MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES. 2.1 Introduction

Transcription

1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction Waste means any discarded, rejected, abandoned, unwanted or surplus matter, whether or not intended for sale or for recycling, reprocessing, recovery or purification by a separate operation from that which produced the matter; or anything declared by regulation (after consultation under section 5A) or by an environment protection policy to be waste, whether of value or not (EPA Australia 842/09: 11). Unwanted materials left over from a manufacturing process or refuse from places of human or animal habitation is called waste (EPA United States). In other words, any substance which constitutes a scrap material or an effluent or other unwanted surplus substance arising from the application of any process and any substance or article which requires to be disposed of as being broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled (United Kingdom Control of Pollution Act 1974). The term "Waste" was defined for the first time by European Council in their guidelines EU Directive 75/442/EEC which is amended as per new guideline published in According to this guideline, "Any substance or object the holder discards or intends to discard or is required to discard" is waste under the Waste Framework Directive (European Directive: 2008/98/EC). Once a substance or object has become waste, it will remain waste until it has been fully recovered and no longer poses a potential threat to the environment or to human health (European Directive: 2008/98/EC). Thus, waste includes all items that people no longer have any use for, which they either intend to get rid of or have already discarded. Additionally, wastes are such items which people are require to discard outside. Many items can be considered as waste e.g., household rubbish, sewage sludge, wastes from manufacturing activities, packaging items, discarded cars, old televisions, garden waste, old paint containers etc. Thus all our daily activities can give rise to a large variety of different wastes arising from different sources (European Topic Centre on Recourses and Waste Management). 29

2 In the light of above discussion, it can be argued that Waste is the refusal from society from the different sectors like household, commercial, industrial etc which may not be useful for the thrower but may be useful for the other one. Waste can be solid or liquid form. 2.2 Solid Waste/ Municipal Solid Waste Any waste that is not in the form of gaseous or liquid state, such waste is determined as solid waste (EPA Australia: 10). Any solid material that is rejected by society is called solid waste. Solid wastes arise from human and animal activities and are normally discarded as useless or unwanted. In other words, solid wastes may be defined as the organic and inorganic waste materials produced by various activities of the society and which have lost their value to the first user. Solid wastes can be classified into different types depending on their source of origin such as household waste, generally classified as municipal waste, industrial waste or hazardous waste and biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste. The discussion on solid waste has highlighted the source and type of any waste generated in the solid form. However, the municipal solid waste simply highlights the role of civic body or administration involved in the management of solid waste generated from different sources. Municipal Solid Waste is defined as waste or refuse from households, hazardous solid waste from industrial and commercial establishments, refuse from institutions, market waste, yard waste and street sweeping (World Bank, 1994). The general term Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) or urban solid waste refers to all waste collected and controlled by the local authority or municipality. It is a mixture of dust ash, vegetables and putriscible matter, paper and packaging materials of all variety and forms, rags, glass, metals, combustible and non-combustible debris. Garbage or refuse that is generated by households, commercial establishments, industrial offices or lunchrooms and sludge not regulated as a residual or hazardous waste. This does not include source-separated recyclables (Environmental Protection Agency, USA, 1970). Municipal solid waste includes commercial and residential wastes generated in a municipal or notified area in either solid or semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including treated bio- 30

3 medical wastes (National Solid Waste Association of India, 1998 and Ministry of Environment and Forest, 2000). According to Schubeler et al, 1996: 9, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is defined as refuse from households, non-hazardous solid waste from industrial, commercial and institutional establishments (including hospitals), market waste, yard waste and street sweepings. Municipal solid waste consists of household waste, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets. This garbage is generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes. With rising urbanization and change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of municipal solid waste generation has increased rapidly and its composition has also undergone change. According to an estimate, waste in cities/towns that was generated 6 million tonnes in 1947 became 48 million tonnes in More than one fourth of the municipal solid wastes are not collected at all and nearly 70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and there are no sanitary landfills to dispose off the waste. The existing landfills are neither well equipped nor well managed and are not lined properly to protect against contamination of soil and groundwater. Over the last few years, the consumer market has grown rapidly leading to packed products viz. cans, aluminium foils, plastics, and other such non-biodegradable items that cause incalculable harm to the environment. In India, the local governing bodies in some cities/towns have banned the use of plastics and they seem to have achieved success. For example, some areas in Jammu and Kashmir where the local authorities had putted ban on plastics and no one can find a single piece of plastic there. Other states should follow the example of this region and ban the use of items that cause harm to the environment. One positive note is that in many large cities, shops have begun packing items in reusable or biodegradable bags. Certain biodegradable items can also be composted and reused. In fact proper handling of the biodegradable waste will considerably lessen the burden of solid waste that each city has to tackle. 2.3 Classification of Solid Waste Waste can be classified into different types. Commonly wastes are classified on the basis of their physical, chemical and biological characteristics. Though there are 31

