DRAINAGE & DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM
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1 Drainage on Highways DRAINAGE & DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM P. R.D. Fernando Chartered Engineer B.Sc.(Hons), M.Eng. C.Eng., MIE(SL) Drainage Requirement of Highway Drainage System Introduction Drainage means the removal of excess water from given place. One of the major cause of deterioration of highway is water. The process of removing & controlling the excess surface and sub soil water within the ROW is known as Highway drainage. Thus, drainage is an integral part of the highway design and construction. The drainage system of highway should fulfil the following requirements; The surface water from CW & shoulder should be drained off effectively without penetrating in the pavement layers. The surface water from the adjoining lands should not be allowed to enter the roadway. The side drains should have sufficient capacity to discharge maximum surface water collected in the region. Control of under ground water and height of water table. 1
2 Inadequate Drainage Classification of Drainage Damage to highway structures Loss of capacity Visibility problems with spray and loss of reflectivity Safety problems, reduction friction and hydroplaning. Surface Drainage Removal of Surface water and diverted to a natural channel (Cross-fall, Highway Gutters, Inlets, channel etc;). Sub-surface Drainage (Sub Soil Drainage) Seeping or sub surface water is intercepted and remove to natural channel (Pipe, filter material, channel etc;). Cross Drainage Water of natural drainage under the highway is intercepted and disposed off (culverts, bridges etc;). Road Damaged due to water Surface Drainage Mainly rainwater provide surface drainage requirement. Surface drainage is consisted of road plus Inland flow. Road surface water is removed by providing cross slope to the highway surface. 2
3 Surface Drainage Surface Drainage of Rural Area Surface Drainage on Road Pavement Transverse slopes (cross falls) Remove water from pavement surface Facilitate by cross-section element (cross slope, shoulder slope) Longitudinal slope (gradient) Minimum gradient of VA to maintain (minimum 0.3%) Adequate slope in longitudinal channel Longitudinal channels Ditches along side of road to collect surface water after runoff (highway gutters, open channel, hume pipe). Common practice to allow the road surface water to flow across the CW and shoulder. Generally the side drains are unlined and trapezoidal shape. Surface Drainage Surface Drainage of Urban Area Transverse slope Longitudinal Channel Longitudinal slope Highway Gutter Gutters are channels at the edges of the pavement or the shoulder formed by a kerb or shallow depression. The longitudinal grade of the gutter must also be sufficient to facilitate rapid removal of the road surface water. The grade of the gutter is usually the same as that of the vertical alignment grade. Shape is triangle. 3
4 Surface Drainage of Urban Area Surface Drainage of Urban Area Types of Inlets Graded Inlets Kerb Opening Inlets Combination of Grade & Kerb Opening Graded Inlet Surface water is taken through underground or open longitudinal drains is known as storm drains (SD). Surface water enters the SD through grating inlet or kerb inlets or combination of both. Kerb Inlet Combined Inlet Surface Drainage of Urban Area Cross Drainage Inlets Inlets are generally provided at intersection/townships to intercept the water flowing in highway gutter. It is essential that enough inlets of sufficient size be provided to rapidly remove collected storm water such that not exceed the gutter capacity for the limited ponded widths. When the highway cross a rive or stream, cross drainage works have to be provided. Sometime water from side drains is diverted away from the road through cross drains. On Highways, usually culverts & Bridges are used as cross water way. 4
5 Subsurface Drain Sub-Surface Drainage - Open Drains The change in moisture content of soil reduces its bearing capacity to great extent. Change in moisture content of SG are caused by the fluctuation of ground water table, seepage flow, percolation of rain water, capillary water etc; Thus, the aim of the sub drainage of highway is to prevent changes in the moisture content of the sub grade. Ditches (open drain) have lower initial cost than buried drains. ease of inspection. Ditches, however, reduce the land available for cropping and require more maintenance that drains due to weed growth and erosion. Sub-surface Drainage Systems Sub-Surface Drainage - Buried Drains Sub-surface drainage (sub drainage) is the control of groundwater below the soil surface. It aims at increasing the rate at which water will drain from the soil, and so lowering the water table. Sub drains are necessary part of the complete drainage system for many highways in rural areas, and they function along with adequate surface drainage system. Buried drains refer to any type of buried conduits having open joints or perforations, which collect and convey drainage water. They can be fabricated from clay, concrete, corrugated plastic tubes or any other suitable material. The drains can be arranged in a parallel to the CL or random fashion. Sub-surface drainage can be done by open drain or buried drains. 5
