Infrastructure considerations for large hydrogen refueling stations

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1 Infrastructure considerations for large hydrogen refueling stations R. Smit, M. Weeda 1 Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, P.O. Box 1, 1755 ZG Petten Weeda@ecn.nl ABSTRACT: In this study we describe the consequences for a refueling station when hydrogen replaces car fuels such as gasoline and diesel as a transportation fuel. We use a typical large currently existing refueling station which sells approximately 10 million liters of gasoline, diesel and LPG annually, as a point of reference for this study. The main research question for this study is: "what are the consequences for the refueling station if the amount of energy contained in the 10 million liter of fuel is to be supplied by hydrogen?" In order to give quantitative answers to this question, we studied 4 possible concepts for a future large-scale hydrogen refueling station: on-site hydrogen production by electrolysis, on-site hydrogen production with steam methane reforming, hydrogen supply with a pipeline and hydrogen supply with trucks. The amount of hydrogen required at the refueling station is equal for all concepts: 2.4 million kg or 0.29 PJ (LHV) of hydrogen per year. Our selected system boundary is the refueling station itself and we studied the most important energy- and mass flows that pass this boundary. Their magnitudes are compared with identifiable numbers and figures such as the electricity use of a typical Dutch household. Additionally, we give indications for sizes of hydrogen production facilities and discuss the difficulties that are faced if hydrogen storage is required on-site the refueling station. KEYWORDS: hydrogen refueling station, onsite hydrogen production, hydrogen demand patterns. INTRODUCTION In this study we describe the consequences for hydrogen refueling stations when hydrogen replaces car fuels such as gasoline and diesel. The energy throughput at refueling stations has a large share in the total energy use in the Netherlands - approximately 13 billion liters of fuel is sold annually at Dutch refueling stations [1]. The energy content of this fuel is more than 400 PJ per year. To put this number into perspective, it is considerably higher than total Dutch annual natural gas use (320 PJ) for space heating, warm water supply and cooking in approximately 6 million [2]. The energy throughput also exceeds the total Dutch electricity use which is approximately 350 PJ per year [2]. Not only the yearly numbers are large, also the energy associated with refueling a car is a large. Not many people realize that a local refueling station can supply an energy flow of nearly 17 MW, only by putting gasoline in a car. We live everyday with the luxury of energy-dense liquid fossil fuels. The reason that we conducted this exploratory study and looked in the distant future is because often developments and progress happens gradually - most of the time we do not look further than the first next step. Therefore the image of a future large-scale refueling station deserves closer attention in order to prevent that choices made for production, storage and distribution in the long term turn out to be far from optimal and that a transition leads to nothing or is a dead end street. Currently, various initiatives are undertaken in for building small hydrogen refueling stations for small fleets or single hydrogen fuelled vehicles. Many options are still open for this small amount of cars or niche markets where hydrogen is used in a small scale. Nevertheless, many of the potential barriers for hydrogen refueling stations only show up when a refueling is larger and the energy demand at a station is more in line with today s large stations. It is important to say that with the results presented in this study, we do not try to pass judgment on the use of 1 Corresponding author Tel.: Fax: address: weeda@ecn.nl 1/8

2 hydrogen as an energy carrier. What we do try to present are some results that can be used to think over the consequences that the large-scale use of hydrogen at refueling stations could have. OBJECTIVE In this study it is discussed what the consequences could be when a hydrogen refueling station has its full scale and can serve an equal amount of cars compared today s large refueling stations. We quantify the consequences of large hydrogen refueling stations by the computation of the energy- and mass flows and compare these results with identifiable numbers and figures such as the electricity use of a typical Dutch household. This all adds to the creation of a future image of the infrastructural requirements and the amount energy carriers needed at a large hydrogen refueling station. Additionally to the amounts of energy needed at the station, we