4 various classification schemes of waste as per different international agencies, the following discussion on classification of waste is in the light of the classification of waste suggested by Ramachandra, 2006: 2. He suggests two type of classification of the solid waste viz. Source-based classification and Type-base Classification. It is an advantage if one has knowledge of sources and types of solid wastes as well as information on composition and disposable time of the generated waste. It will beneficial in the management of the generated solid waste Source-based Classification The solid waste includes the material of organic and inorganic in composition. The source-based classification includes the waste classification on the basis of place of generation or source. The major classes are as follows: a. Residential wastes refers from dwellings, apartments, societies etc, and consists of residual of food, vegetables, plastic, clothes, ashes, metals etc. b. Commercial wastes are consisting residual of food, glasses, ashes, metals generated from hotels, markets, stores, garages etc. c. Institutional generally have the combination of paper, plastic, glasses, packaging material, canes etc generated from public buildings, offices, collages, institutional and administrative buildings etc. d. Municipal wastes consists dust, building debris, sludge, vegetables, park and garden wastes generated from construction and demolition, market places, street sweeping, gardens etc. e. Industrial wastes includes the waste generated from industrial activities f. Agricultural consists mainly agricultural residuals, litter, food grains etc generated from fields, orchards etc. There are different categories of waste generated, each take their own time to degenerate (as illustrated in the table 2.1 below) Type-based Classification Type-based classification includes the waste types by its physical, chemical and biological composition, which is as follows: a. Garbage waste b. Ashes and Residues waste 32

5 c. Combustible and Non-combustible waste d. Bulky waste e. Street waste f. Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable waste g. Dead animals h. Abandoned vehicles i. Construction and demolition waste j. Farm waste k. Hazardous waste l. Sewage waste m. e-waste Table 2.1 Type of Waste and their disposal time Category Type of waste Approximate time it takes to degenerate the litter Biodegradable Nonbiodegradable Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit peels, leftover foodstuff, etc. Paper Cotton cloth Wood Woollen items Tin, aluminium, and other metal items such as cans Plastic bags Glass bottles A week or two days 2 5 months years 1 year years One million years? undetermined Source: Management of Municipal Solid Waste, Page 4 33

6 Table 2.2 Classification of Solid Wastes Type Description Source Garbage Combustible and Non-combustible Food Waste from preparation, cooking and serving food. Market refuses from the handling, storage and sale of produce and meat. Combustible (primary organic) paper, cardboard, cartons, wood, Households, institutions and commercial concerns such as hotels, stores, restaurants, markets, etc. boxes, plastic, rags, cloth, bedding, leather, rubber, grass, leaves, yard trimmings, etc. Non-combustible (primary inorganic) metals, tin, cans, glass bottles, crockery, stones etc. Ashes Residue from fires used for cooking and for heating cinder, from industries etc. Bulky wastes Large auto parts, tyres, stoves, Streets, sidewalks, refrigerators, others large alleys, vacant lots, appliances, furniture, large crates, markets etc. trees, branches, stumps, etc, Street wastes Street sweepings, dirt, leaves etc. Dead animals Dogs, cats, rats, donkeys, etc. Abandoned vehicles Automobiles and spare parts Construction and Roofing and sheathing scraps, demolition wastes rubble, broken concrete, plaster, conduit pipe, wire, insulation etc. Industrial wastes Solid wastes resulting from industry processes and manufacturing operations, such as food processing wastes, boiler 34 Construction and demolition sites Factories, power plants etc.

