Research Article Resource recovery potential: A case study of household waste in Kinondoni municipality, Dar es Salaam

Size: px
Start display at page:

Download "Research Article Resource recovery potential: A case study of household waste in Kinondoni municipality, Dar es Salaam"

Transcription

1 ONLINE ISSN : Volume 4, Issue 1, Research Article Resource recovery potential: A case study of household waste in Kinondoni municipality, Dar es Salaam Aisa S. Oberlin* Department of Civil Engineering, Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 295, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Received: 28 August 2012, Accepted: 17 June 2013 Published: 21 June 2013 ABSTRACT Current paper examines the resource recovery potential from household wastes in Kinondoni municipality, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The empirical investigations were conducted in three informal settlements namely Hananasifu, Makangira and Kilimahewa all located at Kinondoni Municipality, part of Dar es Salaam city. The study involved both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. A sample of 180 households from these settlements with a focus group of 12 respondents was used. The solid waste generated was characterized using direct waste analysis, in order to determine the per capita daily waste generation and composition of solid waste. The findings from waste characterization exercise showed a rate of 0.36 kg/capita/day. The composition of waste shows that households generate large amount of kitchen waste. The average percentages (on a weight basis) of solid waste constituents sampled was as follows: kitchen/food wastes 64.6%, plastics 9.67%, paper 10.67%, aluminum 2.33%, metals 2%, glass 1.4% and residual waste 9.33%. The results show that the composition of household waste is amenable to a substantial amount of resource recovery i.e. re-use, recycling and composting. The results obtained can be used to make an evaluation of the solid waste recovery potential for other areas similar to the one studied. KEYWORDS: Kinondoni, Tanzania, resource recovery, household, solid waste, waste composition INTRODUCTION Waste is no more treated as the valueless material rather considered as a resource in the present time that demands responsible solutions for collecting, separating, managing, and recovering. Resource recovery with the aim of re-using, recycling and composting of waste is one of the prime objectives in sustainable waste management system (Zaman 2010). Initially, solid waste management (SWM) was aimed at reducing the risks to public health and later the environmental aspect also became an important focus of solid waste management (Memon 2010) Lately, the new concept of Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) has been introduced to streamline all the stages of waste management which normally include source separation, collection and transportation, transfer stations and material recovery, treatment and resource recovery, and final disposal (UNEP 2005). Resource recovery has become very crucial to increased waste generation and its impact on the environment, and on human health (Tchobanoglous et al 1993; UNEP 2009). It has been observed that household/domestic waste forms the bulk of all sources of solid waste produced in urban areas. According to Voegeli et al., (2009), to a great extent, the composition of household waste consists of biodegradable material. These household wastes are known to have high organic component of solid wastes (Eaton and Hilhorst 1993; Yhdego 1995; Mbuligwe et al. 2002), which properly accounts for * Corresponding author 2013, St. John s University of Tanzania aisa_oberlin@hotmail.com