give indications for sizes of necessary installations on site the station and we give possible consequences for safety. We use a today s large refueling station as a point of reference for this study. At such a station, approximately 10 million liters of gasoline, diesel and LPG are sold annually and in order to supply the total demand for transportation fuels in the Netherlands, we would need about 1,200 of these stations. The main research question in this study is: "what are the consequences for the refueling station if the amount of energy contained in the 10 million liter of fuel is to be supplied by hydrogen?" It can be argued that in case of hydrogen less energy would be required because fuel cell vehicles have a higher tank-to-wheel efficiency than internal combustion engines fuelled by gasoline. On the other hand, the total amount of cars rises every year; the weight of a car increases and distance that is driven per car also rises. For reasons of simplicity we assumed that these effects even out each other and that we can base the image of a future hydrogen refueling station on roughly the same energy demands at a current refueling station. REFUELING STATION CONCEPTS We used 4 concepts for a future large-scale hydrogen refueling station: On-site hydrogen production with steam methane reforming On-site hydrogen production with electrolysis Hydrogen supply with a pipeline Hydrogen supply with trucks Table 1 gives a summary of the point of reference for all 4 concepts. To make all results comparable with each other, we used a storage pressure of 350 bar on-site the station and 700 bar for on-board storage. To give the vehicle a range that is comparable with today s standards, we assumed that a vehicle caries 5 kg of hydrogen on-board. The refueling time of three minutes is equal to a typical refueling time at a Dutch refueling station. Table 1 Starting points for all refueling station concepts. Characteristic Magnitude Refueling station size 10 million liter fuel per year 2.4 million kg H 2 per year H 2 storage pressure at the station 350 bar H 2 storage pressure in the vehicle 700 bar H 2 stored in vehicle 5 kg Refueling time 180 seconds The amount of hydrogen required at the refueling station is equal for all concepts: 2.4 million kg, 27 million Nm 3 or 0.29 PJ (LHV) per year. The image of the refueling station is visualized by computation of the energy and mass flow (for example natural gas and water) that are required and are produced at the refueling station. The results for the on-site hydrogen production options are given in table 2 and the concepts that use external hydrogen supply are given in table 3. Table 2 Results for two on site concepts: natural gas reforming and electrolysis On-site natural gas reforming On-site natural gas reforming On-site electrolysis Installation power (8 bar natural gas supply) 13.5 MW th (1,000 household (80 bar natural gas supply) 13.5 MW th (1,000 household 12.7 MW e (3,600 household 2/8

3 connections) connections) connections) Incoming energy 11.6 million Nm 3 /yr of Natural Gas (annual use of 6,000 ) 11.6 million Nm 3 /yr of Natural Gas (annual use of 6,000 ) 111 GWh e /yr for the electrolysers (annual use of 40,000 ) 7.1 GWh e /yr for the H 2 2,100 ) 1.9 GWh e /yr for the H ) 3.7 GWh e /yr 2 for the H 2 1,100 ) ) ). ). Outgoing energy 23.6 GWh th /yr of heat from the reformer 23.6 GWh th /yr of heat from the reformer 16.7 GWh th /yr of heat from the electrolyser Incoming materials 19,000 m 3 /yr of water for the reformer (annual use of 400 ) 19,000 m 3 /yr of water for the reformer (annual use of 400 ) m 3 /yr of water for the electrolyser (annual use of 500 ) Outgoing materials 23 kton CO 2 per year 23 kton CO 2 per year 19 kton O 2 per year Cooling water? Cooling water? Cooling water? Power H 2 compressor 0.81 MW e 0.22 MW e 0.42 MW e Power H 2 booster 40 kw e 40 kw e 40 kw e Required infrastructure 8 bar natural gas pipeline: regional transportation grid. 80 bar natural gas pipeline: regional transportation grid. equivalent 3 to 285 equivalent 4 to 140 equivalent 5 to 4,000 Tabel 3 Results for two concepts with external H 2 supply H 2 supply with a pipeline H 2 supply with a pipeline (8 bar H 2 supply) (80 bar H 2 supply) H 2 supply with trucks Size of installation No H 2 producing installation on-site the station No H 2 producing installation on-site the station No H 2 producing installation on-site the station Incoming energy 2.4 million kg/yr H million kg/yr H million kg/yr H GWh e /yr for the H 2 2,100 ) 1.9 GWh e /yr for the H ) 400 ) ). ). Outgoing energy None None None ). 2 H 2 is released under 30 bar by the electrolyser. 3 Assuming that the required electricity connection is in the order of 1 MW. 4 Assuming that the required electricity connection is in the order of 0.5 MW 5 Assuming that the required electricity connection is in the order of 0.5 MW 3/8