7 house cinders, wood, plastic and metal scraps, shavings etc. Hazardous wastes Pathological wastes, explosives, Households, hospitals, radioactive materials etc institutions, stores, industry etc, Animals and agricultural Manure, crop residues etc. Livestock, farms, wastes feedlots and agriculture Sewage treatment residue Coarse screening grit, septic tank Sewage treatment sludge, dewatered sludge plants and septic tanks Source: Management of Municipal Solid Waste, Page 6 The old and worn out electrical circuits of archaic computers, monitors and other computer peripherals and other electronic devices constitutes the e-waste. Though this form of waste is still not a headache of developing countries like India, e-waste is assuming a greater significance in the developed countries. According to the European commission, e-waste is the fastest growing component of the municipal waste in Europe. A United States based environmental group SVTC (Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition) found that the electronics residuals accounts about three forth of the heavy metals in the Landfills and the items contains about 40% of Lead which is very harmful for environment. The components used to manufacture a computer or a mobile are known carcinogens and have an adverse effect upon the human health if not disposed off properly and scientifically. E-waste poses the most direct health risk upon degradation and internal chemicals are released to the environment. Lead and mercury are highly potent neuron-toxins, particularly amongst the children, who can suffer from I.Q. deficit and development abnormalities at very low levels of exposure. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.A.:2000) has listed cadmium as most dangerous if it is burned and inhaled which is found in the circuit board of computer. Hxavalent Chromium, used in circuit boards, produces lung and sinus tumour, upon inhaling at high doses. Surveys carried out by various agencies show that the health care establishments in India also are not giving due attention to their waste management. After the 35

8 notification of the Bio-medical Waste (Handling and Management) Rules, 2000, these establishments are slowly streamlining the process of waste segregation, collection, treatment, and disposal. Many of the larger hospitals have either installed the treatment facilities or are in the process of doing so. 2.4 Solid Waste Management Solid Waste Management (SWM) defined as the application of techniques to ensure an orderly execution of the various functions of collection, transport, processing, treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste (Zia and Devdas, 2006: 22). Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) encompasses planning, engineering, organization, administration, financial and legal aspects of activities refers to generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of municipal solid wastes (household garbage and rubbish, street sweepings, construction debris, sanitation residues etc.) in an environmentally compatible manner adopting principles of economy, aesthetics, energy and conservation (Joseph, 2002: 5). According to Ramachandra, Solid Waste management is associated with the control of waste generation, its storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal in a manner that is in accordance with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, public attitude and other environmental considerations. (Ramachandra, 2006: 7)Solid Waste Management is a complex task which depends as much upon organisation and cooperation between households, communities, private enterprises and municipal authorities as it does upon the selection and application of appropriate technical solutions for waste collection, transfer, recycling and disposal (Schubeler et al, 1996: 15). 2.5 Methods for Solid Waste Management Solid waste management is a very complex process which involves a set of processes such as collection, sorting and segregation, transportation, and finally disposes off of waste in sanitary land fill sites. The management of solid waste also involves the process of generation as this is the stage from where the need of management starts. There is a need to reduce the generation of waste at the very first stage. Knowing the 36

9 amount and composition of solid waste generated is necessary for all management planning. There are different types of methods which are in practice in different parts of the world. The developed countries apply the best methods for waste management while developing and under-developed countries are still using the traditional methods of waste management. The different types of methods for solid waste management are: landfills, sanitary landfills, incineration plants, composting, segregation at source, reduction of waste by using 3 R (Reduce-Reuse-Recycle) method, waste to energy etc. The above defined first four methods are the traditional methods which are used in developing and under-developed countries. In other words, these methods can be classified as waste disposal methods. The developed countries have shifted themselves on the advance techniques like reduction and used the waste as a resource to generate energy and preparing manures by composting and recycle the segregated recyclable items. These methods can be identified as waste diversion methods Waste Reduction and Reuse The effective methods for solid waste management are waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling which are known as 3R s or Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the use of these methods. They reduce or prevent green house gas emissions, reduce the release of pollutants, conserve resources, save energy and reduce the demand for waste treatment technology and landfill space. Therefore it is advisable that these methods be adopted and incorporated as part of the waste management plan. Waste reduction and reuse of products are both methods of waste prevention. They eliminate the production of waste at the source of usual generation and reduce the demands for large scale treatment and disposal facilities. Methods of waste reduction include manufacturing products with less packaging, encouraging customers to bring their own reusable bags for packaging, encouraging the public to choose reusable products such as cloth napkins and reusable plastic and glass containers, backyard composting and sharing and donating any unwanted items rather than discarding them. Both of the methods of waste prevention mentioned require public participation. In order to get the 37

