Engineers Without Borders Solutions Report: Water Supply & Sanitation in Devikulam

Transcription

1 Engineers Without Borders Solutions Report: Water Supply & Sanitation in Devikulam Team: Paper Scissors Rock Raphael Lloyd Georgina Gavrilidis Georgia Sheil Samuel Lalli Hamish Waterston

2 Executive Summary The initial aim of this project is to acknowledge and eliminate the problems surrounding water and sanitation in the village of Devikulam. There will be a range of possible benefits that will surface through the proposed improvements. This report will explore the benefits that can be gained through four design options. Through a series of criteria, one option will be chosen and elaborated as the proposal to help the village. This report will aim to educate the reader about the levels of health danger, which threaten the village of Devikulam in relation to water and sanitation. Through exploring the present living state in Devikulam, four options will be designed to tackle these issues. Also by further exploring their current problems, a series of criteria can be developed in order to select an option that tackles the most important problems with one solution. When a design is selected, this report will instruct the reader on its components, its functional design, manufacturing procedures, list of materials, strengths, weaknesses (and how to tackle them), costs and finally a brief look into the future of the design. This will allow the reader to understand the design option chosen and the reasons each component of the design was approved. As part of the application of technical knowledge to remedying the specified problems of water quality in Devikulam, we have designed four distinct engineering solutions. These four designs provide the reader with different perspectives on solving the issues at hand. Sustainable development, social and economic impact on local communities, specific needs of the local situation, and ethical responsibilities of engineers are central elements we have integrated into the design context. They are also developed as criteria for the decision-making process. To practice effective communication and teamwork skills in a development context, a group must work towards consensus in meetings among themselves, as well as with local communities. 2

3 Code of ethics As engineers we are obliged to abide by a set of ethical regulations. These outlined values and principals are intended to aid and inform each decision we make during the project s lifespan. As a team we believe that we have maintained a balanced focus during the planning stage; our number one priority being to serve the community ahead of other personal or sectional interest (Engineers Australia, 2010). To ensure we maintained an adequate focus on the community and their interests a number of educational and consultative schemes have been delineated throughout the project proposal. Such interaction with the community would enable us to demonstrate a wide range of the Guidelines of Professional Conduct (Engineers Australia, 2010). These includes: acting impartially and treating all castes with the same respect, promoting leadership within the community and managing perceived conflicts of interest, promoting relevant knowledge and expertise in education programs, advocating ethical practices and the importance of balancing current needs with those of the future. Throughout the design process we have used the engineer s code of ethics to aid in decision making and to ensure that the solutions we provide are fair and effective. Team Reflection We were able to maintain cohesion throughout the project by using Google documents to efficiently communicate all our concerns. We had regular meetings both in person and online. All members found the EWB project stimulating but at the same time challenging. We were collectively able to develop an excellent understanding about the situation in Devikulam and how it could be improved by reviewing and commenting on each other s work as the project advanced. Our largest obstacle throughout the project was the lack of concise information regarding the village of Devikulam and the surrounding environment. Another challenging aspect of the project was the time constraint. Getting the project completed on time required frequent meetings. 3

4 During group meeting we set out progression goals and allocated sections of the project to each member. A basic analysis of the work each member did is as follows: Sam was responsible for much of the evaluation, figures and diagrams and sections regarding guttering, Raph worked on sections about roofing and disease, Georgia was responsible for work on the pots and education schemes, Georgina and Hamish worked on various sections throughout the report. However, most of the sections were worked on communally by the group as a whole. Everyone was responsible for the editing, this was to ensure the report was coherent and free-flowing. 4

5 Table of Contents Executive Summary Team Reflection Code of Ethics Table of Contents Introduction List of tables & figures 1. Problem definition 1.1 Problem scope 1.2 Technical Review Water Supply Bores Water Loss Pumps Water Storage Water Quality Salinity Water Contaminants Sanitation Diseases Open Defecation Community Knowledge and Awareness 1.3 Design requirements Environment Culture Cost Feasibility Sustainability Effectiveness of Solution 2. Design Options 2.1 Option 1: Solar Power Pump and Filtration System 2.2 Option 2: Composting Toilets 2.3 Option 3: Rainwater Catchment and Education Scheme 2.4 Option 4: Take No Action 2.5 Option Selection Option 1: Solar Power Pump and Filtration System Option 2: Composting Toilets Option 3: Rainwater Catchment and Education Scheme Option 4: Take No Action 3. Design Description 3.1 Summary of the Design 3.2 Detailed Description 4. Design Plan 4.1 Materials 5