4 Incoming materials None (apart from H 2 ) None (apart from H 2 ) 23 tube trailers per day (each trailer carries 360 kg H 2 and 19 tubes) Outgoing materials No local outgoing materials No local outgoing materials 23 empty tube trailers per day. Power H 2 compressor 0.81 MW e 0.22 MW e 0.42 MW e Power H 2 booster 40 kw e 40 kw e 40 kw e Required infrastructure 8 bar H 2 pipeline 80 bar H 2 pipeline: equivalent to equivalent to 140 equivalent to 140 We will now discuss results for each concept separately followed by a more detailed description of processes that are used for all concepts. These are respectively, hydrogen compression, hydrogen storage and hydrogen boosting. CONCEPT SPECIFIC RESULTS Concept 1: On-site steam methane reforming For this concept approximately 11.6 million m 3 of natural gas is required 7 per year to produce hydrogen. This natural gas use is in accordance with the natural gas use of approximately 6,000 average Dutch [2]. Although the Dutch natural gas grid is one of the densest in the world, it is expected that a new 8 or 80 bar natural gas pipeline must be connected to the refueling station. Especially for the 80-bar case, this pipeline can have a considerable length, because such a high-pressure pipeline is not always nearby. Because hydrogen is produced by the reformation of natural gas, the reformer locally emits 23 kton CO 2 per year. One of the options for sequestering CO 2, is use it in a greenhouse as a crop fertilizer. In order to use all emitted CO 2, a total area of approximately 230 hectares filled with greenhouses would be needed. We assumed that energy lost in the reformation of natural gas into hydrogen is emitted as heat. If the heat produced by the reformer approximately 24 GWh/year - cannot be used by another process, cooling onsite the refueling station would be required. The amount of water required for this cooling of the emitted heat is approximately 2 million m 3 per year, which would possibly imply that a source of open water is required in the vicinity of the refueling station. The actual size of the reformer is quite speculative, because a reformer with this specific hydrogen output is mostly built as one of a kind. An existing industrial natural gas reformer that produces 800 Nm 3 of hydrogen per hour has an estimated size of 10 by 10 by 14 meter [3]. Using the assumption that the refueling station has hydrogen demand of 2.4 million kg per year, we would need a reformer that produces almost 3,000 Nm 3 of hydrogen per hour. This reformer would have an estimated size of 4 industrial natural gas reformers mentioned above. In reality this size will be smaller because of process integration. In this study we considered a natural gas supply with a pressure of 8 and 80 bar for the concept of on-site natural gas reforming. The 8 bar natural gas grid in the Netherlands consists of a total length of 35,000 km and has wide spatial coverage. Nevertheless a connection between an existing pipeline and a new refueling station will be required for most cases. Different is the case for an 80 bar natural gas pipeline. The pressure in such a pipeline is comparable with the pressure in national transportation pipelines which have a total length of approximately 2,000 km [4]. These pipelines have a much lower spatial coverage than 8 bar pipelines and it is thus more likely that a new pipeline needs to be constructed in order to connect the existing pipeline with the refueling station. Another important difference between the 8 bar and the 80 bar pipeline is safety. Currently, only large industries are connected to high-pressure natural gas pipelines and there still is a limited amount of experience with the connection to end users of these pipelines in residential areas. Concept 2: On-site electrolysis 6 Connection is based on 0.5 MW e 7 This natural gas use is based on a reformer efficiency of 80% 4/8

5 This concept obviously requires the largest amount of electricity per year of all concepts that are considered. Approximately 111 GWh (0.4 PJ) per year is used for hydrogen production; comparable with the electricity use of approximately 40,000 average Dutch. If the electrolyser is sized for a minimum production capacity and the yearly hydrogen demand, the power input is almost 13 MW. In order to supply this power, new (subterranean) 10kV electricity cables are needed at the refueling station. The length of these electricity cables depends on the availability of high voltage electricity cables in the vicinity of the refueling station. These high voltage cables are typically used for national transport of electricity and thus do not have a dense spatial coverage. On-site the refueling station, a transformer would be required to convert the high voltage to lower