2 A.S. OBERLIN 564 about 70% to 90%, while tins, cans and paper are probably responsible for about 5% to 10% of the total waste produced. In the case of Dar es Salaam city, the organic matter accounts for around 67% of the total amount of municipal solid waste generated (Mbuligwe and Kassenga 2004). To promote recovery operations and to prevent household waste causing pollution or damage to human health, it is most important to separate or sort out recoverable waste, already at the source of generation at household. Waste separation at source is one of the most effective ways to obtain cheap, clean and saleable materials for recovery and re-use. The importance of resource recovery includes conserving natural resources, energy, and landfill space (Mbuligwe and Kassenga 2004). This provides useful products at a more economic rate (Lardinois and van de Klundert 1993; Suchada et al. 2003; Pokhrel and Viraraghavan 2005; UNEP 2005; Zurbrugg et al. 2005). Besides these benefits, a reduction in the amount of waste produced by households would also have environmental and social benefits. Mbuligwe et al.(2002) described maximization of resource recovery as the most promising strategies for improving management of solid wastes. Re-use recovery of recyclable components and composting are the three aspects of resource recovery considered in this paper. In practice, the most common reusable materials from household generated wastes are bottles, cans and plastic bags. The recyclable material could be paper, plastics, glass and metal scraps. Compostable materials (organic in nature) include vegetable and fruit peelings and other food wastes. Mbuligwe (2002) in his study done in Dar es Salaam proved that, it is possible to produce compost from this fraction of household waste. In Kinondoni municipality, the department of solid waste management is charged with operational activities of managing solid waste. The department is responsible for all activities in solid waste management. These include planning, control, supervisory and monitoring roles. The most important role of the authority has been their responsibility for the enactment of local by-laws and for the delivery of the service directly. This way, the municipality of Kinondoni has its own strategies and regulations; nevertheless, these do not include the resource recovery of any sorts as an alternative when dealing with complex waste problems. Currently, solid waste is collected wholesale and finally disposed of at Pugu Kinyamwezi dumpsite, the only existing recognized dumpsite in the city. There is no measurement of quantities of waste generated or separation of waste by type thereof. It is considered advantageous to look at solid waste management at household level partly because household waste contributes a large amount to municipal solid waste. For instance, a study by Kasseva and Mbuligwe (2005) in Dar es Salaam showed that the households alone generate about 56% of total waste generated. There has been no study undertaken on resource recovery potential of solid waste generated at household level in Kinondoni municipality and Dar es Salaam city as a whole. Spoonful studies (Chaggu et al., 1998; Kakuru, 1985; Yhdego, 1993; Kassenga, 1999; Kassim 2006; Simon 2008; Oberlin and Szanto (2010) have considered slightly on the resource recovery, however, at the community and municipal levels. This lack of information on the resource recovery potential of household s solid waste seriously limits the available knowledge and ultimately the local capacity to develop effective municipal solid waste management plans. It is against this background that the current study attempts to assess the potential recovery of solid waste generated by households. The primary aim of this paper is therefore to provide in-depth information on household solid waste composition in order to assess the theoretical potential of resource recovery from household generated wastes in areas under study in Kinondoni municipality. The composition of household waste was determined by carrying out waste characterization exercise. For integrated waste management system to be successful the first step is to carry out waste characterization studies. We will also discuss the perceptions and attitudes of households towards resource recovery and highlights constraints hampering waste resource recovery in areas under study. The findings of this study are expected to contribute to an improved decision-making capacity for authorities in Kinondoni and other cities of developing countries with first-hand information to set up an integrated waste management program.

3 A.S. OBERLIN 565 About Study Area Kinondoni Municipality was established as an autonomous body by the Tanzanian Government notice No. 14 of the year 2000, as part of the Local Government Reform Programme in the country (KMC, 2006). Kinondoni municipality is the northernmost of three municipalities in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, the others being Temeke (to the far Southeast) and Ilala (downtown Dar es Salaam). The Municipal is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the East, to the north and west the coast region. (Fig.1). The whole of Kinondoni municipality effectively encompasses an area of 531 km 2, and a population of 1,083,913 according to national census of 2002 (NBS 2002). In Kinondoni the population was 1,750,000 in 2010 with an annual growth rate of 4.1% (Nussbaum 2012). The rapid population increase is influenced by both natural causes and immigration (birth rates and net immigration rates respectively). The population density is estimated at 2,825 persons per square kilometre (Simon 2008) FIG 1: Map of Dar es Salaam showing the city municipalities (Source: ( 2011) METHODOLOGY Sampling Procedure and Sample Size Altogether 3 sub-wards (Hananasifu, Kilimahewa and Makangira) under the jurisdiction of the Kinondoni Municipal Council were chosen of this research with total number of 3619 households. These 3 neighborhoods were purposively chosen as being together representative for the major poor neighborhoods with the most serious problems of solid waste management in Kinondoni municipality. Additionally, these settlements are predominantly occupied by low-income households and each has very high population densities as result of urbanization process; are in relative proximity of Dar es Salaam city center, and they are amongst the oldest settlements of Dar es Salaam all sprang up in 1940 s.these sub-wards were selected in consultation with Kinondoni municipal health officer. Selection of Respondents Key informants and households were the main respondents. Key informants purposively sampled included: Kinondoni municipal health officer, respective sub-ward leaders and solid waste contractors. Solid waste contractors include registered private companies and Community Based Organizations (CBOs), providing waste collection services in sub-wards selected for this study. Kinondoni municipal

