removed Private sector willing to participation in CSR and related biodiversity intitiatives Risks Fragmented data collection and information management constrains effective knowledge diffusion Language barriers pose challenges to reaching grassroots constituents ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 83

85 Component 3: Knowledge Management (KM) Objective: To develop and implement a region-wide coastal and marine knowledge management strategy aimed at increasing commitments and investments to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity targets Expected Outcomes Expected Outputs Strategic Actions Risks and Assumptions 2. Monitoring and evaluation data integrated into development of KM products, processes, sharing and using these as inputs to adaptive management: a. Local level data tracked, collected and managed through interoperable databases that feed into a region-wide knowledge-based M&E platform b. Targeted research identified and funded c. Appropriate skills, knowledge, approaches and technologies created at local levels to fill gaps in management effectiveness f. Gaps in scientific knowledge about marine key biodiversity areas and ecosystem services being provided by mkbas/mpas to local economies filled and quantified in specific locations g. Experiences and good practices scaled up as national level policy, standards, criteria and incentives d. Good practices in application of tools, skills, knowledge, mechanism, approaches and technologies documented and disseminated in local languages for replication at national and region levels, and f. Incentive system for corporate sector participation in biodiversity conservation initiated, including a recognition system for good corporate practices and behaviour, partnerships with local government, etc. 8. Identify, assess and validate key research themes at site and national levels. Develop joint proposals for funding. Develop and disseminate briefs, case studies and reports. 9. Convene policy forums, technical workshops. Develop, translate and disseminate learning materials for specific target groups. Collaborate or align with relevant activities supported by other donors and financing agencies. h. Prepare and initiatve CSR roadmap. Develop the business case and engage with private sector and local governments on joint initiatives. Develop and implement CSR recognition system. 84 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

86 APPENDIX 2: Review of Frameworks for National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs) All countries in the South East Asian region have national level policies and legislation in place that have some direct and indirect relevance to environmental protection, conservation and management, which support their National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) processes. Among the primary challenges in addressing the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) are to a) integrate biodiversity conservation planning approaches in to the broader policy and legislative framework at national levels, and have the various provisions implemented down to the local level, and b) mainstream the NBSAP into the various sector-based strategic planning initiatives. Given the heterogeneity in political systems in the region, these challenges need to be addressed in different contexts. For example, DPRK, China and Vietnam are more likely to implement integrated coastal management (ICM) within a centralized framework, where federal authorities drive the key policy and planning processes. This is similar to Malaysia, although, State governments have autonomy in certain sectors, including some related to natural resource management. Indonesia and the Philippines have devolved responsibility for natural resources management, in varying degrees, to local governments. However, fiscal decentralization has not taken place systematically. Some countries are also implementing various forms of co-management in the context of biodiversity conservation, which feature joint responsibility for biodiversity conservation between local and national governments. Review and analysis of the overall policy and legislative context for development and implementation of biodiversity conservation, identify the following sets of concerns (see Appendix 1 for specific policies): a. No effective mechanisms (or limited ability to use existing mechanisms) to address trans-boundary issues b. Primary implementing agency or agencies not clearly defined, and in some cases, there are overlapping jurisdictions c. Effective coordination between national line agencies (horizontal) is weak, and further weakened by ineffective coordination and communications between national, regional and local counterparts of the same agency d. Policies between and among various sectors are not streamlined or harmonized and give rise to resource use conflicts e. Human resource and institutional capacity to implement policies and programmes is limited and uneven, and barriers to create change are difficult to remove f. Lack of sufficient funding reduces chances of implementing programmes and activities on a sustained basis ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 85