10 public onboard, training and educational programmes need to be undertaken to educate the public about their role in the process. Also the government may need to regulate the types and amount of packaging used by manufacturers and make the reuse of shopping bags mandatory Recycling Recycling refers to the removal of items from the waste stream to be used as raw materials in the manufacture of new products. Thus from this definition recycling occurs in three phases: first the waste is sorted and recyclables collected, the recyclables are used to create raw materials. These raw materials are then used in the production of new products. The sorting of recyclables may be done at the source (i.e. within the household or office) for selective collection by the municipality or to be dropped off by the waste producer at a recycling centres. The pre-sorting at the source requires public participation which may not be forthcoming if there are no benefits to be derived. The evidences found that the urban poor and low-income societies are the main recyclers, re-users, and sourcereducers of their household solid waste (Murad and Siwar, 2007: 3). A system of selective collection adopted by the local authorities would be costly. It would require more frequent circulation of trucks within a neighbourhood or the importation of more vehicles to facilitate the collection. Another option is to mix the recyclables with the general waste stream for collection and then sorting and recovery of the recyclable materials can be performed by the municipality at a suitable site. The sorting by the municipality has the advantage of eliminating the dependence on the public and ensuring that the recycling does occur. The disadvantage, however, is that the value of the recyclable materials is reduced since being mixed with other garbage which directly affects on the quality of the recyclable material Composting Another method of treating municipal solid waste is composting, a biological process in which the organic portion of refuse is allowed to decompose under carefully controlled conditions. After composting the organic material through the process of digestion, the material is converted into manure/compost which is rich in nutrients and is used as a soil conditioner in agricultural fields. The natural process of composting 38

11 provides many benefits like; the process can be inexpensive; avoid landfill disposal; land requirement for landfill; finished compost applied to soils is also an important method to reduce green house gas emissions emitted from landfill; and it enhances related recycling and incineration activities. In developing countries more than 50 percent of city s municipal solid waste could be composted because of having organic or compostable material in the composition structure (Hoornweg et al, 2000; 2). Thus, there is more scope for the application of composting practice in the process of solid waste management in the developing countries. The process of composting can be applied either by the open windrow method or in an enclosed mechanical facility. Windrows are long, low mounds of refuse. They are turned or mixed every few days to provide air for the microbes digesting the organics. Depending on moisture conditions, it may take five to eight weeks for complete digestion of the waste. The enclosed or mechanical composting systems employ one or more closed tanks or digesters equipped with rotating vanes that mix and ventilate the shredded waste. Complete digestion of the waste takes about one week Incineration The other process of waste management is incineration. The process of burning waste in large furnaces is known as incineration. In these plants the recyclable material is segregated and the rest of the material is burnt. At the end of the process all that is left behind is ash. During the process of incineration some of the ash blows out with the hot air, which is called fly-ash. Both the fly-ash and the ash i.e. left in the furnace after burning have high concentration of dangerous toxins such as dioxins and heavy metals. Disposing of this ash is a problem. The ash i.e. buried at the landfills leaches the area and cause severe contamination. Burning garbage is not a clean process as it produces tonnes of toxic ash and pollutes the air and water. A large amount of waste that is burnt can be recovered and recycled. In fact, at present, incineration is kept as the last resort and is used mainly for treating the infectious waste. 39

12 Figure 2.1Waste Disposal Practices Hierarchy Landfill The safe and long-term disposal of solid waste residues is an important component of integrated waste management. Historically, landfills have been the most common, environmentally and economically acceptable method of disposal of solid waste. Even with the implementation of waste reduction, recycling and transformation technologies, disposal of solid waste in landfills remains a significant component of an integrated waste management strategy. Landfills are generally used in urban areas where a large amount of waste is generated which need to be dumped in a common place. Unlike an open dump, it is a pit that is dug in the ground. The garbage is dumped and the pit is covered thus preventing the breeding of flies and rats. At the end of each day, a layer of soil is scattered on top of it and some mechanism, usually earth-moving equipment is used to compress the garbage, which now forms a cell. After the landfill is full, the area is covered with a thick layer of mud and the site can thereafter be a developed as a parking lot or a park. 40

13 The landfills have many problems. Wastes containing various hazardous components are dumped in landfills and when water seeps through them it gets contaminated and, in turn, pollutes the surrounding area. This contamination of groundwater and soil through landfills is known as leaching. Figure 2.2 Solid Waste Management Sanitary Landfill An alternative to the landfills which will solve the problem of leaching is sanitary landfill which is more hygienic and built in a methodical manner. These are lined with materials that are impermeable such as plastics and clay, and are also built over impermeable soil. Constructing sanitary landfills is very costly and they are having their 41