4 A.S. OBERLIN 566 health office was selected because the municipality is the chosen waste management authority. Subward leaders are the ones selecting waste contractors to provide waste collection service in their areas of jurisdiction. They also supervise households to implement their duties in solid waste management (to ensure that each household has a receptacle for waste), and mobilize households on general cleanliness. In Kinondoni municipality, solid waste collection zones are based on administrative boundaries i.e. sub-wards. The selected waste contractors included: Kisutu Women Development Trust (KIWODET) from Hananasifu sub-ward, Electrical and General Contractors Ltd (CLN) from Makangira sub-ward and Tua Taka Makurumla (TTM) from Kilimahewa sub-ward. These waste contractors were selected because they provide solid waste management services in areas selected for this research. In total 7 key informants were selected. The households were selected with the help of a sampling frame (sub-ward register) which was provided by the respective sub-ward leaders. The number of households to be included in the sample was chosen at random. A sample of 180 households was generated in total. Households were given a formal, written invitation letter. The participants of focus group were identified by purposive selection with the help of sub-ward leaders, to include those who are open and could provide information in solid waste management and have experience in their locality. Gender balance was another selection criterion of the participants. Finally 12, participants ranging between 20 to 65 years old were included. Data Collection Qualitative Methods Qualitative methods used to collect necessary information in this study included: unstructured interviews, direct observation, and a focus group discussion. To understand the whole process of household waste management interviews were carried out with Kinondoni Municipal health officer, sub-ward leaders and solid waste contractors. The rationale for conducting interviews with these people was to obtain expert information on solid waste management, given their knowledge and experience. An interview with Kinondoni Municipal Health Officer was conducted in order to identify the current situation of solid waste recovery and household participation as well as investigating whether the municipality has any waste resource recovery program at household level. Finally, a household focus group discussion was conducted with 12 participants selected from the study areas in order to provide an insight into household s perspectives of waste recovery and to obtain householders views and opinions on improving solid waste management. Secondary data such as available documents and publications, different municipal reports also serves as sources of information. Quantitative Methods Structured household questionnaire survey was undertaken with the participating households in order to generate quantitative information regarding households waste management practices with respect to resource recovery. The questionnaire administered to households was structured to include questions covering demographics and socio-economic status information such as location, size of household, characteristics and status of respondents in terms of sex, marital status and age, source of income and monthly income. The questionnaire also investigated on whether the household s practices waste separation or not. Investigation was made to gain insight into household s barriers in recovering resources from solid waste. Waste characterization exercise was undertaken along with questionnaire survey. The purpose of carrying out this waste characterization was to estimate the per capita daily generation rate of household solid waste (HSW) and determine the physical composition of household waste in particular to obtain information/data which would help to identify material categories and their fractional percentages in the waste stream and their potential for re-use, composting and recycling. The materials used for the measurement of waste were: portable weighing balances with a capacity of 50 kg and 100 kg, and plastic bags with a volume of 12 liters for collecting and weighing the waste. Other utilities included forks, gloves, and facemasks for protection. Determination of waste

5 A.S. OBERLIN 567 composition was done through physical separation and observation of the collected waste. Each selected household was provided with at least one plastic bag per day. The bagged waste from each household was sorted into seven pre-determined fractions, namely food waste, glass, plastics, paper, metal/tins, aluminum, and residues (inert, ashes, and sweepings).measurements of waste generation in the selected areas were carried out three different days in a week for a period of 12 weeks and mean values determined. Each waste fraction was weighed on the spot separately and its weight recorded. The percentage of each component (ci) was calculated using the relation: (c) % =, Where W 1 is the weight of a certain component (kg) and W is the total weight of the waste sample (kg). Data Analysis Data collected from the questionnaire survey was digitally compiled, coded and edited. Data entry was manually cross-checked to ensure accuracy. The coded items were summed up to provide frequencies and percentages were calculated using SPSS software. Data from the interviews, observations, and the focus group discussion were further processed and edited. Comments from SWM professionals, the authors judgments and results from interviews were used as a basis for the analysis and interpretations of the qualitative data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Household Waste Generation Rate The per capita per day waste generation rates in the selected areas were determined so as to estimate the total amount of domestic/household solid waste generated per day. It is important to know the amount of waste generated before one can plan appropriate management strategies. Table 1 presents the empirical results of the average means of waste generation rates. The per capita daily waste generation was calculated by dividing the total waste generated by the total number of people (household size) in a household. The household sizes were captured during the questionnaire survey. The mean waste generation rate values were established to be 0.4, 0, 36 and 0.33 kg/cap/day for Hananasifu, Makangira and Makurumla respectively as shown in table 1(column III). From these findings, an average of 0.36 kilograms of solid waste generated per person per day was computed for the total number of households surveyed (180). The average household size was found to be 6.3 as calculated from average means of surveyed households from each sub-ward as presented in table 1 (column II). The information on household size was important when calculating the per capita waste generation. To determine waste produced per household per day for surveyed households in each subward, the per capital daily waste generation was multiplied by the average household size (column IV in table 1). As indicated in column V in Table 1; the total mass of waste generated per day for all households sampled (180) was calculated and the result was kg/day or 0.433tons/day, which is equivalent to 35.6% of the total waste generated by households in Kinondoni municipality. Interviews with Kinondoni Municipal Health Officer indicated that in 2008, the amount of waste generated in Kinondoni was 2026 tons per day out of which 60% ( tons per day) was from households. Resource recovery potential of household solid waste Physical Composition of Household Waste Analyses for household solid waste composition were carried out as described in the methodology in order to know the constituents as well as the overall composition of solid waste. Table 2 shows the average percentages of solid waste constituents found in household waste in each selected studied subward, as obtained from the waste characterization study. As it can be seen in the household waste stream contain different types of waste materials that can be handled in different ways to maximize recovery.