6 4.2 Manufacturing Plan 4.3 Implementation Plan 5. Discussion 5.1 Additional Uses 5.2 Strengths 5.3 Weaknesses 5.4 Next Steps 6. Evaluation 6.1 Cost Additional Costs 6.2 Evaluation of Initial Design Requirements Effects on the Environment Local Culture Cost Effectiveness Sustainability Effectiveness of Solution 7. Conclusion Appendix A - Rainfall, Catchment Area, Water use Appendix B - Material Amounts Appendix C - Water Contaminants Solutions References List of Figures and Tables Figure 1 Bamboo Gutter sitting in wooden supports with wire mesh leaf guard. Figure 2 Bamboo gutters connect to down pipe. Figure 3 First flush diversion system. Figure 4 Gantt Chart of Implementation Plan Table 1 Scoring Summary Table 2 Costing s 6

7 Introduction Engineers Without Borders (EWB) in association with BHP Billiton, have proposed a challenge to improve the living situation in the village of Devikulam, India. This report will primarily aim to conquer the troubles related to water and sanitation within this village as well as the level of knowledge and awareness the general villager has on the subjects of health and sanitation. The development of a safe and reliable water supply in Devikulam is very important for the village s growth, and raises many complex challenges in the areas of education, hygiene and cultural practice. This report will set into motion one of four possible design options that will help solve the issues plaguing Devikulam in water and sanitation. 1. Problem definition 1.1 Problem scope Devikulam is faced with many issues concerning the supply of water available to the village, including the quality of the water, storage and sanitation. The following section provides details on the many problems faced by the villagers of Devikulam in relation to water supply and sanitation. 1.2 Technical Review Water supply Bores The community water is supplied from three different bores, one of which has been identified as saline by those living in the colony. Water from this infected bore is 7

8 not used for human consumption but for other purposes such as washing, flushing and cleaning. The two other bores are used to fill a 30,000-litre tank. From this tank the water is distributed to the rest of the village. The two bores servicing the tank, are situated close to the village pond which is also used for bathing, washing, watering cattle, washing machinery and cleaning clothes (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre, 2011). As of this moment one of the two bores is no longer in operation leaving the single remaining bore to supply the villagers' drinking water. This bore is in close proximity to the village and is used for all kinds of activities like washing, bathing, watering cattle and livestock and cleaning clothes and machinery (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre 2011). The salinity of the water is only going to increase as water continues to be taken from the bores. The current levels are still acceptable, however they are on the rise. The reduction in number of bores means that the remaining bore will become over saline faster than it otherwise would. This consequence is known as saltwater Intrusion (USGS, 2005) Water loss Wastage of water is a huge problem facing the community and is mainly due to loss of water from faulty taps drawing water from the storage tanks (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre 2011). The taps leak significantly and the drinkable water from the tanks is wasted. It has been calculated that up to 20,000L a year is lost due to these faulty taps (White Horse 2011). Another key contributor to water wastage is the lack of understanding by the community in using and maintain the water supply system. It is due to this lack of education that the community has little involvement in maintaining and using the systems, and as a consequence water is wasted and the taps are not maintained properly. Attitudes of inhabitants regarding water conservation are another cause of water loss in the village Pumps Currently water is pumped out of the uncontaminated bore by an electrically powered 8

9 pump and stored in the 30,000L tank, located in the village. The village s only access to drinking water is from this bore and frequent power outages mean that the village has to rely on stored water (Engineer's Without Borders Australia, 2011A). There is a need to install a system that does not rely on an external power source, such as a solar operated pump, in order to ensure constant supply of water during power cuts (India Core, 2011). Devikulam is connected to the grid by power lines coming in from larger surrounding villages. There is no alternate power supply(engineer's Without Borders Australia, 2011A). Power cuts in Devikulam are frequent and repairs are costly Water storage Currently all households are using the water from the village tank for all cooking and drinking purposes. Connecting to this tank are a series of taps, which are linked to the households in the village. However, some households situated outside the village, are not directly linked, which forces them to use a universal tap to gain suitable drinking water (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre, 2011). This tap is only available for two periods throughout the day, one hour in the morning and one hour during the night. The taps are in disrepair, a large amount of water is being wasted due to leakages Water quality Salinity Saltwater intrusion can occur when a ground water aquifer is close to the coast. This is the case with Devikulam s bore water supply. In all coastal aquifers there is a point where the fresh water and salt water meet, which produces a slight mixing. This mixing point would normally stay in the same area, however when water is being taken from the aquifer it draws underground water towards the extraction location. This in turn draws salt water towards the extraction point. When this point gets close enough to the water source, the water starts to become mildly saline. As water is drawn from the spring, the levels of salt continually increase until the source becomes 9