6 Sub-Surface Drainage - Buried Drains Sub-surface Drainage Systems Symmetrical Longitudinal Drains Used to Lower Water Table Sub-Surface Drainage - Buried Drains A Trench is excavated, the pipe is laid at a suitable depth in the trench, permeable fill (granular material) is added, and then the trench is filled. Perforated PVC pipe is Commonly used as pipe. The slope of the pipe should be sufficient to prevent the depositions of any solid material which may enter the pipe through the joint or perforation. Minimum recommended slope is percent. Hydraulic design of sub drains is difficult. Design of Road Drainage 6
7 Surface Drainage System Design Rational Method Three phases 1. Estimate of the quantity of water to reach the system 2. Hydraulic design of system elements 3. Comparison of different materials that serve same purpose General Use Rational method generally used for small drainage basins Do not use the rational method for drainage areas larger than 300 acres Rational method not applicable if there is significant ponding (ponds, wetlands) within the drainage area Estimation of Peak Run-off Rational Method Different Methods for Estimation of peak Run-off several methods have been developed to estimate peak runoff. Rational Method was adopted. Q = FICA Q = Maximum discharge in m 3 /s I = Average rainfall intensity in mm/hr C = Run-off co-efficient (ratio of surface runoff to rainfall) A = Area of catchments F = Factor of proportionality, which depends on the units F= 0.278, when A is in km 2 & I is in mm /hr F= , when A is in hectares & I is in mm/hr Assumptions Rainfall intensity is uniform over the drainage basin during the duration equal to or the time of concentration. The impermeability of the catchments area remains constant. The peak flow is assumed to occur when the entire watershed is contributing runoff. The peak flow recurrence interval is assumed to be equal to the rainfall intensity recurrence interval. In other words, the 10-year rainfall intensity is assumed to produce the 10-year flood. 7
8 Using the Rational Method (Q = FICA) Estimate intensity using the IDF curve (I). Determine the runoff coefficient (C). Obtain area of catchment by surveying or from maps or aerial photographs (A). Recurrence Interval (Design Event) 2-year interval Design of intakes and the spread of water on the pavement for secondary roads. 10-year interval Design of intakes and spread of water on the pavement on primary network of national highways and for design of small storm water drains 25 year interval Design of major storm water lines and design of culverts and small bridges 100 year interval Major bridges Rainfall Intensity (I) Rainfall Intensity, Duration & Frequency Curve (IDF Curve) The rainfall intensity used in the rational method is based on a specific rainfall duration and recurrence interval. The recurrence used depends on the importance of the project. The rainfall intensity can be determined from an intensity-duration-recurrence interval chart (IDF). 8
9 Rainfall Intensity, Duration & Frequency Curve (IDF Curve) Runoff Coefficient (C) The runoff coefficient (C) is defined as the ratio of the peak runoff rate to the rainfall intensity. The runoff coefficient mathematically indicates whether the runoff is likely to be high or low for the flow surface. The value of C depends on the type and characteristics of the surface. Values for C are usually determined from tables or charts. Duration (Minutes) Basic Steps to Estimate Peak Flow (Rational Method) Runoff Coefficient 1. Estimate time of concentration Overland (sheet) flow Shallow concentrated flow Open channel flow 2. Choose a value of C 3. Select a frequency (return period) 4. Determine the average storm intensity from IDF Curve 5. Use rational method equation to estimate peak flow 9
10 Runoff Coefficient, C Time of Concentration, Tc When a drainage area has distinct parts with different coefficients (C values). Use weighted average C1A1 C2 A2... Cn A C A A... A 1 2 n n Time required for runoff to travel from the hydraulically most distant point on a watershed to another point of interest within the watershed. Factors affecting Tc Surface roughness Channel shape and flow patterns (length of most distance point) Slope Urbanization generally increases the runoff velocities and therefore decreases the time of concentration Runoff Coefficient, C Time of Concentration Example Drainage area = 8 acres: 2 acres; C=0.35 (residential suburban) 6 acres; C=0.2 (undeveloped-unimproved) Time of Concentration 1. Estimate time of concentration Overland (sheet) flow +Shallow concentrated flow + Open channel flow T c T o T ch T P T c T o T ch T p = Time of concentration = Overland flow time = Flow time in kerb and channel = Pipe flow time 10