14 own problems. Some authorities claim that often the plastic layer used for permeability of liquid material to underground water, developed cracks as it reacts with various chemical solvent present in the waste. The rate of decomposition in sanitary landfills is also extremely variable. This can be due to the fact that less oxygen is available as the garbage is compressed very tightly. It has also been observed that some biodegradable materials do not decompose in a landfill. Another major problem is the development of methane gas, which occurs when little oxygen is present, i.e. during anaerobic decomposition. In some countries, the methane being produced from sanitary landfills is tapped and sold as fuel. The above defined are different methods which are used to manage the municipal solid waste in different parts of the worlds. Different types of methods are adopted on the basis of composition of the waste, financial support, the knowledge and available resources. The preparation and management of a good municipal solid waste (MSW) management system needs inputs from a range of disciplines and careful consideration of local conditions. If solid wastes are not managed properly, there are many negative impacts that may result. Some of the most important are mentioned below: Uncollected wastes often end up in drains, causing blockages, which result in flooding and insanitary conditions Flies bread in some constituents of solid wastes and flies are effective vectors that spread disease. Mosquitoes breed in blocked drains. Mosquitoes spread disease, including malaria and dengue. The open burning of waste causes air pollution that is hazardous for health. Aerosols and dusts can spread fungi and pathogens from uncollected and decomposing wastes. Uncollected waste degrades the urban environment, discouraging efforts to keep streets and open spaces in a clean and attractive condition. Solid waste management is a clear indicator of the effectiveness of a municipal administration. 42

15 Dumps of waste block streets and other access ways. Dangerous items such as broken glass, razor blades, hypodermic needles and other healthcare wastes, aerosol cans and potentially explosive containers and chemicals from industries may pose risks of injury or poisoning, particularly to children and people who sort through the waste. Waste that is treated or disposed off in unsatisfactory ways can cause a severe aesthetic nuisance in terms of smell and appearance. Fires on disposal sites can cause major air pollution, causing illness and reducing visibility, making disposal sites dangerously unstable, causing explosions of cans and possibly spreading to adjacent property. 2.6 Methods of Solid Waste Management in Different Parts of World These factors may vary from place to place and that must be considered in the design of a solid waste management system. On the basis of composition, environmental conditions and available resources, different parts of world are adopted different methods for the management of solid waste. The methods are as following: Current Situation in Developed Countries The current situation in the developed countries is also serious because the high society is generating more waste than the poor society (Karnad, 2006; 9). Karnad gave some statistics for the support of his argument. He said that even a small town can generate more waste than the whole country and number of people is not only source for the generation of more waste. Level of development and municipal solid waste generation (MSW) rate is positively correlated i.e. higher the level of development, higher is the MSW generation rate (Amin, 2005; 13). Though the amount of generated waste in these countries is high but at the same time these societies have ample resources and techniques to manage the huge amount of generated waste. The developed countries were looking for new methods of waste disposal 15 year before and were very serious for the problem in future. Read found that the UK government was identifying the new methods of solid waste management for future 43

16 planning and in future land filling of the waste would not be so easy and cheap (Read, 1998; 59). The economic sound societies has turned the solid wastes into resource generated from household sector (Amin, 2005; 7). At the social front, these societies are increasing their attention to reduce health-hazards associated with waste-related economic activities and occupations. At the environmental front, developed societies are spreading awareness in young generation for the tendency of consume less, generate fewer waste, and engage in recycling of waste wherever and whenever it is possible. Spain government had put pressure for the increase in the household waste recycling and recovery rates under the guidelines of The European landfill directive and Packaging Waste Directive by aiming to reduce the amount of biodegradable municipal wastes going to landfill. The aim of this method was to reduce the quantity of waste that reached in landfills and enhance the source of income by the sale of recoverable items (Bovea and Powell, 2006; 115). In Japan, waste recycling has been growing as a result of their citizens serious concerns for environment and quality of life (Terazono et al., 2005; 492). The Northern European countries like Germany, Netherlands and Sweden, already generating energy from 25 to 40% of municipal waste and still are looking for further expansion in capacity of the energy generation plans. In Sweden to prevent the loss of energy resource (municipal waste), there is a ban on the landfilling of combustible wastes. In the Netherlands, the Government tax rating that applies to energy from waste plant is graded with reference to the efficiency of the energy production and use in the facility. Consequently, the tax incentive is to maximize the value recovered from the waste (Energy from Waste, 2003: 7). The Table 2.3 is a comparison of the methods adopted by the different income group countries in the different part of the world. High income group is representing the developed countries and low and middle income groups are the underdeveloped and developing countries. The summery of the discussion is that the developed countries have invented new methods over the conventional methods. Though these countries generate more waste than the developing countries but they have all resources available which are required for the efficient waste management. 44