6 A.S. OBERLIN 568 TABLE 1: Waste Generation Rates Surveyed households (I) Household size (II) Waste generation (kg/cap/day) (III) Waste/household (kg/day) (IV) Total waste (kg/day) (V) Hananasifu (n=70) Makurumla (n=67) Makangira (n=43) Total = kg Average 18.8/3 = /3 = /3 = 2.3 kg TABLE 2: Physical Composition of Household Solid Waste Generated in Studied Sub-Wards. Waste category (%) Sub-ward name Average (%) Component Hananasifu Makangira Kilimahewa Kitchen/food waste Plastic Papers Glass Aluminum Metal Residues Total The larger proportion of waste is found within the recovery and potentially recoverable materials categories through re-use, recycling and composting, which, as a whole, represent 64.6 % in the case of kitchen/food waste and, 27.2% in total the case of recyclables (plastics, papers, aluminum, metals and glass). These findings seem to be slightly higher comparable with the findings of previous related studies conducted in Dar es Salaam as presented in table 3. TABLE 3. Percentage (%) Fraction of Waste Materials in Low-income Household Waste in Dar es Salaam in 1997, 2002, Type of Waste JICA Study Shengena (2002) Environmental Resources (1997) Consultancy RC (2004) Kitchen waste Paper Plastics Metal Glass Residual waste A study by JICA (1997) revealed that kitchen waste represented 39.8%, and 8.3% in case of recyclables, Shengena (2002) indicated 42% of kitchen waste and 8% in case of recyclables. The study by ERC (2004), showed the same percentage of kitchen waste (42%), and 16% of recyclables.

7 A.S. OBERLIN 569 The relatively high share of plastics and papers in this study can be attributed to the extensive use of plastics and paper packaging materials in retail shops and from business conducted by households within the household environment. As for glass, aluminum, and metal, the main reason for this low percentage is due to the fact that in recent times there has been a shift from glass, aluminum and metal containers to plastic containers such as food containers, water bottles, medicine bottles etc. It is also possible that respondent (households) kept saleable valuable materials such as cans and glass bottles and tended not to provide them to us for the survey, which accounts for the very small amounts of these materials. Also households tend to give away the recyclable materials to illegal waste pickers (Fig 2). Therefore, our waste analysis covered mainly the waste materials that were intended for disposal. The share of residue waste (9.33%) is also considerable, mainly consisting of ash, sweepings, charcoal and sand. The high residual content can be explained from the fact that, majority of studied household s uses charcoal as a household fuel source. The ash that is subsequently produced is very dense and tends to dominate the waste stream in terms of weight. The presence of sweeping (sand and soil) in residual waste is due to largely unpaved household s surroundings. The domination of the fraction of food waste correlates mainly with the dietary habit of people in the study sub-wards who eat food that is unprocessed with high moisture content, bulky and therefore denser. Since 64.6 % of household waste in areas under study comprised compostable waste, this can be considered significant enough to warrant further planning of composting operations rather than disposing it in the landfill or dumpsite. Mbuligwe et al (2002) reported that composting can avail a reduction in landfill space exhaustion rate by more than 50%. Further, their study suggested that composting constitutes a resource recovery measure. For example papers that are meant to undergo some processing can be turned into toilet papers. In the same manner old and broken glasses and bottles can be utilized in the manufacture of new glassware. Likewise plastics can be recycled, so as to minimize the problem of indiscriminate disposal of polythene products in drainages. Efforts should be made by stakeholders to evolve policies for disposal, recycling and ultimately zero waste situation. Residual waste form considerable larger component in the waste generated within household s environment. Due to its nature, this type of waste cannot be re-used or recycled; however, strategies can be devised to create awareness to reduce the waste of this nature. Based on the results presented in Table 2 and resource recovery potential classification in table 4, it is evident that a large proportion of the waste generated in the areas under study can be recovered or is potentially recyclable, if the waste is sorted at the source.