11 Time of Concentration (t c ) Time of Concentration (t c ) Depends on: Size and shape of drainage area Type of surface Slope of drainage area Rainfall intensity Whether flow is entirely overland or whether some is channelized Assumptions The rainfall intensity is assumed to be uniform over a time duration equal to or greater than the time of concentration, T c. A minimum time of concentration of 10 minutes is used in urban situations irrespective of how small the calculated value is. Time of Concentration, tc Time of Concentration (t c ) The time for the runoff to become established and flow from the most remote part of the drainage area to drainage outlet. Depends on: Size and shape of drainage area (Length) Type of surface Slope of drainage area Rainfall intensity Whether flow is entirely overland or whether some is channelized 11
12 Time of Concentration (Time Of Concentration For Areas With Sheet Flow) Example Drainage from the land is shown in figure as below and peak flow is needed for 10 year design storm using the Rational method. Take time of concentration is 10 minutes. Time of Travel Over Surface (Minutes) Length of overland Flow (m) A = 5000 m 2 C = 0.95 A = 1200 m 2 C = 0.85 A = 4200 m 2 C = 0.2 A = 600 m 2 C = 0.75 Area Example Area of watershed (flow surface) Defined by topography Use Arcview contours in lab Area of 70m 2 of Asphalt concrete surface produce storm water for a kerb inlet which is located on road edge. Determine the peak run-off at inlet assuming time of concentration is 10 minutes. 12
13 Flow in Rectangular Drains Uniform Flow in Open Channels The water collected through inlets and overland flow is conveyed to the drain, then to the culver, bridge and/or bare land according to the site conditions. Usually rectangular drains are used because, it is easy to design, construct and maintain relative to the other types. Water depth, flow area, discharge and velocity distribution at all sections throughout the entire channel reach remains unchanged. The energy grade line, water surface line, and the channel bottom lines are all parallel to each other No acceleration (or deceleration) Design of Rectangular Drains Flow in Rectangular Drains Design is usually base on an assumption of uniform flow because the error involved is relatively slight in most cases. Basically, the design of a highway drainage channel is done in two parts. selection of a channel section (given discharge on the available slope. determination of the protection required (if any) to prevent erosion of the drainage channel. Manning s formula is used to calculate the velocity at the design discharge and is compared with the permissible minimum and maximum velocities for a given type of channel. Capacity of rectangular drain can be calculated from the Manning s formula and continuity equation. Manning s Formula R S V n A* R S Q n 1 2 Continuity Equation Q = AV 13
14 Manning s Equation Example Q - flow rate (m 3 /s) n - Manning s coefficient (dimensionless) A Flow area (m 2 ) R is hydraulic radius (m) R = Wetted area / wetted perimeter S is slope (decimal format) Find the velocity of a rectangular channel 2m wide having 5% grade, flowing 0.75m deep. The Channel has a stone and weed bank (n=.035). Then find the flow Design of Rectangular Drains Example-Find time Design Criteria for the design of rectangular channels. 10 years storm recurrence interval is selected. Minimum possible velocity is taken as 0.70 m/s to prevent siltation. Maximum possible velocity is taken as 6.0 m/s to prevent erosion or scouring. If velocity = 3.6 m/s and length of channel is 500m then time traveled in channel =l/v =500/3.6 =138.9 s or 2.31 minutes. 14
15 Flow in Highway Gutter Example The drainage system at urban area is designed in such a way, that the run-off over the carriageway and foot walk flowed to the gutter and then through the kerb inlets to the drain while overland flow entered directly to drain. Grade 0.39% of Asphalt concrete road section has gutter flow of 0.003m 3 /s. Let Manning coeificient for bituminous surface is The gutter was formed by the surface of the carriageway and the kerb face. Flow in Triangular Gutter Flow in Highway Gutter Developing Equation for Gutter flow Manning s Formula R S V n 2 Continuity Equation Q = AV Q = (0.315 /n) * y 8/3 * z * S ½ 15
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