Chapter 1. Mechanical Equipment and Systems Design. 1.1 Introduction to Mechanical Equipment
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1 Chapter 1 Mechanical Equipment and Systems Design 1.1 Introduction to Mechanical Equipment This course deals with the fundamentals of mechanical equipment. Mechanical equipment is considered to be any major component in a mechanical system such as a power plant, refrigeration sytem, HVAC system, refinery, marine system, etc. The primary focus of this course is on piping systems, turbomachinery, heat exchangers, and miscellaneous equipment such as boilers, pressure vessels, and storage tanks. These notes are meant to supplement the lectures which will focus more on individual applications and problems. Since there is no adequate text for the present course, these notes and additional material which will be passed out in class will try to fill the void. 1.2 Overview of Codes and Standards for Mechanical Equipment This section discusses some of the most common and widely used enginering codes related to the design of mechanical equipment. This course deals with the fundamentals of mechanical equipment design. In most cases, equipment is designed according to the standards set out in these codes. However, we will focus primarily on the fundamentals themselves rather than the individual codes. For further information the student should refer to the actual code of interest American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) publishes numerous codes and handbooks dealing with the design of heat- 1
2 2 Mechanical Equipment and Systems ing, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Virtually all HVAC systems are designed in accordance with ASHRAE guidelines. More information on ASHRAE codes and standards can be found at During this course we will make frequent reference to the ASHRAE Handbooks on Fundamentals and Equipment American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) publishes numerous codes and standards dealing with boiler, pressure vessel, and piping system design. Other international codes dealing with boiler and pressure vessel design are similar to and in some cases modelled after the ASME code. Thus, in most cases, boilers and pressure vessels designed in accordance with the ASME code generally satisfy the requirements of other codes. More information on the ASME boiler and pressure vessel codes may be obtained from American Petroleum Institute (API) The American Petroleum Institute (API) publishes numerous codes and standards dealing with equipment and systems pertaining to the petroleum industry. Most liquid storage tanks are designed in accordance with the API standard. In addition to the design of storage tanks, the API codes also address issues related to oil and gas pipelines. More information may be found at Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer s Association (TEMA) The Tubular Exchangers and Manufacturer s Association (TEMA) has developed standards for the design of shell and tube heat exchangers. These heat exchangers are the most widely used form of heat exchangers, appearing in power plant condensers and boilers, refrigeration condensers, and chemical and petroleum processing. TEMA has designated a number of standard designs and developed computer codes for analyzing TEMA type exchangers. More information on the TEMA codes can be obtained from Use of Codes in Design In most cases the engineer designing mechanical equipment and systems must work with the appropriate code. The use of these codes are usually specified as a design requirement. In most cases such equipment must meet standard code requirements according to the local regulations of the region where the equipment will be operated and maintained. It is important that the engineer understand the limitations of these codes. On occasion, it may be required to design equipment which falls outside of
3 Introduction 3 the criteria set forth in the appropriate code. In these circumstances the engineer must be able to apply the code as best possible while making appropriate engineering decisions related to the safe operation and maintenance of the equipment. 1.4 Thermal Systems in Mechanical Engineering This course deals with the design and optimization of mechanical systems. In particular we will focus more so on thermal-fluid systems which constitute a vast majority of mechanical systems. Although the focus of this course will primarily be on thermal-fluid systems, the concepts are equally applicable to all mechanical systems. In the previous course ENGR 7903 Mechanical Equipment, we focused on the performance characteristics of mechanical equipment which represent components in a thermal-fluid system. In this course we re-examine these components but introduce the additional aspects of design and optimization. Thermal systems can generally be described as any system which involves or requires some aspect of thermal-fluid sciences field, i.e. Thermodynamics, Fluid Dynamics, and Heat Transfer. Some examples which will be considered in this course are (Jaluria, 1998): Manufacturing and Materials Processing Systems Energy Systems Electronics Cooling Systems Environmental and Safety Systems Aerospace Systems Transportation Systems HVAC Systems Piping Systems Thermal Equipment 1.5 Workable and Optimal Systems An important aspect of any mechanical system design is whether a workable or optimal solution to a problem has been obtained. A workable system is a solution to a given problem which performs the desired task within some set of prescribed criteria. For a given problem, many workable solutions may be obtained. An optimal solution is one in which the desired task is performed within some set of prescribed criteria, but for which a particular variable of interest such as cost or energy input are minimized, or in other cases where profit and energy output are maximized. The variable of interest in
