Nuclear Decommissioning, Waste Management, and Environmental Site Remediation

Transcription

1 Nuclear Decommissioning, Waste Management, and Environmental Site Remediation Dr C. R. BAYLISS CEng FIEE & Dr K. F. LANGLEY CChem MRSC ELSEVIER BUTTERWORTH HEINEMANN Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo

2 Contents About the authors Contributors xv Preface xvii Foreword xix xiii OSPAR (Oslo/Paris) Convention Waste Production Acronyms and Abbreviations References 21 Fundamentals Chapter 1 Setting the Scene Introduction The Evolution of the Current Organisational Arrangements in the UK A European Perspective on Nuclear Power Generation An International Perspective on Radioactive Waste Management Introduction General Nuclear Waste Class i fications Nuclear Waste Disposal Concepts Management and Funding Arrangements Multinational Radioactive Waste Facilities International Regulation and Collaboration The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD NEA) The European Commission The Kyoto Protocol and OSPAR (Oslo Paris Convention) The Kyoto Protocol 13 Chapter 2 lonising Radiation and its Control Introduction The Properties of Radiation Basic Concepts and Units The Measurement of Radiation The Biological Effects of Radiation Radiological Protection Principles Introduction Justification Dose Limits for Protective Action Practices and Intervention Optimisation of Protection The Control of Occupational Exposure The Control of Medical Exposure The Control of Public Exposure Potential Exposures Practical Advice on Radiation Protection Implementation The Role of NRPB Practical Advice on Principles for Solid Radioactive Waste Disposal Exemption of Sources from Regulatory Controls Chronic Exposures Methods of Radiation Detection Choosing Detection Equipment Practical Aspects of Radiation Protection Introduction 35 v

3 vi Contents The Designation of Controlled and Supervised Areas The Categorisation of Controlled Areas Personal Protective Equipment Summary References 40 Decommissioning Chapter 3 Decommissioning Introduction and Overview Definition and Scope Stages of Decommissioning Drivers Determining Decommissioning Plans and Programs Risk Versus Hazard Contrasting Reactor Decommissioning With Other Facilities Availability of Guidance and Reference Information References 46 Chapter 4 Typical Government Policy an Decommissioning Introduction How and Why is Government Involved? Historical Safety Regulatory Policy Security Decommissioning and Waste Management National Economic Benefits The Consequences of Failure Some of the Key Drivers for Govemment The Costs Involved National and International Responsibilities Business Potential Current Developments Structural Issues Skills Issues Regulatory Issues Waste Issues Decommissioning Research Framework Programs of the European Community The Challenges Ahead References 52 Chapter 5 The Transition from Operations to Decommissioning Introduction Preparing for the Transition Human Resource Issues Information Requirements Implementation Issues Costs of Transition Activities 55 Chapter 6 Reactor Decommissioning The Safestore Concept Introduction Decommissioning and Radioactivity Decommissioning Strategy and Option Selection Activation Inventory Worker Dose Modeling Radioactive Waste Minimisation Modeling Arguments Against Deferral Decommissioning Activities Paying for Decommissioning References 67 Chapter 7 Decommissioning PIE and Other Facilities Introduction Key lssues to be Considered Alpha and Gamma Radiation Working Decommissioning Examples 71 Chapter 8 Preparation of Documentation for Decommissioning Introduction Decommissioning Plan and Program 77

4 Contents vii 8-3 Decommissioning Safety Case Conventional Safety Documentation Requirements Management Procedures and Quality Assurance Examples of Typical Safety Documentation Materials Test Reactors to Stage 2 Decommissioning Jason (Royal Naval College) Reactor to Stage 3 Decommissioning Site Environmental Remediation to Unrestricted Use Thermal Cutting Other Methods Remote Handling Techniques Radiological Protection During Dismantling Contamination Containment Personal Protective Equipment Case Study: WAGR Decommissioning Introduction Decommissioning Plan The Dismantling Campaigns Future Strategy 111 Chapter 9 Radiological Characterisation Introduction General Approach Characterisation Plan In Situ Measurements Sampling and Analysis Quality Assurance Requirements Characterisation Report Reference 88 Chapter 10 Decontamination Techniques 89 Project and Program Management Chapter 12 Site Environmental Restoration Program Management Introduction The Framework for Environmental Restoration Program Management The Strategic Plan Introduction A Strategic Planning System Managing the Care and Maintenance Process Program Risk Management Program and Project Prioritisation The Integrated Site Restoration Plan Introduction Making the Case for a Project to Proceed Objectives and Constraints for 12-6 The Project Sanction Process 119 Decontamination lntroduction Characteristics of Decontamination Typical Sanction Paper Structure 120 Techniques Principles for Carrying out Financial Nonattritive Cleaning 90 Appraisals Chemical Decontamination References Physical Attrition Waste Minimisation and Treatment Selecting a Decontamination Technique Positive and Negative Experiences from Chapter Completed Projects 95 References 95 Chapter 11 Dismantling Techniques Introduction Cutting Techniques Mechanical Cutting 99 Project Investment Appraisal and Contract Strategy Introduction Capital Investment Project Identification Appraisal Methods Rate of Return Payback Time Value of Money Discounted Cash Flow 131