10 unusable. The rate at which the mixing point moves towards the pumping point is not directly equal to the rate at which water is being removed, however it is fair to say that the more water being pumped the faster this will occur (USGS, 2005). Salinity affects the three bores in the village. One bore has already stopped being used as the villagers say it tastes salty. The other two bores have trace amounts of salt in them and it is on the increase. Considering the fact that of the two remaining bores only one is in operation at present as the other is undergoing repairs, the remaining bore is supplying water for the entire village. This means that the last bore will become saltier faster than it otherwise would. As all three of the village s bores pump water from the one aquifer, even though it will primarily affect the pump site around that pump, it will also slowly cause the whole aquifer to become salty. The saltiness will eventually make the water pumped from that bore undrinkable Water Contaminants With only one bore in use there are many major issues in the quality of the water that are in urgent need of attention. The chemical contaminants that can pose serious harm to the people in Devikulam are specifically fluoride, iron, arsenic, nitrates, selenium, salinity and pesticides (Water aid, 2008). Being over exposed to fluoride and iron presents the people of Devikulam with hazardous digestive disorders, skin diseases and dental fluorosis, with arsenic causing acute poisoning, i.e. vomiting, abdominal pain and bloody diarrhea (Water Aid, 2008). Long-term exposure however can cause lung cancer, skin cancer and can additionally cause pigmentation changes and thickening. Arsenic is naturally occurring in the Earth s Crust and it is established in water through the dissolution of minerals and ores (Fletcher, 2002). Nitrates cause Methamoglobinemia, where an infant s skin can become blue due to a severe shortage of hemoglobin. There is also an increased chance of cancer (Water Aid, 2008). High intake of selenium increases the chances of gastrointestinal disturbances, decaying teeth as well as nail and hair abnormalities (World Health Organisation, 2010A). With the water in Devikulam coming from the one useful bore; the salinity of 10

11 the water is increasing at a worrying rate. High levels of salinity can reduce crop yields and at higher concentrations can kills trees, which can result in barren landscapes (SA Water, 2011). Pesticides include: weeds, insects, fungi, nematodes and poisons (FAO of the United Nations, 2011). The impact of the quality of water by pesticides is connected with active ingredient in the pesticide, contaminants in the active ingredient, buffers, solvents and emulsifiers that are mixed with the active ingredient and the ruin of the active ingredient (FAO of the United Nations, 2011) Sanitation Diseases Water-borne diseases are prevalent in the nearby water systems and are threatening to increase (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre, 2011). There are a number of waterborne diseases that have become responsible for a large proportion of contracted illnesses within the region. Such diseases are directly spread through the water systems due to an increase of pathogens in water used for food preparation, washing or drinking. The more common of the bacterial diseases in the region around Devikulam include: salmonella (food poisoning), Shigella, Escherichia coli infections, legionella, Typhoid, Cholera. Viral illnesses include: Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E. Parasites include: Malaria, Giardia, Worms and lice (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011) The following is a brief list of the more dominant water-related diseases in Devikulam s region and the symptoms they can produce. A large amount of the symptoms for other existing diseases in the area are of a similar nature to the bellow descriptions. Recovery periods generally range from 4-12 days, however some more severe diseases can last for several months. Those infected with the following diseases, if diagnosed efficiently, can almost always be efficiently be cured with the assistance of antibiotics or oral rehydration salts (ORS). Hepatitis can induce a fever, body weakness, abdominal pains and nausea, which is often followed by jaundice. It often brings about infection and inflammation of the 11

12 liver that can last for several months. Despite this, most patients are able to fully recover without any long-term ramifications (World Health Organisation, 2001B). Cholera commences with watery diarrhea and nausea (more severe in those who are malnourished). If untreated this can quickly lead to dehydration and death. Untreated the mortality rate lies around 50%, however if treated correctly, this falls to around 1% (World Health Organisation, 2001C). With Shigella, the bacteria invade and destroy the cells lining the large inner intestine. Symptoms such as a fever, abdominal cramps, rectal pain and diarrhea can be provoked. Shigellosis is generally able to be treated with antibiotics, however some strains have developed a drug resistance (World Health Organisation, 2001D). Malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes, which are able to rapidly breed in fresh or brackish water. Symptoms of this illness can include: fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, tiredness, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, anemia and kidney failure. If the disease is not promptly and effectively treated, malaria can evolve into a severe cerebral form followed by death. Although possible to obtain Malaria, treatments for the disease itself is not a large focus in Devikulam as the disease is not a pandemic there (World Health Organisation, 2001E). Typhoid symptoms can consist of headache, malaise, constipation or diarrhea, high fever, red spots on the chest, and enlarged spleen and liver. Symptoms may not show for up to three weeks (World Health Organisation, 2001F) Open Defecation The practice of open defecation is common in Devikulam. Villagers will defecate around the village, in nearby fields, near the local pond which is used for washing and even close to the bore water supplies. The large amount of human waste around the village poses issues for the cleanliness of the water supply as much of the waste has a way of getting into the village bores. Waste in the fields can seep into the ground, mixing with the ground water that will end up in the bores. During the rainy period of 12