17 Table 2.3 Comparison of Solid Waste Management Practices by Income Level Activity Low Income Middle Income High Income Source Reduction Collection Recycling Composting No organized programs, but reuse and low per capita waste generation rates are common. Sporadic and inefficient. Service is limited to high visibility areas, the wealthy, and businesses willing to pay. High fraction of inerts and compostables impact collection overall collection below 50%. Although most recycling is through the informal sector and waste picking, recycling rates tend to be high both for local markets and for international markets and imports of materials for recycling, including hazardous goods such as e-waste and shipbreaking. Recycling markets are unregulated and include a number of middlemen. Large price fluctuations. Rarely undertaken formally even though the waste stream has a high percentage of organic material. Markets for, and awareness of, compost lacking. Some discussion of source reduction, but rarely incorporated into an organized program. Improved service and increased collection from residential areas. Larger vehicle fleet and more mechanization. Collection rate varies between 50 to 80%. Transfer stations are slowly incorporated into the SWM system. Informal sector still involved; some high technology sorting and processing facilities. Recycling rates are still relatively high. Materials are often imported for recycling. Recycling markets are somewhat more regulated. Material prices fluctuate considerably. Large composting plants are often unsuccessful due to contamination and operating costs (little waste separation); some small-scale composting projects at the community/ Organized education programs emphasize the three R s reduce, reuse, and recycle. More producer responsibility & focus on product design. Collection rate greater than 90%. Compactor trucks and highly mechanized vehicles and transfer stations are common. Waste volume a key consideration. Aging collection workers often a consideration in system design. Recyclable material collection services and high technology sorting and processing facilities are common and regulated. Increasing attention towards long-term markets. Overall recycling rates higher than low and middle income. Informal recycling still exists (e.g. aluminum can collection.) Extended product responsibility common. Becoming more popular at both backyard and largescale facilities. Waste stream has a smaller portion of compostables than lowand middle-income 45

18 Incineration Landfilling/ Dumping Costs Not common, and generally not successful because of high capital, technical, and operation costs, high moisture content in the waste, and high percentage of inerts. Low-technology sites usually open dumping of wastes. High polluting to nearby aquifers, water bodies, settlements. Often receive medical waste. Waste regularly burned. Significant health impacts on local residents and workers. Collection costs represent 80 to 90% of the municipal solid waste management budget. Waste fees are regulated by some local governments, but the fee collection system is inefficient. Only a small proportion of budget is allocated toward neighbourhood level are more sustainable. Composting eligible for CDM projects but is not widespread. Increasing use of anaerobic digestion. Some incinerators are used, but experiencing financial and operational difficulties. Air pollution control equipment is not advanced and often bypassed. Little or no stack emissions monitoring. Governments include incineration as a possible waste disposal option but costs prohibitive. Facilities often driven by subsidies from OECD countries on behalf of equipment suppliers. Some controlled and sanitary landfills with some environmental controls. Open dumping is still common. CDM projects for landfill gas are more common. Collection costs represent 50% to 80% of the municipal solid waste management budget. Waste fees are regulated by some local and national governments, more innovation in fee collection, e.g. included in electricity or water bills. Expenditures on countries. More source segregation makes composting easier. Anaerobic digestion increasing in popularity. Odour control critical. Prevalent in areas with high land costs and low availability of land (e.g., islands). Most incinerators have some form of environmental controls and some type of energy recovery system. Governments regulate and monitor emissions. About three (or more) times the cost of landfilling per tonne. Sanitary landfills with a combination of liners, leak detection, leachate collection systems, and gas collection and treatment systems. Often problematic to open new landfills due to concerns of neighbouring residents. Post closure use of sites increasingly important, e.g. golf courses and parks. Collection costs can represent less than 10% of the budget. Large budget allocations to intermediate waste treatment facilities. Up front community participation reduces costs and increases options available to waste planners (e.g., 46