5 viii Contents 13-5 Project Investment Examples Conventional Cost Estimating NPV Example Standardised Cost Listings IRR Example Parametric Cost Estimating NPV vs. IRR Reference Project X, Other Problems, and Discussion Modern Contract Strategy in the Nuclear Industry Introduction Modern Contract Selection Appropriate to Nuclear Decommissioning Types of Contract Alternative Sources of Funds Introduction What is PFI? Fixed Price/Risk Premium and Value for Money Technical Viability and PFI Project Set-Up Costs The Staged Approach to PFI References 140 Chapter 14 Hazard Reduction and Project Prioritisation Introduction Understanding Risk and Dose Hazard Reduction Why is Hazard Reduction Important? How are Hazards Reduced? What Methods May be Used to Gauge Hazard Reduction? Project Prioritisation Why Does One Need to Prioritise Projects? A Prioritisation Methodology The Model Case Studies Hazard Reduction Over Time an Site X "My Project Is More Important Than Yours" : A Case for Project Prioritisation References 150 Chapter 15 Decommissioning Cost Estimating Introduction 153 Waste Management Chapter 16 Waste Management Introduction and Overview Requirements to Manage Radioactive Wastes Characterisation and Segregation Passive Safety Classification of Wastes Introduction Exempt Materials Clean Materials Free Release Very Low Level Waste (VLLW) Low Level Waste (LLW) Intermediate Level Waste (ILW) High Level Waste (HLW) Summary Reference 166 Chapter 17 Waste Management Strategy Introduction Waste Management Strategy Requirements Regulations Consultation Completeness NII Requirements Environment Agencies' Requirements ILW Disposal Company (Nirex) Requirements LLW Disposal Company (BNFL, Drigg) Requirements Integration of the Strategy Costs Elements of a Waste Management Strategy Waste Generation Interim Storage Retrieval Treatment Conditioning Storage Disposal 171

6 Contents ix 17-4 Strategic Planning Waste Inventory Evaluation of Treatment/Processing Options Reference Strategy Integration and Costing Review and Updating Fundamentals of Licensees' Strategies UKAEA BNFL British Energy (BE) Liabilities Management Authority (LMA) Summary References 175 Chapter 18 Policy and Regulatory Aspects of Waste Management Introduction Nuclear Site Operations Liability and Compensation for Nuclear Damage Operational Safety Environmental Policy and Regulation Introduction Specific Regulations Assessment Terminology Assessment Criteria Environmental Management System (EMS) Organisational Framework Tolerability of Risk References 192 Chapter 19 Management of Low Level Wastes (LLW) Introduction Sources of LLW Introduction Fuel Manufacture Nuclear Power Generation and Decommissioning Fuel Reprocessing Other Sources LLW Disposal Regulatory Controls Waste Control Systems LLW Disposal Practices LLW Conditioning Facilities Reference 200 Chapter 20 Management of Intermediate Level Wastes (ILW) Introduction Regulatory Requirements for ILW Sources and Processing Requirements Standard Waste Packages and Specifications Waste Package Specification Storage Transport Disposal ILW Conditions for Acceptance for Interim Storage and/or Eventual Disposal Case Study Waste Packaging Exercise Introduction Waste Descriptions Solid Waste Packaging Concept Sludge Waste Packaging Concept Questions and Hints to Answers General Case Study Data Suggested Answers to the Case Study Questions References 219 Chapter 21 Management of High Level Wastes (HLW) Introduction Origins and Disposition of HLW Spent Fuel Introduction Storage Security and Safeguards Conditioning for Disposal HLW Characteristics and Inventory Data HLW Current World Disposal Status References 227 Chapter 22 Transport Introduction 229