13 the monsoon season, the human waste that contaminates the village pond can also mix with the water supply (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre 2011). This causes an increase in the bacteria count of the bore water and can also affect the villages food sources, posing a threat to the health of the locals and causing diseases such as Hepatitis A, Cholera, Giardia and Typhoid, as mentioned above. The practice of open defecation is influenced by social, cultural and educational factors. Throughout rural India, the idea of using human waste as a fertilizer goes against local culture and beliefs, as in the Hindu religion only the lowest caste class can handle human waste (United Nations Environment Programme 2011). The notion of using indoor sanitation is also widely unpopular. This is due to the lack of education and awareness of proper sanitation (Jhn, N 2010) Community Knowledge and Awareness The state of Tamil Nadu where Devikulam is situated is one of the best Indian states for its rate of literacy, with 80% of the population being literate. In Regions of major cities, literacy rates can be as high as 85% while in rural regions they drop to around 70% (Census of India 2011). In Devikulam many children finish primary school but then move directly into the agriculture industry, completing no further studies. The low level of education in rural India means that locals lack knowledge and awareness of health issues that can arise from poor sanitation, hygiene practices and water management (Jhn, N 2010). This is evident from the local practices of open defecation near water sources, allowing animals near drinking water and people bathing in the contaminated pond. Further evidence of poor awareness are the issues with the water supply infrastructure and its lack of maintenance as mentioned above. All of these issues pose threats to the health of the locals. 1.3 Design requirements In designing solutions to the many problems noted above, there are five key areas that 13

14 must be considered equally. These areas will form the basis of the decision criteria, which allows the various design options to be judged in relation to each other. The areas that must be taken into consideration when designing solutions are: Effects on the environment The local culture Cost effectiveness Sustainability Effectiveness of solution Environment India is one of the largest emitters of CO2 on the planet (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011) and any proposed design must as a priority not act to increase the footprint of the village but rather, reduce it. The source of any materials used in the project is important as all materials contain embodied energy. The embodied energy of the entire project should be kept to a minimum, keeping CO2 emissions down. The design should also aim to have minimal impact on the local environment of farms, forests, rivers and wildlife Culture The priorities of the communities in rural India are vastly different from the priorities of western society. In the past, many projects undertaken by western organisations have failed to consider the culture and religious practices of the local community. This oversight can result in the failure of a project because the local community will reject the design rather than embrace it. In designing solutions for the issues in Devikulam the cultural needs and priorities of the community must be taken into consideration Cost feasibility The cost of implementing the design is an important factor as it will be the real 14

15 measure of how viable the design is. The costs of planning, implementation, construction and long-term maintenance must all be considered throughout the design process. As government funding is scarce, costs must be taken into account when planning realistic solutions for the community s problems Sustainability By far one of the largest considerations when designing solutions is the sustainability of the design. That is, the ability that the locals have to utilise and maintain the design once the engineers have departed and the villagers are left to themselves. If the solution is too complicated for the villagers to understand, or too costly to maintain, the design will quickly fall into disrepair and outside help will be needed for maintenance. Such unnecessary increases in costs would most likely deem the proposed project impractical Effectiveness of solution When designing solutions for the problems in Devikulam, the largest consideration is how directly and to what extent, the solutions address the specific problems outlined in 1.2. If these problems are not dealt with then that will, in turn, affect the other design requirements above, i.e. energy would be wasted thus producing negative effects on the environment and the community may become apprehensive in relation to the credibility of those implementing projects in the area. With such neglect in the organisation of projects in the community, the overall culture may become irreversibly damaged. 15

16 2. Design Options The following section outlines four possible solutions to the water and sanitation problems in Devikulam. The four design options include: A Solar Power Pump and Filtration System Composting Toilets A Rainwater Catchment system and Education Scheme Taking no action 2.1 Option 1: Solar Power Pump, Repairs and Filtration System The village is prone to many power outages, leaving the bore pump unusable. A solar powered water pump would be installed to combat this. Solar water pumps are energy efficient. The normal solar powered pumping system will consist of a solar panel that uses renewable energy to power up an electric motor. The water will be pumped from the ground into a storage tank (Energy Matters, 2011). This means that the pump will be operational, even during blackouts. The issue of water loss due to leakage from the taps can be easily and cheaply fixed. The taps on the main water supply tank will need to be investigated as the simple replacement of a washer can prevent water loss (Think Water, 2009). If the problem doesn t lie with the washer but with the taps themselves, inexpensive replacement taps can be installed fairly easily. Once water has been pumped into the tank and water loss is reduced, many water quality issues remain. To combat these issues a low cost water filtration system is required. The Sheba from AYZH is a household filtration system targeted at women in rural Indian communities (NCIIA, 2009). Sharing these low cost systems between 16