19 disposal. Source: World Bank, more mechanized collection fleets and disposal are higher than in low-income countries. recycling and composting) Current Situation in Developing Countries Contrary to this the developing countries have lack of resources and that s why they are using conventional methods of solid waste management. The local authorities of these countries are even not able to collect the total waste from the defined locations on regular basis. There are two aims of waste management viz. to protect human beings and the environment and the second to conserve resources (Brunner and Fellner, 2007: 2). The first aim is achieved only by the developed countries and now they are looking for the second aim. On the other hand, the developing countries are not able to complete the first. These countries are spending upto 800 Rs/capita/year contrary to 8000 Rs/capita/year for the waste management. The health and wellbeing of people still suffers due to inadequate waste management practices. Li (2008) called the conventional waste collection and disposal system as a garbage truck and a landfill method. These countries spent about 80-90% of their solid waste disposal budget only on the collection process and very less amount remains for the disposal purpose. And after spending huge amount on waste management, service is not on satisfaction level and even below the average (Altaf and Deshazo, 1996: 857). The Dhaka City Corporation collected only 42 percent solid wastes among the generated wastes in Dhaka City (Anwar, 2004: 1). The frequency of the collection of the waste at the dustbin locations is very irregular and uneconomical. Only VIP or posh areas are visited on the regular basis for the collection of waste. These countries treated waste as a burden instead of a resource like as developed countries. So, most of these countries are dumping their solid waste in open space without applying any proper disposal technique. In developing countries, recycling or segregation is being done on the household level. The valuable materials are sorted at household level for reselling purpose. The remaining recyclable materials are sorted at dustbins or landfill sites by rag picker and some kabadi walas. Therefore, most recycling is done through the informal sector. These countries are only applied the waste disposal practices rather than waste diversion. There 47

20 is no provision for the reduction of waste and recycling at a broad or national level. The situation is becomes worse when some of the resident or municipal authorities incinerate the waste for the reduction of quantity or avoid the transportation cost. The Table 2.4 illustrate that the low income group countries are practising only dumping or landfilling process by putting more than 75% of their solid waste into dumping sites. Composting and recycling process is exercised negligibly and there is no span for waste to energy methods. Table 2.4 MSW Disposal Methods in Select Countries Country Income Group Dumps (%) Landfills (%) Compost (%) Recycled (%) WTE (%) Other (%) Australia HIG Denmark HIG Canada HIG Netherlands HIG United Kingdom HIG United States HIG Japan HIG Cambodia LIG Uganda LIG Niger LIG Madagaskar LIG Jordan LIG Guyana LIG Source: World Bank, Therefore, the situation in the developing and underdeveloped countries is very serious at the social and environmental front. These countries should revise the methods for solid waste management and should follow the developed countries Current scenario in India India, as a developing country, itself is also not an exception from the group of the developing countries. The situation in different states and different cities is different in respect to the management of solid waste. The quantity of municipal solid waste 48

21 generated depends upon a number of factors such as food habits, standard of living and degree of commercial and industrial activity. The quantity of urban solid wastes varies seasonally and also from place to place. Data on quantity variation and generation are useful in planning collection and disposal systems. There are no authentic reports available on the generation of solid waste in Indian cities except for a few metro cities. In the absence of house to house collection data, the quantity of waste generation is assessed by direct ways like typical area study, truck load or using density and correction factor methods. A study conducted by WHO on Rapid Assessment of source of Air, Water and Land Pollution, the per capita of municipal solid waste generated in lower income areas in South East Asia was 0.4 kg/day. While Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) through its surveys has reported that in metro cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkatta and Chennai, the generation of solid waste varies from 0.45 kg/capita/day to 0.62 kg/capita/day. In other cities the per capita contribution ranges from 0.17 kg/capita/day in Kohima to 0.76 kg/capita/day in Port Blair. According to the survey conducted by CPCB in 59 Indian cities, the total per day waste generation is tonnes per day and the average waste generation is tonnes per day. The average per capita per day generated waste in above mentioned 59 cities is 0.40 kg. The result shows that the coastal cities are generating more waste than the cities located in the interior part of country. In Indian waste there is a small percentage of recyclable material and more of compostable and inert materials like ash and road dust. There is very large informal sector of rag pickers which collects recyclable waste from the streets, bins and disposal sites. They take away paper, plastic, metal, glass, rubber etc. for their livelihood, but a small quantity of recyclable material is still left behind. The developed countries have collection efficiency of the waste is more than 85% overall. On the other hand, India has collection efficiency is less than 60% as comparing to the developed countries it is very poor. And Delhi, capital city, has the efficiency of solid waste collection is below than the country s average. As per the table 3.4 the efficiency of the different town of India is given. The table shows per day waste generation and out of which how much is collected from the given points. Total collected waste is divided by the total generated waste and multiply with hundred. Thus the 49