7 x Contents 22-2 Regulatory Requirements for Transport Regulations General Requirements Package-Specific Requirements Mode-Specific Requirements Operational Requirements Special Arrangements Examples of Waste Transport Packages Transport of Large Items of Decommissioning Waste Application of the Regulations to Large Items General Requirements Examples of the Transport of Large Decommissioning Items Regulatory Considerations in the UK DfT (Department for Transport) NII Environmental Agencies Waste Transport Planning References Intrusive Surveys Logging, Sampling, and Analysis Interpretation and Modeling Databasing and GIS Guidance an Site Investigation References 252 Chapter 25 Technologies for Remediating Contaminated Land Introduction Waste Minimisation Immobilisation, Stabilisation, and Solidification Containment Systems and Hydraulic Measures Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater Best Practicable Environmental Option References 262 Site Environmental Remediation Chapter 23 Site Remediation Principles and Regulatory Aspects Introduction Delicensing Chemically Contaminated Land Radioactively Contaminated Land Principles for Management of Contaminated Land Best Practicable Environmental Option Summary 245 Chapter 24 Characterisation of Contaminated Land I Introduction Desk Studies Walk Over Surveys Planning the Characterisation Program Health, Safety, and Logistical lssues Nonintrusive Surveys Radiological Surveys Geophysical Surveys 249 Appendices Appendix 1 Country Specific Examples of Radioactive Waste Management Programs 263 A1-1 Belgium 263 A1-2 Canada 265 Al-3 Finland 266 A1-4 France 268 A1-5 Germany 269 A1-6 Japan 270 A1-7 The Netherlands 272 A1-8 Spain 274 A1-9 Sweden 276 A1-10 Switzerland 277 A1-11 The United Kingdom 279 A1-12 The United States of America 280 A 1-13 Central and Eastern European Countries 282 Appendix 2 An Example of a Project Sanction Case Repacking of Harwell Legacy Intermediate Level Wastes 285 A2-1 Introduction 285 A2-2 Objective 286

8 Contents xi A2-3 Recommendation 286 A2-4 Technical Appraisal of Options 286 A2-4-1 Option 1: Repackage Wastes Immediately in B A2-4-2 Option 2: Delay Waste Treatment 286 A2-4-3 Option 3: Repackage Wastes Elsewhere and Seek Prompt Decommissioning of B A2-4-4 Summary of Technical Issues 288 A2-4-5 Financial Appraisal of Options 288 A2-4-6 Sensitivity 288 A2-5 Implementation 288 A2-5-1 Proposal 288 A2-5-2 Deliverables 293 A2-5-3 Risk Management 293 A2-5-4 Contract Strategy 294 A2-5-5 Safety Management 294 A2-5-6 Waste Management and Environmental 296 A2-5-7 Project Management 296 A2-5-8 Costs, Fundings, and Resources 296 A2-5-9 Priority of Project 296 A Control of Contingencies 297 A2-6 Public Relations 298 A2-7 Conclusions 298 A2-8 Description of B A2-8-1 Evaluation of Options 298 A2-8-2 Harwell Miscellaneous Wastes Including NDS Wastes 299 A2-8-3 FINGAL Vessels 299 A2-8-4 High ßy Sea Disposal Drums 301 A2-8-5 Ripple Waste Crates 303 A2-9 References 306 Appendix 3 An Example of a Site Remediation Project Dounreay Castle Ground Remediation 307 A3-1 Background 307 A3-2 Site Characterisation 307 A3-3 Option Study 309 A3-4 Design 310 A3-4-1 Remediation Design 310 A3-4-2 Planning Application 311 A3-4-3 Scheduled Ancient Monument Consent 312 A3-4-4 Safety Case 312 A3-4-5 Financial Case 312 A3-4-6 Contract 312 A3-5 Implementation 312 A3-6 Risk Assessment 314 A3-7 References 315 Appendix 4 A4-1 Internet Information 317 A4-2 Book List 318 Appendix 5 Elements and Isotopes 321 A5-1 Introduction 321 A5-2 The Nucleus 321 A5-3 Radioactivity 322 A5-4 Half-Life 323 A5-5 Table of Elements 325 A5-6 Reactor Grade Plutonium Decay 326 Index 327