17 3 or 4 nearby households would result in a vast increase in water quality. The system is designed to be put together easily by women in self help groups in rural India (Hornyak T, 2010). The existing women s self help group in Devikulam would be responsible for assembling the systems which can then be easily operated and i by anyone in the village. 2.2 Option 2: Composting Toilets To combat the problems associated with open defecation and its effects on the water supply, composting toilets can be installed throughout the village. Implementation will involve construction of toilet facilities in the village where they would be most functional. With 89 households in the village, 89 toilets would be required, for in the past, communal toilets have not been accepted or used. This is because no one takes responsibility for communal toilets (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre 2011). A composting toilet works by storing waste in a waterless environment, and then proceeding to break down the waste via mainly aerobic decomposition. A filler is usually added to the waste in order to further dry it out, some such fillers are sawdust and peat moss, which also serve to reduce odor. The decomposition process is normally faster than that of a wet system like septic tanks. If villagers use this system, chances of contamination in water and food supplies related to having human waste around will be reduced (Jenkins J 1999). It will also supply a reliable source of compost that each house could use on a veggie patch or farm. To go along with the installation of the composting toilets, an education scheme will be implemented in order to educate the villagers about the toilets and their benefits. The education system will teach the villagers about the uses of compost as well as methods for maintaining and cleaning the toilets. On installation of the toilets, a selection of villagers can be instructed on their uses. Then these villagers can share their knowledge with other members of the community, using the existing community center. 17

18 2.3 Option 3: Rainwater Catchment and Education Scheme At present only one out of the three bores providing the village with drinking water remains functional. Furthermore the quality of this water is in risk of rapidly deteriorating; there are no preventative actions presently being executed to ensure the water source is kept uncontaminated. As there are sanitary issues with the current water sources, it is important that a secondary source of water within a controlled environment is provided as a permanent solution to the health risks. The proposal is to install a rainwater catchment system in conjunction with a number of storage tanks to provide a sustainable water source all year round. This will aim to collect rainwater using a series of roof catchments and storage tanks utilising the preexisting infrastructure. The practicality of all impervious surfaces as catchment area will be assessed; unsuitable surfaces will either be replaced or repaired in order to generate a maximum surface area for water harvesting. As each villager requires approximately 5L of water a day, the allocation of approximately one ,000L tank per 4 households will allow each household to be provided with drinkable water during the 5 month period of little rain. The current water system can still be used for other tasks such as washing and cleaning. The proposal will additionally involve an intensive education program, which enables the villagers to maintain the rainwater catchment system without utilising professional assistance. This program will involve advice on maintaining safe salinity levels and teach a number of water purification methods; this will prevent the spread of illness and sustain the infrastructure involved in the proposal. This will include leaf traps, pipes and taps. As the villagers have no prior knowledge in these areas, the program will be essential to the sustainability of the project as well as guaranteeing that sanitary water procedures are carried out for the future. For example, the importance of understanding when to use bore water will be emphasised as opposed to the rainwater, which is primarily for drinking and food preparation. 18

19 2.4 Option 4: Take No Action In the case that no action is taken within the village, none of Devikulam s eminent problems will be addressed and nullified. As only a single bore is in use, over time the issues surrounding salinity levels would continuously intensify. In addition, there is potential for the bacteria count in the water to gradually rise, rendering the last remaining bore unviable (Pitchandikulam Bio Resource Centre 2011). This means that the villagers would have no source of safe drinking water, deeming them susceptible to a number of life threatening diseases. With the worsening situations, many of Devikulam s residents will become sick and require medical attention. The ongoing costs of medication and treatment for the villagers may eventually outweigh the costs of the implementation of one of the previously outlined schemes that aims to improve inhabitant s water quality and living conditions. 2.5 Option Selection In order to decide on the appropriate design option to pursue, each must be rated according to the same criteria. The criteria for judging will be the design requirements specified earlier: environment, culture, cost feasibility, sustainability and effectiveness of the solution. In the following sections, each option will be rated from 1 to 5 for each of the design requirements. 1 - No attempt to satisfy criteria 2 - Slight attempt to meet criteria 3 - Some attempt to meet criteria 4 - Partially meets criteria 5 - Successfully meets criteria Option 1: Solar Power Pump, Repairs, and 19