voltage, suitable for the electrolysers and the compressors. The water flow that is required for hydrogen production is equivalent with the annual water use of approximately 150 average Dutch. Oxygen emissions of the electrolysers are 19.2 kton per year. A large industrial, low temperature, low pressure electrolyser from Norsk Hydro has the form of a large cylinder and covers a floor area of 4 by 13.5 meters [5]. This electrolyser can produce almost 485 Nm 3 of hydrogen per hour which would mean that a refueling station, would at least 6 of these electrolysers to produce more than 3,000 Nm 3 of hydrogen per hour. A smaller electrolyser from Stuartenergy has a size of 2 by 4 by 3 meters and can produce up to 61 Nm 3 of hydrogen per hour [6]. If these smaller elektrolysers were to be used, a total of 50 units, corresponding with a volume of approximately 17 sea containers, would be required on-site the refueling station. Concept 3: Hydrogen pipeline supply Starting from the Rotterdam harbor area and stretching downwards in the direction of Belgium, an industrial hydrogen pipeline is already in place [7]. For the rest of the Netherlands, hydrogen pipelines are not yet built and are needed to be constructed from scratch if the concept of hydrogen supply by pipeline is used for the hydrogen refueling station. The energy required on-site the station can be supplied by an 8 bar pipeline and an 80 bar hydrogen pipeline. Safety requirements might have some serious consequences for this concept. If regulations for hydrogen pipelines are defined at all, they may differ for each country that you consider. In various regulations, a high-pressure hydrogen pipeline is seen in an industrial context. One of the regulations is that no public buildings are allowed within 30 meters of the pipeline (Reference). Concept 4: Hydrogen supply with trucks In order to supply the desired amount of hydrogen with tube trailers carrying gaseous hydrogen at a pressure of 200 bar 8, approximately 23 trucks are required at the refueling station on a daily basis. Today approximately 1% of all trucks 9 on the Dutch roads is a truck that transports an automotive fuel [2]. Large today s refueling stations are supplied with fuel from such a truck once every day. Assuming that all current refueling stations have been replaced by hydrogen refueling stations and all hydrogen is supplied by tube trailers, it would imply that 1 in every 5 trucks on the Dutch roads is a truck carrying hydrogen. When liquid instead of compressed hydrogen is transported to the refueling station, 2 trucks 10 would be required per day. RESULTS FOR COMPRESSION, STORAGE AND BOOSTING All concepts require hydrogen compression, storage and hydrogen boosting. Differences in hydrogen compressor size and energy requirements are caused by the fact that hydrogen is produced or supplied under various pressures. Nevertheless, the storage pressure is equal for all concepts. For each concept only one demand pattern is used and therefore the necessary hydrogen storage is equal for all concepts because the capacity is sized based the demand side. Finally, hydrogen boosting requirements are also equal for all concepts because they are based on the on-site storage pressure of 350 bar, which is equal for all concepts, and the assumed consumer demands for a refueling a hydrogen vehicle. Hydrogen compression For all concepts considerable energy is required for hydrogen compression on-site the refueling station. Clearly, when hydrogen is produced under a high pressure, the compressor requires less labor to further raise the pressure to the desired storage pressure. We based the energy consumption of the hydrogen compressor on the average hydrogen throughput and the desired outlet pressure 700 bar. It is assumed that the hydrogen compressor will run most of the time continuously and uses a constant amount of power. The size of the compressor that has been computed for each of the concepts is also the minimum size. In case of on-site steam methane reforming at 8 bar - a 8 Tube trailer from Linde and Air Products have this pressure as limit. 9 According to CBS data there were trucks on the Dutch roads in the year A truck for LH2 can carry up to 3,500 kg of hydrogen (Linde 2003) 5/8