87 g. Leadership of biodiversity initiatives is often weak, distracted by other priorities or not empowered to make key decisions h. Limited scientific and technical capacity hinders application of certain provisions within various policies and legislation, and i. Local knowledge and understanding of the policy implications is insufficient to generate systematic support for, and participation in conservation initiatives. Within the framework of the CBD, National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) are among the main implementing mechanisms. In accordance with Article 6, countries are required to prepare a national biodiversity strategy (or equivalent) and to take steps to mainstream the planning and activities of all those sectors whose activities can have an impact (positive and negative) on biodiversity. The action plan is supposed to be a roadmap, or identify a sequential process by which biodiversity goals and targets can be met. Guidance is provided by the CBD on the preparation of the NBSAPs, for which there are three main principles. The first is that the action plans to conserve biodiversity and critical ecosystems are more likely to succeed if they are developed through cross-sectoral review, and the second, that the NBSAP should promote an appreciation and better understanding of the importance of biodiversity conservation at all levels, and finally, that the plans should be developed through consultative and multi-stakeholder processes. The CBD Secretariat has provided guidance (and capacity-building support, if necessary) on a progressive basis, for countries to develop NBSAPs. Guidance focuses on how to meet objectives of the Convention, alignment with Millennium Development Goals, conduct of assessments, components of the strategies and action plans, support processes, resource mobilization, monitoring and evaluation, among others ( There have been only a few reviews conducted on NBSAP implementation, including one by the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) in The most comprehensive assessment by the Institute of Advanced Studies, United Nations University (UNU), noted that despite considerable gains, by and large: a. NBSAPs have not sufficiently addressed the main drivers of biodiversity loss due to inability to achieve scale and integrate these into broader policies and programmes. NBSAPS need to be more comprehensive, strategic and feasible to implement. It has been noted that some increasing political attention to biodiversity loss has taken place, but not directly due to the NBSAP itself b. Ways need to be found to maintain the freshness of NBSAPs. Without regular updates and well timed communications and awareness initiatives, the process sometimes loses momentum c. NBSAP development processes need to move beyond the technical and need to influence policy processes beyond the remit of the national agency concerned for biodiversity, with stronger institutional coordination 86 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

88 d. Many NBSAPs are overambitious and prescriptive, and do not adequately explain how implementation of the plans will be financed. They have been geared towards an external funding audience more so than to appeal to local policy and decisionmakers. Some of the newer generation of NBSAPs do, however, show signs of self reliance e. Despite suggestions to adhere to more time-bound and measureable national targets, few new NBSAPs have done so f. While most countries have put coordination structures in place, their effectiveness has not been consistent and implementation limited. In many cases, coordinating mechanisms do not function well g. More recently, NBSAPs have been endorsed by the highest levels (e.g., Parliament, Congress), whereas they were previously endorsed at the Ministerial level. This is a good sign, as it provides an indication of commitment and ownership. Efforts should build on this h. Biodiversity loss continues because of major gaps in the knowledge base. Countries need to invest greater efforts to improve and expand the knowledge base i. Action plans need to achieve a better balance between conservation, sustainable use and measures to access genetic resources and equitable sharing of benefits. Currently, conservation receives the lion s share of attention, as does the forestry sectors (at the expense of coastal and marine) j. Countries can do a better job of ensuring that NBSAPs are more explicitly linked to national development policies. In some cases the links are tenuous, with little by way of concrete proposals for action. While environmental mainstreaming has occurred in many nations (for example in water and sanitation), biodiversity has received limited attention. Even fewer plans integrate climate change and the link to biodiversity, especially in that which concerns actions and targets, in recognition of the role of diverse ecosystems in addressing mitigation and adaptation. National action plans related to the UNFCCC integrate biodiversity considerations, but not vice-versa. Both action plans are strongly correlated k. To the extent possible, sub-national authorities should be empowered to develop and implement relevant portions of a NBSAP. This more likely occurs in large countries that have a degree of decentralization in governance. Appropriate institutional arrangements and capacity should facilitate this l. There needs to be a better synergy between the various thematic programmes of work encouraged by the CBD and the NBSAPs. By doing this, countries can take more ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 87