20 Filtration System Environment Using a solar panel to power the pump will reduce the amount of energy used in the village. The installation of the Sheba filtration systems will have minimal environmental impact with the only contributing factor being the transportation and manufacture of the systems. Score: 4 Culture The proposed ideas in this design option don t conflict with any local religious beliefs or culture. This solution won t require any change in the practices of the villagers. Score: 4 Cost Feasibility The Sheba Filtration System is very low priced at US$19 a piece and only US$3 to operate for one year (Hornyak,T, 2010). One system would only be required per four houses so this is a fairly low cost solution to many of the water quality issues in Devikulam. Replacement of washers in the taps would also be relatively cheap. The solar panel pump is the more expensive aspect of this option but once paid for, a solar panel requires minimal maintenance and reduces long term power costs (Solar Power at Home, 2011). Score: 3 Sustainability As mentioned above, the solar panel pump requires little maintenance so theoretically should be able to run without the villagers needing to maintain it. However if there were ever a problem with the pump or solar panel, outside help would need to be 20

21 brought in in order to fix the problem. In the meantime, villagers would have restricted access to water. The fact that the taps are currently in disrepair and leaking indicates that the villagers don t have adequate funding to maintain their current infrastructure. If the fixed taps again fall into disrepair villagers will not be able to repair them themselves. The Sheba filtration system is designed to be used by women in rural India and can be easily maintained by anyone who uses it (Hornyak,T, 2010). Score: 2 Effectiveness of Solution This design option addresses many of the issues in Devikulam. The solar powered pump tackles the issue of power outages restricting access to water supply while the replacement of taps deals with the problems surrounding water loss. The Sheba filtration system tackles the issues of contaminants in the water and water borne diseases. This option fails to deal with the problems of salinity, unusable bores or the lack of community knowledge and awareness. Score: 3 Total: Option 2: Composting Toilets Environment Installing composting toilets introduces the idea of recycling waste, which will offer valuable products such as fertilizers, feed and energy (IDRC CRDI, 2008). Composting toilets are more water efficient than conventional toilets. The solid end product is a valuable humic fertiliser and although it is generally only a small amount it can be used around trees and gardens (Composting Toilet World, 2010). Compared to sewerage systems, on site composting systems have less impact on the environment as they avoid releasing effluent into the ocean. It also eliminates any soil or pipeline disruption and possibilities of raw sewerage leaking into groundwater through 21

22 deteriorated pipes. Score: 4 Culture As only the lowest caste can handle human waste, this solution presents some cultural issues. Further issues are raised as using human waste as fertilizer is not accepted locally (United Nations Environment Programme 2011). Score: 2 Cost Feasibility With such a vast number of composting toilets to install this option would be relatively costly. These costs would include construction, transport, installation and maintenance of all 89 composting toilets. Adding to this is the fact that the option presents no long-term money saved or gained. The education scheme would be cheap, as a majority of it is peer taught. Score: 2 Sustainability The owners of the households that are allocated a specific toilet will maintain the composting toilets themselves. This method works better than having communal toilets because with communal toilets, no one takes responsibility for maintenance. As we have previously explained, this solution also evades any potential antagonisms within the community that may arise from having one communal bathroom; thus this solution may draw support from the locality. The education scheme is designed to be able to be sustained by the members of the community as they have meetings to share their knowledge. Score: 4 22

23 Effectiveness of Solution The installation of composting toilets serves to address the issues of open defecation with the flow-on effect of reducing contaminants and bacteria in the water. Implementation of a composting toilet would remove this problem and provide the community with a way of treating and recycling their waste. This option also tackles issues of the lack of local knowledge as it includes an education scheme. This option fails to address problems such as salinity, water loss, unusable bores and water contaminants other than defecation. Score: 2 Total: Option 3: Rainwater Catchment and Education Scheme Environment By installing rainwater catchment tanks it will have a negligent affect the environment, as it will not need many chemicals in order to keep it clean. Rainwater also has many nutrients that can be used for gardening or farming further aiding the surrounding environment (Water Tank Company, 2010). By using rainwater the villagers will become less reliant on using the bore water for drinking, which will mean the reduction of needing a desalination plant when the salinity of the bore water rises. In addition, India is set to become a water stressed nation within the next decade. Over 85% of the population is reliant on ground water. Despite this solution predicting a many positive benefits for the environment it does not address the problem of open defecation. Score: 4 23

24 Culture The installation of rainwater catchment tanks will not drastically change the way the villagers live as it is similar to their current practice. Other than the fact the water will be cleaner they will still need to gain the water from the tank from a tap as they are doing at the moment. Also this option allows the villagers to continue using bore water for washing and cleaning thus not disturbing their usual habits. Score: 3 Cost Feasibility The cost of the tanks is significant in a poor community, and the cost of the filtration system will also be expensive. Some guttering will have to be repaired. However with very little maintenance required this would eliminate any further costs to the option. The education program will also be a cost setback, although with more villagers knowing about managing the health risks in water there are long-term savings. The education program will provide some jobs in the village. Score: 2 Sustainability When put into place this option will not be in need of much maintenance; this mainly includes regular cleaning, which can be done by local residents. The education scheme provides villagers with the skills and knowledge of fixing any leakages or problems with the filtration system if and where necessary. Score: 5 Effectiveness of Solution Installing rainwater tanks in Devikulam will solve many of the sanitation issues, as rainwater is clean water. This option tackles the problems of salinity and water contaminants in the bores and hence, diseases related to consumption of the bore 24

