Assessing the 02 external impacts of freight transport

Transcription

1 1 Assessing the 02 external impacts of freight transport Chapter summary This chapter examines various externalities associated with logistics, and discusses how their impact can be assessed. It starts with a review of atmospheric emissions generated by freight transport, and their (i) global, (ii) regional and (iii) local effects. Other externalities such as noise, vibrations, congestion, accidents, impact on land use and biodiversity, waste and visual intrusion are then discussed. The second part of the chapter presents a number of environmental standards relevant to freight transport and logistics. This is divided into two sections (i) mandatory standards, and (ii) voluntary/management standards that more environmentally responsible companies introduce and meet voluntarily. The last part of the chapter is dedicated to the ways of measuring the environmental impact of freight transport at macro- and micro-levels.

2 2 Assessing the External Impacts of Freight Transport A lecture based on this chapter could focus on the following topics: Difference between first-order and second-order external impacts Review of external impacts: Atmospheric pollution and its global, regional, and local effects Noise pollution Vibration Congestion Accidents Land use and biodiversity Waste Visual intrusion Presentation of environmental standards Mandatory standards: EURO emission standards, EU Sulphur Directive Voluntary/management standards: Environmental Management Standards (EMS) including Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), ISO and 14001, and BS8555 Environmental Management System Discussion of how the environmental impact of freight transport can be measured at macro- and micro-levels

3 Assessing the External Impacts of Freight Transport 3 Table 2.1 Standard road transport fuel conversion factors: Direct GHG emissions Fuel type Total units used Units Kg CO 2 e per unit Total Petrol* litre Diesel* litre CNG kg LPG litre * retail station biofuel blend Source: Defra (2013) Table 2.2 Geographical extent of pollutant effects Effect PM HM NH 3 SO 2 NOx NMVOC CO CH 4 CO 2 N 2 O Global Greenhouse indirect Greenhouse direct X X X X X X X Regional Acidification X X X Photochemical X X X Local Health and air quality X X X X X X X PM particulates, HM heavy metals, NH 3 ammonia, SO 2 sulphur dioxide, NOx oxides of nitrogen, NMVOC non-metallic volatile organic compounds, CO carbon monoxide, CH 4 methane, CO 2 carbon dioxide, N 2 O nitrous oxide Source: Adapted from Hickman et al (1999)

4 4 Assessing the External Impacts of Freight Transport Table 2.3 The global warming potential (GWP) of the greenhouse gases listed in the Kyoto Protocol Greenhouse gas Global Warming Potential (GWP) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 1 Methane (CH 4 ) 21 Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) 310 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) ,700 Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) 6,500 9,200 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) 23,900 Source: Defra (2013) Table 2.4 Vehicle involvement rates by accident severity in the UK, 2009 (rate per billion vehicle miles) Severity HGVs Cars Killed Killed or seriously injured No of accidents Source: Department for Transport (2010)

5 Assessing the External Impacts of Freight Transport 5 Table 2.5 Emission standards for heavy-duty diesel engines (g/kwh) Tier Date of implementation CO HC NOx PM Euro I 1992 (>85kw) Euro II Euro III Euro IV Euro V Euro VI Source: Table 2.6 Average emission factors for freight transport modes within Europe EC (kj/tkm) CO 2 (g/tkm) NOx SO 2 NMHC Pmdir Aircraft 9, , Truck >34 40-t Euro 1 1, Euro 2 1, Euro 3 1, Euro 4 1, Euro Train Diesel Electric EC energy consumption Source: IFEU, 2008 NMHC non-methane hydrocarbons

6 6 Assessing the External Impacts of Freight Transport F i g u r e 2.1 Electricity production by energy source USA UK Switzerland Sweden Poland Norway Italy Germany France Finland Denmark Canada Belgium Austria 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Nuclear Fossil Renewable (geothermal, wind, biomass, solar, hydro and marine) Source: Observ ER (2011) Figure 2.2 Vehicle speed and CO 2 emissions: Articulated vehicle over 40 tonnes gross vehicle weight CO 2 g/km Speed (km/hr) Source: Test-cycle data supplied by Department for Transport