4 4 Mechanical Equipment and Systems an optimal solution is usually termed the objective function. In a number of problems, we may find that some solutions are nearly optimal. This implies that there is some give in the value of the optimization variable, which provides for an optimal solution under which some of the conditions may be relaxed without imparting a huge penalty on the objective function. Fig Workable versus Optimal Solutions (Bejan, 1996). 1.6 Methodologies in Thermal System Design Various design methodologies may be found in the numerous texts on engineering design and thermal system design. In the notes provided we examine four possible flow charts obtained from (Bejan et al. (1996), Burmeister (1997), Jaluria (1998), and Stoecker (1989)). None of these processes is more or less correct. Each merely represents a possible and reasonable process for the engineer to follow. In particular, this course addresses the middle third in any of these charts. That is, the blocks dealing with the engineering analysis and optimization of a chosen design. 1.7 System Identification and Analysis A mechanical or thermal-fluid system may be comprised of a number of sub-systems, components, and processes. We will now define each according to the definitions of Jaluria (1998): System: consists of multiple units or items which interact with each other to perform the desired task. The term system can be used to represent a single piece of
5 Introduction 5 Fig Design Flow Chart A, (Bejan, 1996).
6 6 Mechanical Equipment and Systems Fig Design Flow Chart B, (Burmeister, 1997).
7 Introduction 7 Fig Design Flow Chart C, (Jaluria, 1998).
8 8 Mechanical Equipment and Systems equipment or several pieces of equipment which interact with each other. Sub-System: are complete parts for which a system may be sub-divided. Consider the case of a thermal power plant. A subsystem may be the entire piping layout, the pumping unit, the heat exchanger, boiler, or the turbines. Each one of these subsystems also represents a system itself, depending upon the level of analysis being undertaken. Component: are independent units in which the interaction between its constituents is either absent or unimportant. For example, in the case of a power plant a pump may be considered a component when we view the plant as a whole entity. On the other hand, when we consider the pump or turbine in more detail, the components are the individual parts which make up the pump or turbine. Process: refers to the technique or methodology used in achieving the the desired goal. Once again referring to the thermal power plant example, the process would represent the method of power generation, such as coal fired or gas fired, or the thermodynamic process used, i.e. Rankine cycle or Brayton cycle. It is important to be able to distinguish each of these concepts. You will have to understand how to analyze a system as a whole, or the various components and/or sub-systems which make up the design. Once we have isolated the region of interest, we may then develop a mathematical model which characterizes the system or component. As we shall see in the next section, this may be done on many levels. Example 1.1 Let us examine the simplest thermal power generation cycle examined in thermodynamics. The basic thermal power plant consists of five components: a pump, a boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and the piping connecting all of these components. Fig Thermal Power Cycle, (Sonntag and Van Wylen, 1991).
9 Introduction 9 If we desire to obtain the optimal power plant, we may want to maximize the thermal efficiency such that: η T = Ẇt Ẇp η CAR = 1 Q L (1.1) Q H Q H or in terms of the state point enthalpies, we may write η T = (h 3 h 4 ) (h 2 h 1 ) (h 3 h 2 ) (1.2) where the enthalpy is a function of temperature and pressure, h(t, P ). We conclude that in order to maximize the thermal efficiency and bring it as close as possible to the Carnot efficiency we may: max(ẇt) min(ẇp) min( Q H ) or min( Q L ) Since the greatest gains will be obtained in the turbine, boiler, and condenser, we may choose to seek a better design for the turbine in terms of the energy conversion rate, or choose to minimize the energy input by means of a more efficient boiler or by taking advantage of heat recovery methods to minimize the Q L term. We may also make some gains in minimizing the pumping power, by optimizing the piping layout and minimizing the piping losses. Later in the course we will examine thermodynamic methods for minimizing irreversibilities. In this approach, we seek to maximize the second law efficiency, defined in terms of entropy concepts. Example 1.2 For the second example, we will examine a closed loop liquid cooled electronics system. The system consists of the following components: a pump, a liquid cooled heat sink, an air cooled heat exchanger, a storage vessel for the coolant, and piping for circulating the coolant. In order to undertake a system analysis we need the characteristic of each component. Individually, we could analyze or obtain the following information for each component: Pump p p (ṁ l ) Heat Sink R t (ṁ l ), p s (ṁ l ) H/X Q(IT D, ṁ a, ṁ l ), p a (ṁ a ), p l (ṁ l ) Piping p t (ṁ l ) Having all of the above characteristics, we may then undertake the system level analysis. This may achieved in two ways. First, we may develop a model for each
10 10 Mechanical Equipment and Systems sub-system using fundamental theory, which in many cases may be the most desirable approach. Second, we may use either manufacturer supplied data and or performance curves for some components, or develop our own performance curves using theoretical models. As we shall see later, it is often easier to model all of the individual components theoretically and then fit the performance curve to a simpler equation for the purposes of optimization and/or simulation. Fig Required Performance Curves.