25 water. It also addresses issues of water storage and water loss by providing new water storage tanks as well as the problems regarding community knowledge with the implementation of the education scheme. This option fails to address the issue of open defecation but compensates by supplying a source of clean water, free of the bacterial issues open defecation presents. Score: 5 Total: Option 4: Take No Action Environment By taking no action, the people of Devikulam will continue drinking contaminated water which will further increase morbidity and mortality rates in the community. The salinity levels of the usable bore will increase thus making the water undrinkable. This will further increase health dangers as well as eliminating the villagers only means of safe drinking water. Score: 1 Culture This option will provide no change to the culture in Devikulam. However this lack of change will affect the quality of life within the village, thus reducing any hope the community has of alleviating their society of poverty and distress. Score: 3 Cost Feasibility Taking no action will be the most cost efficient option, as no money will be expended in the village. However as mentioned previously, the worsening scenario would result in increased, on going medical costs that could eventually outweigh the cost of 25

26 implementing another solution. Score: 4 Sustainability This option will fail to provide any sustainability to Devikulam. The villagers will remain having little to no knowledge on the dangers of contaminated water including the potentially devastating physical effects it could have on individuals. With this lack of education on the subject at hand, the villagers will not understand the troubles they are having with the only usable bore, nor will they have the knowledge as to why they will be unable to drink its water once the bore s salinity levels become dangerous. Score: 1 Effectiveness of Solution This option fails to address any issues that the villagers of Devikulam have in relation to water supply and sanitation. Score: 1 Total: 10 26

27 Table 1 - Scoring Summary Environment Culture Cost Sustainability Effectiveness Total Option Option Option Option Design option 3, the rainwater catchment system and education scheme scored the highest. This is because it performs well in most of the five design requirements. Although this design may be costly initially, it is the option that has been selected to continue designing. 27

28 3 Design Description 3.1 Summary of the Design It is apparent when looking through our design criteria that option 3, having scored the highest, is the design that has the greatest effect, positively, on the problems facing Devikulam today. This design primarily is a rainwater tank and roof catchment system as well as an education scheme that allows the villagers to drink and use clean water and learn about the sanitary dangers that they face. With the main monsoon season running from June to September in India (Hammel, 2010), it will be during these months when villagers will be able to gain enough water in their catchment area to fill their tanks. This will allow less reliance on the use of dangerous bore water. The initial solution is to capture rainwater that falls on the roofs of the houses and use a guttering system to channel the water down from the roofs into rainwater storage tanks, which are above the ground. By having them above ground the tanks become much easier to clean, villagers are able to detect any leakages and the water can be extracted by using a gravity tap (Water care and our Environment, 2007). Through installing 3-4 tanks, enough rainwater can be collected to allow water to be distributed amongst all villagers without anyone having to travel a long distance or drink contaminated water. This design will be supported by an education scheme that will allow villagers to gain the understanding of why these tanks are installed, how they are installed and what they are. The educational system will explain the dangers of drinking contaminated water and the risks of continually drinking water from the original bore. Villagers will be taught the importance of sanitation as well as the different diseases that can form through salinity and bacteria. Next the uses of rainwater i.e. drinking, cooking, cleaning and washing, will be explained, then a detailed explanation of cleaning the tanks and thus, lessons in maintenance. Water purification methods will also be explained. Some of these methods will include: boiling and chlorinating. 28

29 The education scheme is the central idea of this design due to the fact that when the catchment system and rainwater tanks are implemented, this will provide a short term solution as many of the villagers will not understand the reasons why foreigners have disrupted their daily routine. The education scheme provides a level of understanding that will allow villagers to use the rainwater system to their advantage over a longer period of time. Part of the scheme is to allow for villagers to teach themselves as well as each other. This means that the villagers of Devikulam will be able to take the new knowledge and pass it on to other community members. 3.2 Detailed Description Rainwater Catchment In order to harvest rainwater, a catchment system will be installed utilising the current roofs. Those roofs that are not in an adequate condition to harvest water will be revamped or completely replaced. The roofing system consists solely of local roofing techniques and materials. A thatched roof design will be employed. The material to be thatched is set to be Palmyra leaves. The thatching will have to be of a high quality as to ensure it will last for a desirable period of time and to prevent leakage (National Energy Services, 2010). Approximately 50 meters squared will be needed in order to achieve the required catchment area for each household. As this area is not overly large, and only one roof per tank is sufficient, a number of roofs in the village will be re-thatched. In addition to existing dwellings being re-thatched, new infrastructure can also be utilised. A new temple has been proposed and is pending a government fund, this along with the existing temple and its attached elaborate building (which is yet to be roofed) are targets likely to be thatched and used as catchment area (Engineers Without Boarders Australia, 2011C). Rainwater will flow off this roof catchment and into gutters surrounding the roof. Bamboo gutters are useful because they are easy and cheap to construct while also locally available in Tamil Nadu (Rawat & Khanduri, 1999). A stainless steel wire mesh will be attached along the top of the guttering to act as a leaf trap and hold back 29