22 efficiency of the solid waste collection is calculated for the different cities of India. The results show that the biggest city of India, Mumbai, has the maximum solid waste collection efficiency. Delhi, the capital city, generates maximum waste and has lowest solid waste collection efficiency according to the data. Chennai, Ahmadabad, Lucknow and Faridabad have good collection efficiency of the waste collection. Municipal authorities of these cities are aware and put better efforts for the waste collection. Table 2.5 Status of Solid Waste generation and collection in major cities of India Major Cities Solid Waste Generated (per day in tonnes) Solid Waste collected (per day in tonnes) Collection efficiency (in percent) Ahmadabad Bangalore Bombay Delhi Kanpur Lucknow Chennai Pune Trivendrum Source: CPCB, In India, recently solid waste management systems are assuming larger dimensions in keeping with the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules Many of the municipalities are taking appropriate actions to improve various component systems like collection of solid waste from generation areas, its transportation to processing and disposal sites, utilizing the recycling potential of Municipal Solid Waste and ultimately disposing off by land filling. According to Indian Constitution, solid waste management is a part of public health and sanitation which falls within preview of the State list. Since this activity is non-exclusive, non-rivaled and essential, the responsibility for providing the service lies within public domain. The activity being of a local nature is hand over to the Urban Local Bodies. The Urban Local Bodies or Municipality of the Urban Centers undertakes the task of solid waste service delivery, with its own staff, equipment and funds. In a few cases, part of the said work is contracted out to private contractors. In India, MSW includes wastes generated in residential and 50

23 commercial area; whereas waste from industrial and agricultural operations is separately considered. In addition to the waste generated from residential and commercial premises, the waste from street is also included in municipal solid wastes fall into three main categories viz. natural, Road Traffic and Behavioral. As per Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 2000, honorable Supreme Court of India had defined the responsibilities of Municipal authorities, State Governments and Central Pollution Control Board in the management of the solid waste of Indian cities. According to these rules, any municipal solid waste generated in a city or a town, shall be managed and handled in accordance with the compliance criteria and the procedure laid down in Schedule II and the waste processing and disposal facilities to be set up by the municipal authority on their own or through an operator of a facility shall meet the specifications and standards as specified in Schedule III and IV (all the schedules are mentioned in Annexure-3). The responsibilities of individual authority are mentioned below: 1. Responsibility Of Municipal Authority.- (1) Every municipal authority shall, within the territorial area of the municipality, be responsible for the implementation of the provisions of these rules, and for any infrastructure development for collection, storage, segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal solid wastes. (2) The municipal authority or an operator of a facility shall make an application in Form-I, for grant of authorization for setting up waste processing and disposal facility including landfills from the State Board or the Committee in order to comply with the implementation program laid down in Schedule I. (3) The municipal authority shall comply with these rules as per the implementation schedule laid down in Schedule I. (4) The municipal authority shall furnish its annual report in Form II provided in the detailed rules. 51

24 (a) To the Secretary-incharge of the Department of Urban Development of the concerned State or as the case may be of the Union territory, in case of a metropolitan city; or (b) To the District Magistrate or the Deputy Commissioner concerned in case of all other towns and cities, with a copy to the State Board or the Committee on or before the 30th day of June every year. 2. Responsibility Of The State Government And The Union Territory Administrations.- (1) The Secretary incharge of the Department of Urban Development of the concerned State or the Union territory, as the case may be, shall have the overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of these rules in the metropolitan cities. (2) The District Magistrate or the Deputy Commissioner of the concerned district shall have the overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of these rules within the territorial limits of their jurisdiction. 3. Responsibility Of The Central Pollution Control Board And The State Board Or The Committees.- (1) The State Board or the Committee shall monitor the compliance of the Standards regarding ground water, ambient air, leachate quality and the compost quality including incineration standards as specified under Schedule II, III and IV. (2) The State Board or the Committee, after the receipt of application from the municipal authority or the operator of a facility in Form I, for grant of authorization for setting up waste processing and disposal facility including landfills, shall examine the proposal taking into consideration the views of other agencies like the State Urban Development Department, the Town and Country Planning Department, Air Port or Air Base Authority, the Ground Water Board or any such other agency prior to issuing the authorization. (3) The State Board or the Committee shall issue the authorization in Form III to the municipal authority or an operator of a facility within forty-five days stipulating 52

25 compliance criteria and standards as specified in Schedule II, III and IV including such other conditions, as may be necessary. (4) The authorization shall be valid for a given period and after the validity is over, a fresh authorization shall be required. (5) The Central Pollution Control Board shall co-ordinate with the State Boards and the Committees with particular reference to implementation and review of standards and guidelines and compilation of monitoring data. 53