11 Introduction 11 Example 1.3 Using simple methods determine the optimal location of the circuit board which generates a constant heat rate Q with mean board temperature T s, such that either the heat transfer rate is maximum for fixed temperature or temperature is minimum for fixed heat transfer rate. Solution We will make the following assumptions: laminar flow conditions, fully developed flow, i.e. very long passage length relative to channel spacing, insulated side walls, i.e. all heat generated passes to fluid, for simplicity, although any or all may be relaxed. First we define the heat transfer rate to the fluid for fully developed flow conditions: where and Q = Q 1 + Q 2 (1.3) Q 1 = ṁ 1 C p (T s T ) (1.4) Q 2 = ṁ 2 C p (T s T ) (1.5) Here we have assumed that since the passage spacing is small relative to the passage length, the exit fluid temperature approaches that of the board. The mass flow rate in each channel may be written as: ṁ i = ρu i (b i W ) (1.6) for i = 1 and i = 2. The mean flow velocity which occurs in each channel can be obtained for laminar flow from the friction factor: f = 24 Re Dh = D h p 4 L 1 2 ρu2 (1.7) where D h = 2b i, is the hydraulic diameter for each channel. Therefore, we may write: ṁ i = ρw b3 i p 12µL Combining the above equations, we obtain: (1.8)
12 12 Mechanical Equipment and Systems Q = ρw b3 1 pc p 12µL (T s T ) + ρw b3 2 pc p (T s T ) (1.9) 12µL Finally introducing a single co-ordinate variable y and the total passage spacing b, gives b 1 = yb and b 2 = (1 y)b and the following expression for Q: Q (T s T ) = ρw b3 pc p [y 3 + (1 y) 3 ] (1.10) 12µL Examination of the above equation shows that for either case optimal conditions are achieved when y = 0 or y = 1, i.e. the board against the wall and not for y = 1/2, i.e. the board in the middle. What can we learn from this simple analysis? obvious conclusions may often be wrong, i.e. board in the middle, the worst scenario is with the simple analysis can provide useful results, more sophisticated analysis will yield the same results for optimal location, system analysis is essential in a good design process For more information, see Thermal Design and Optimization, by Bejan et al. (1996).
13 Introduction 13 References American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), ASHRAE Handbook. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes. American Petroleum Institute (API), API Design of Storage Tanks. Bejan, A., G. Tsatsaronis, and Moran, M., Thermal Design and Optimization, 1996, Wiley, New York, NY. Boehm, R., Design Analysis of Thermal Systems, Wiley, Burmeister, L.C., Elements of Thermal Fluid System Design, 1997, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Hodge, B.K. and Taylor, R.P., Analysis and Design of Energy Systems, Prentice- Hall, 1999, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Jaluria, Y., Design and Optimization of Thermal Systems, 1998, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Janna, W., Design of Fluid Thermal Systems, PWS Publishing, 1998, Boston, MA. Stoecker, W.F., Design of Thermal Systems, 1989, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Suryanarayana, N.V. and Arici, O., Design and Simulation of Thermal Systems, McGraw-Hill, Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA), Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.
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