30 larger debris from entering the gutters. The bamboo gutters will rest on wooden supports that will be attached to the roofs (United Nations Children's Fund, 2006). This allows the guttering to be easily lifted down for maintenance and the removal of leaves. Figure 1. Bamboo Gutter sitting in wooden supports with wire mesh leaf guard. The bamboo gutters will run down towards the down pipe that will be attached to the side of the house. The gutter and down pipe will not be physically attached as this complicates the removal of the gutters for cleaning. Hence the downpipes will also have an angled grate on top to prevent leaves and debris. The grate is angled so that leaves will not clog the entrance to the pipe. 30

31 Figure 2. Bamboo gutters connect to down pipe. When it starts to rain for the first time in a long period, such as the first rain after the dry months in India, dust, bird droppings and other contaminants that are on the roof will be washed into the gutters and into the rainwater tank, contaminating any water already stored there (Global Development Research Centre, 2010). To prevent this a system is required that removes the first flush of rainwater. About the first 20L would need to be diverted. This can be done by placing a 20L chamber at the bottom of the down pipe. A rubber ball would sit inside this chamber so that when the chamber fills the rubber ball plugs the entrance, trapping the contaminated water inside. The clean water that flows down the down pipe from this point onwards would go through a secondary pipe that is connected at and upward inclined angle. This is to prevent any of the first flush water entering this pipe. The pipe would take clean rainwater from this point directly to the rainwater tank. The chamber will have a stopper at the bottom so that after the rain has stopped, the container can be drained, ready for the next rain (Mbugua J 2007A). 31

32 Figure 3. First flush diversion system. The harvested water from the down pipe will flow down the bamboo pipe and into cement jars adjacent to the houses. Rainwater jars are very practical in coastal areas where the salinity level in dug-wells or bores is high (United Nations Children Fund, 2006). The jars will be made of cement and sand with iron for reinforcement, a piece of nylon net will cover the tank inlet to prevent mosquitoes and other debris entering the tank. The jars will have the capacity to store 2000L and be allocated to every 2 households in the village (Appendix A). For the 89 households 45 tanks will be required to be installed (Engineers Without Boarders Australia, 2011B). Referring to the approximated required rainwater storage per household the 2000L jar may seem excessive, however it is vital that the jars hold a quantity of water that is sufficient to reduce or eliminate the need to alternate between rainwater and bore water. This form of water storage has been tried and tested in other rural location around the world, such as Thailand, Vietnam and East Timor, and has been international recognised by UNICEF as a sustainable, cost effective and practical approach to water supply (United Nations Children's Fund, 2006). This system of storage is very 32

33 realistic for the village of Devikulam as they can be sourced locally and transported to the site with ease. It is predicted that implementation of the jars, and the accompanied pipe system, will be an easy processes and involve the villagers wherever possible. To ensure that the jars are maintained appropriately and regularly a placard, which describes the operation and maintenance procedure for a family to follow, will be attached to each rainwater jar. Education Scheme Many problems surrounding the quality of water within rural Indian communities are due to ignorance of water maintenance and management. Raising awareness of the appropriate courses of action to take will aid them in becoming conscious of the dire reality of the deteriorating water sources. The education program will aim to engage the community in as many aspects of the planning, implementation and maintenance of the project as possible. The future of the program aims to provide a comprehensive and interactive program that teaches the villagers many skills in the subjects of water conservation, water treatment and hygiene. It is important the new rainwater catchment system assists users in understanding when and how to use the water from the storage tanks, in order to maximise the amount of clean drinking water available to the community. Teaching the community to treat the water themselves will not only decrease the cost of maintenance significantly but will allow the program to be fully sustainable within Devikulam; this also serves to leave the people feeling empowered. It is of equal importance that the community is involved in the planning process, when the community is consulted their opinions must be carefully considered and discussed, otherwise the program will likely be rejected before it has begun. This program will take place in the existing community center, using the local facilities as a meeting place for villagers to gather and share their knowledge amongst each other. This can only be done once language barriers have been addressed. Volunteer s from the Pitchikulam Forest Community have adequate knowledge of the community and with a little training would be the most appropriate people to educate with the support and guidance of supervising engineer s. Volunteers whom are currently involved in and have experience in this area would be approached and 33