6 common outlet pressure for steam methane reformers or a hydrogen pipeline supply pressure of 8 bar, it is estimated that the hydrogen compressor has a power input of 0.8 MW. If the compressor is only used 50% of its time, the power input would be 1.6 MW. It is important to realize that the electricity connection for such a compressor is different to a regular residential connection or the connection of today s refueling stations. In case of an on-site steam methane reformer of 80 bar or a hydrogen supply pipeline of 80 bar, the compressor has a power input of 0.22 MW. Hydrogen booster A booster brings hydrogen from a pressure of approximately 350 bar to a pressure of 700 bar at which it is stored in a high-pressure cylinder inside a hydrogen vehicle. Although the throughput of hydrogen is relatively small, typically 5 kg in 3 minutes, the power consumption of the booster is estimated to be 40 kw. In other words, it takes the power of a small car engine to fill up a hydrogen tank with compressed hydrogen. Hydrogen storage For several reasons, hydrogen storage on-site the refueling is required. For the concepts that use hydrogen tube trailers to supply hydrogen, the reason for storage has the same reason as fuel storage on a today s refueling stations. In order to bridge the time between a fuel demand and no supply, storage is used. The concept with hydrogen supply by pipeline makes use of a continuous supply of hydrogen. For this concept it is likely that some form of hydrogen storage is required on-site the refueling station. This has to do with the minimum supply pressure of the hydrogen boosters in order to keep refueling times within by acceptable consumer limits. A lower supply pressure results in a longer refueling time. In case of hydrogen supply by onsite production through steam methane reforming or electrolysis of water, the hydrogen supply is also continuous. These concepts are less suited than for example a hydrogen pipeline to follow a particular hydrogen demand. Especially reformers have a preference to be run continuously on maximum load due to a decreasing efficiency at partial loads and a higher chance of maintenance due to dynamic running. Furthermore, considering the capital cost and the spatial planning, it is mostly tried to make installations as small as possible. Sizing the on-site production facility on the peak-demand often results in a large installation. These installations are per definition more expensive. In order to cover a varying demand with a continuous supply an intermediate storage to level out the shortage and surpluses is required. One of the most important questions is: what size does the storage have? We answered this question for the concepts that use of on-site hydrogen production. We assumed that a constant amount of 2.4 million kg hydrogen per year 11 is produced at the station and that the demand profile depends on time. Computations are based on the demand profile that is showed in Figure 1. Fraction of average daily use 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% Average demand Low demand High demand 0% Hours Figure 1 Fraction of the total daily fuel demand (low, average and high) at an ARAL refueling station in Köln, Germany It represents a practical example of a demand pattern that is measured at a refueling station in Köln, Germany [8]. On the horizontal axis of Figure 1 you find time, and on the vertical axis the fraction of the total daily production for each hour. Three different demand patterns are showed in Figure 1: a low demand, average and high demand pattern. The sum of the fractions from the demand pattern is respectively 50%, 100% and 150% from the average daily demand. 11 Equivalent with 10 million liter of fuel per year 6/8

7 Based on this demand pattern and the assumption that the on-site production facility has a minimum size and is run continuously, we can compute the minimum storage capacity required during a day. We used the average demand pattern from Figure 1 to make a demand pattern for our conceptual hydrogen refueling station by multiplying the fraction of the total demand on each hour by the average daily demand. The production is based on an average 6575 kg per day or 274 kg of hydrogen per hour. The hydrogen storage is used in two ways: at some hours of the day the production is smaller than the demand a net use of hydrogen and at other hours hydrogen production is higher than demand a net production of hydrogen. kg H2 1,500 1,300 1, Storage Shortage or surplus Net Production Figure 2 Hydrogen storage requirements at a hydrogen refueling station using a constant minimal hydrogen production. Hours In Figure 2 we introduced a new variable: the net production. This quantity is defined as the production at a specific hour, minus the use of hydrogen at that hour. At a certain moment of the day, the demand is larger than the production which results in a negative net production. The cumulative shortage or surplus of the net production is calculated by adding up the net production of every following hour starting from hour 1. Sizing the storage is a matter of adding the maximum absolute value of the cumulative surplus to the absolute value of the maximum shortage and is approximately 1,300 kg for the size hydrogen refueling station that we used in our computations. In reality this storage would be larger, because a minimum pressure of 40 bar is