89 concrete steps towards plan implementation. National reports should be a logical extension of this, as a way of reporting progress towards outcomes m. NPSAPs should be more focussed on addressing the root causes of biodiversity loss and reduction of threats as an ongoing, cyclical and participatory process. In this sense measureable targets and progress towards meeting obligations under the Convention need to be seriously considered. National and regional level support and planning cycles can help to address this (Prip et al, 2010) n. There also needs to be more synergies and synchronization between implementation of the CBD and other related conventions, including the RAMSAR Convention, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), World Heritage Convention, International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), Convention on Migratory Species, UNFCCC, and various other regional conventions. Programmes of Work for Protected Areas (POWPAs) More specific to the above, in particular point l, the CBD Conference of the Parties (COP) has created seven thematic programmes of work, which represent the seven major biomes, including marine and coastal biodiversity. Each programme provides a vision and guidelines for work, addressing the main issues, identifying potential outputs, with timetable and ways to achieve goals. Linked to these main themes are a number of cross-cutting issues which are relevant to the thematic areas, and which, when incorporated into a programme of work, will help countries apply a range of specific tools and mechanisms to achieve specific biodiversity targets. The Programme of Work for Protected Areas (PoWPA) is of relevance here. Protected areas are:...the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation; they maintain key habitats, provide refugia, allow for species migration and movement, and ensure the maintenance of natural processes across the landscape. Not only do protected areas secure biodiversity conservation, they also secure the well-being of humanity itself ( The PoWPA incorporates participatory, ecologically representative and effectively managed national and regional systems of protected areas, of a transboundary nature, where possible and needed. The PoWPA can be considered as a roadmap for protected areas for the coming decades, and provides a guideline for cooperation between governments, donors, NGOs and local communities, in order to designate and manage programmes over the long-term. On a global scale nearly 6,000 new protected areas were established since 2004, covering over 60 million hectares, of which 13% is terrestrial and 6% territorial marine. Many of these are part of wider, national and regional networks of protected areas and biodiversity corridors. Primary government authorities responsible for submission of Programmes of Work on Protected Areas (POWPA) are presented below: Country Brunei National focal points for protected area management Forestry Department, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources 88 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

90 Darussalam Cambodia China DPRK Indonesia Japan Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Republic of Korea Singapore Department of International Convention and Biodiversity, General Department of Administration for Nature Conservation and Protection, Ministry of Environment Division of Protected Area Management, Department of Nature and Ecology Conservation (not designated) Directorate General of Forest Conservation and Nature Protection, Ministry of Forestry Natural Park Division, Nature Conservation Bureau, Ministry of Environment National Protected Area Management Division, Department of Forestry Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Nature and Wildlife Forest Division, Department of Forests Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources Nature Policy Division, Nature Conservation Bureau, Ministry of Environment National Biodiversity Centre, National Parks Board Biological Diversity Division, Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Thailand Planning Timor Leste National Directorate for Protected Areas, Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries Vietnam Biodiversity Conservation Agency, Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Source: Presented below is summary information on the key national policies and legislation as they relate to the designation of marine protected areas (MPAs). Country National policies and legislation specific to MPA designation Brunei 1934 Forest Act (amended 1939, 1949, 1959, 1967, 2000, 2002) Darussalam 1972 Fisheries Enactment 1978 Wildlife Protection Act establishment of wildlife sanctuaries Cambodia Preah Reach Kret on Creation of Protected Natural Areas (1993) China China Ocean Agenda 21 Fishery Law (1995) Forest Law (1992) DPRK Law on Marine Product (1995) Law on Water Resources (1997) Law on Protection Against Marine Pollution (1997) Presidential instruction No 16/2005 supporting the development of marine tourism and Indonesia enhancing management and control of National Marine Park sustainability Conservation of Living Natural Resources and their Ecosystem Act (1990) Japan Natural Parks Law (1930) Lao PDR Decree on Establishment of Natural Biodiversity Conservation Areas, 1993 Local Government Act Parts VII and XII give local authorities the powers to establish and manage parks (1976 (Act 171)) Protected Areas & Protected Places Act (1959 (Act No. 298, revised 1983)) Malaysia National Parks Act Establishment and management of national parks in Malaysia (except Sarawak, Sabah and Taman Negara) including any marine area but this requires permission from the relevant state and so has not been used. (1980 (Act 226 amended in 1983)) Myanmar Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994) RA 7586 National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS) Act (1992) Philippines RA 9147, Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (2001) Republic of Law on Conservation and Management of Marine Ecosystem (2006) Korea ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 89

91 Singapore Parks and Trees Act (1975) Thailand National Parks Act (1990) Timor Leste Act 22 on Establishing the National Parks Board (1996) Vietnam Marine Protected Areas Action Plan Plan of Marine Protected area in Viet Nam to 2015 and orientation to 2020 (according to Decision No 47/2006/QD-TTg on 01 March 2006) Management Strategy for a Protected Area System in Vietnam A review of PoWPA implementation confirmed that long-term, sustainable financing of management remains a serious challenge as funding levels those identified as necessary for implementation. Progress is most noticeably pronounced on issues where there are champions ; individuals or institutions that play a dedicated leading and coordinating role. Effectiveness also increases when many stakeholders, including governments, civil society, indigenous peoples, donors and the private sector, all work together in some fashion. Where citizen awareness of the values of protected areas is high, PoWPA implementation is often in an advanced state. The first phase of PoWPA ended in 2010 for land and will end in 2012 for marine a sector for which progress has not been on track. Most of the Phase 1 targets are unlikely to be met, although the there appears to be recognition of the need for PoWPA and commitment to continue implementing PoWPA over the longer term (IUCN / WCPA, 2009). In the same spirit of review, a more detailed gap analysis on protected area management was recently conducted by the ACB for its member countries. This analysis was specific to protected areas within marine key biodiversity areas (MKBAs), and examined representation, ecological and management gaps, among other things. It should be noted that the study was based on information submitted by the ASEAN Member States, some of which did not participate. The submissions were also diverse in terms of content since each country is at a different stage of development with respect to protected area management. Moreover, presentation of the information is in variable formats and not conducive to draw comparison or conclusions. The table below is supplemented with information drawn from the most recent PoWPA submissions (i.e., Myanmar). Country Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Malaysia Key gaps which need to be addressed No relevant information available Limited information on distribution, composition and health of coral reefs which exhibit continued use of destructive practices Further development on legal framework specifically Fisheries Law to include operational guidelines Need comprehensive list of species and clear identification of their status (e.g., threatened, endemic, rare etc) Legal and institutional framework characterized by overlapping roles Limited capacity to conduct assessments and manage PAs No systematic data or information management system for MKBAs Limited participation of community development and livelihood organizations Lack of a reserve system for fisheries and related law enforcement Mangrove forest ecosystems development and management is slow in progress and uneven across provinces Protection of coral reef systems slow in progress Of 12 marine ecoregions, 8 are not meeting targets for critical habitats Need to focus on wider range of species (versus mega-fauna) No specific reserves to protect seagrass areas 90 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