required in the storage vessels in order to provide a sufficient inlet pressure for the hydrogen boosters. Using an average storage pressure of approximately 350 bar would mean this remaining 40 bar equals almost 143 kg of hydrogen. The total hydrogen storage would need to be 1,430 kg to buffer for a day. Using this buffer would be enough for this specific day with an average demand pattern. However, Figure 2 shows that the demand can be also high or low during a day. If for example a day with an average demand is followed by a day of low demand or there are three days of high demand in a row, would the 1,430 kg storage capacity that we computed earlier be enough? In order to get an idea how changes in the daily demand pattern could affect the hydrogen storage, we examined two cases. The first case assumed that the hydrogen refueling station has a high hydrogen demand for 5 contiguous days and the second case assumed 5 contiguous days of low demand. We calculated the hydrogen surplus or shortage that follows from these 2 cases, assuming a constant and minimal production of 6,575 kg per day. 20,000 5 days high demand 5 days low demand 15,000 10,000 H2 [kg] 5, , ,000-15,000-20,000 Figure 3 Hydrogen shortage or surplus with a 5 days contiguous high demand and 5 days low demand using a constant and minimum production of 6,575 kg per day. 7/8 Hours

8 Figure 3 shows the results for a hydrogen shortage, in case of high demand for 5 days and a hydrogen surplus in case of a low demand for 5 days. We can conclude from Figure 3 that the maximum surplus and maximum shortage are both approximately 17,000 kg after 5 days. This would imply that it would be very well possible that when using a constant and minimal production of hydrogen, the storage capacity needs to be even larger than results from an average one-day demand pattern. The assumption that 5-day high (or low) demand pattern would occur at large refueling stations is well proven by the fact that the fuel demand on today s refueling stations strongly varies during the year. A practical example for this is the annual fuel demand on a large highway refueling station in the vicinity of Paris, France. The demand pattern shows that the fuel demand in the month July is more than twice the average demand during the year [9]. Today's refueling stations have approximately 70 m 3 of fuel stored on-site the station. This volume could approximately store 2,200 kg of hydrogen under a pressure of 350 bar. It has become clear that this storage capacity is not enough on a large hydrogen refueling station when a constant and minimal production is used. The storage size can be decreased by simply increasing the production capacity so that in times of a high demand more hydrogen can be produced and in times of low demand, less hydrogen can be produced. Another possibility would be the external supply of liquid hydrogen. Storage of hydrogen in a liquid form requires less volume than compressed gaseous hydrogen and can be depending on the demand supplied in large quantities by truck. CONCLUSIONS Currently there are approximately 500 large refueling stations in the Netherlands. If hydrogen is produced on-site the refueling station, each station will be equipped with considerable installations, which may have major consequences for the Dutch spatial planning. Producing hydrogen on-site the refueling station has some considerable consequences for its layout. The final design of capacities and dimensions on a hydrogen refueling station is a trade-off between production size, storage size, fuel demand pattern and possible external supply. If all hydrogen refueling stations would use the concept of on-site natural gas reforming, the natural gas use for these stations would be 1.6 times the annual natural gas use of all Dutch. When all refueling stations would use on-site electrolysis for hydrogen production, approximately 1.7 times the Dutch national electricity use in would be required at the refueling station. It can be concluded that switching to hydrogen as an automotive fuel has infrastructural consequences. It is of importance to already take this into consideration in the beginning of the transition to hydrogen-based refueling infrastructure. REFERENCES 1. Bovag BBT, Tankstations in cijfers, Statistics Netherlands, Sinclair Gair, How far to the hydrogen economy, Air Products, N.V. Nederlandse Gasunie, Annual Report, Norsk Hydro, Stuartenergy, Hydrogen Generation (IMET Elektrolyser), Bout, P., Personal Communication, Air Products, Methanex, LBST for ARAL station, Cologne Germany, IEA Annex XV Meeting Dec 10-11, Simonnet, A., Technical options for distributed hydrogen refueling stations in a market driven situation, Hydrogen Pathways Program, University of California, Davis, /8

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