92 Country Key gaps which need to be addressed Need more specific data / information on marine mammals, whale sharks and sea turtles MPAs need to be larger in scale Protected area management requires more funding, guidelines, M&E and active participation of NGO community Federal and State jurisdictions need to be more clear, and policies need to be harmonized Law enforcement needs to be strengthened (capacity, powers and funding) Need to look at regional management approaches for migratory species Address trans-boundary issues Need to conduct species inventories and threats assessment Gazette new MPAs within KBAs Need to conduct baseline assessments for almost all areas related to MPA development and management (finance, capacity, policy, climate change, mainstreaming, valuation) Myanmar Capacity building to development site-based management plans Strengthen communications, monitoring and education Increase local community participation in biodiversity conservation Need to ensure more coverage of MPAs within MKBAs to address representation problem Targets for coral reefs and mangroves need to be addressed (falling short) Strengthen documentation for 50% of MPAs ( primarily legitimized management plans) Philippines Need to strengthen data and information management in Celebes Sea area, and consider increasing scale in Visayan Seas (area under management is small) A number of management gaps need to be addressed including governance, human resource capacity, financing and scaling up to biogeographic regions (or seascapes) Find ways to demonstrate impacts of management Singapore No relevant information available Need capacity building for MPA plan development Develop systematic baseline data for habitat an biodiversity monitoring Training for MPA managers and staff on community development and outreach Marine national parks need to be scaled up since they do not cover enough habitat for highly mobile marine vertebrates Need to ramp up work to meet mangrove restoration targets Thailand Need to build more capacity for law enforcement to deal with multiple uses and encroachment issues Need specific policies and legislation for MPAs, with widened areas for protection of endangered species Actions should emphasize monitoring and restoration programmes for critical / damaged habitats MPA boundary demarcation needs to be more pronounced MPA establishment needs to be prioritized at policy level Vietnam Need to affirm legal status of existing MPAs NBSAP is ambitious Source: ACB, 2010, and Myanmar PoWPA 2012 Some General Conclusions The NBSAP process should have closer linkage with an action planning process, and set targets with indicators and timelines. The process should be participatory, inclusive, transparent and results communicated widely. ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 91

93 Given the wide scope of the biodiversity agenda and the cross cutting sectors and themes, consideration should be given to integrating the NBSAP into a broader policy and strategic planning process related to the environment agenda. Biodiversity related policy and planning might be well served to take on a summitry type of approach. This means the high level inter-ministerial meetings need to be convened, with legislations endorsed by highest levels of government. In these for a, appropriate implementation mechanisms need to be defined and empowered. Regional level BSAPs will help to advance some policy related processes, and also sharing of knowledge and experiences. Sub-national BSAPs will help catalyze local level support and serve as a platform for participatory processes. In countries that have a moderate to high degree of decentralization of governance processes, local level policy formulation, adoption and implementation can be facilitated. Greater efforts to treat biodiversity as a natural resource asset, supported by valuation studies will help increase understanding of the contribution of biodiversity to long term economic growth. NBSAPs objectives and targets should be coordinated with other, related country commitments under such programmes as the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI), the PEMSEA SDS-SEA, the UNEP Regional Seas Programmes, and others. NBSAPs should be more realistic and achievable. In this connection they should be linked closely to the various protected area programmes of work. In the marine and coastal sector, the POWPA process would benefit significantly from a number of related actions. These include: a. Ensure that protected areas are within designated key biodiversity areas (KBAs) to address representativeness and address ecological gaps b. Governance approaches and all other management gaps need to be addressed systematically c. Thorough species identification and taxonomic studies need to be undertaken to ensure that all flora and fauna are accounted for (using scientific and local names). This will need to go beyond bird species, and be gathered, documented and encoded into a data base which uses a common system d. Reporting systems for MPA management should cover data sets for all three types of habitats seagrass, mangroves and coral reefs. Noting that Indonesia and Philippines account for most of the marine biodiversity in the region, efforts should be proportionate to ensure range and adequacy of protection, a i. e. Continuous programmes to support scientific and technical capacity should be supported, with results flowing into the monitoring, evaluation and reporting processes, so that policies and decisions will be taken on science-based evidence. 92 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM)

94 APPENDIX 3: Protected areas overlapping with key biodiversity areas in the ASEAN region The following maps show the KBAs in relation to existing protected area in the ASEAN member countries (source: ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, 2010) ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 93

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98 ACHIEVING THE AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS THROUGH INTEGRAETD COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) 97