8 A.S. OBERLIN 570 TABLE 4: Categories for Determining the Composition of Wastes and their Potential for Recycling Waste type Composition Recovery potential Plastic Containers for oil, Packaging Tubes of toothpaste, * Plastic bags, Rubber Metal Fruit and vegetable containers, Components of machines, vehicles. Glass Broken glasses(bottles, window) Paper Newspapers and magazines, Packaging Books Kitchen waste Food left overs, Vegetable and fruit peels Aluminum Cans of soft drinks and beer, food cans Residues Ash, dust, silt, sweepings, charcoal Pieces of wood, SOURCE: Adopted from Tchobanoglous, Theisen et al.(1993) The existing resource recovery system Waste Separation, Re-use and Recycling According to the municipal health officer of Kinondoni, the municipality has not systematically considered and applied resource recovery as an alternative when dealing with municipal waste problems. The municipal focus was and still is on collection-to disposal. Based on the questionnaire survey, waste separation at the household level was found not to be common practice. Out of 180 respondents, none acknowledged to separating their household wastes. This is a key finding as it complicates solid waste recycling for other uses and eventual composting of waste (fractions).the only key difference to this statement is that shows some households recover plastic and glass containers by putting them aside for re-use sale or gift. As shown in figure 2 the findings indicated that on average 77% of the respondents kept the recyclables for their own use, 10% indicated that they give to others, and 13% mix them with other wastes in storage containers. Although the ultimate percentage of waste that is kept for re-use from the total waste was not calculated, this practice indicates that each studied household contributes to resource recovery in solid waste management.

9 Own use Give away to others Mix with other waste Percentages A.S. OBERLIN % 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 77% 10% 13% FIG 2.: Households waste recovery practices Separation at the source, therefore, is largely confined to items that households can either use themselves or give to others. As it happens at source, it is in fact troublesome to regard these items as wastes. It is clear that, households waste management practice of putting recyclables aside, reflect recycling too. These materials are disposed of only when they completely lose their functional value. Figure 2 indicated that, most common recovered materials are plastic materials like mineral water bottles and glass containers. Households consider these materials to have value for re-using and that is the main reason why they are separated from the rest of the waste materials. Some respondents reported that, they put plastic bottles and glass containers aside for waste pickers, to avoid scattering of waste which is caused by unknown illegal waste pickers who pass around retrieving recyclables from storage containers leaving other waste scattered around. Composting As mentioned earlier of the 180 survey respondents, none acknowledged that they separate their household wastes. It is clear from our findings that one of the factors amongst others which will hinder composting is non-existence of separation of generated waste to remove compostable kitchen materials to effect composting. Our waste characterization study found that kitchen waste, a lot of which is compostable, contributed to 64.6% (Table 2) of household waste and is higher than other solid waste materials generated at household level. Most of this was food left over fruit and vegetable waste. Solid waste separation is one of the important elements of effective composting. Clearly, nonseparation of the solid waste at source observed in this research reduce the chance of setting up composting schemes at household level. In addition, for the sub-wards under study composting at household level will be hindered by inadequate space as there is no land available for composting within these sub-wards anymore; the land is congested and used for mainly residential purposes. Main factors affecting the resource recovery For resource recovery at household level, it is obvious that source separation of waste is important. Through questionnaire survey and focus group discussion households gave various reasons of not separating waste when the question was posed to them to explain the reason for not separating waste.

10 A.S. OBERLIN 572 Both the findings from the survey (N= 180) and the focus group discussions (N=12) participants point in the same direction. Table 5 presents in detail these reasons as they emerged from the questionnaire survey. Focus group discussion extended and refined findings from questionnaire. During the discussion participants emphasized that there is no use of separating waste at household level because the waste collectors will re-mix it. As one participant quoted To separate waste is wasting of time, because where it goes will later be mixed. The questionnaire found that majority (34%) of the sampled households did not know about waste separation. However, it was also found that households were setting recyclables aside (Fig.2). There is a possibility that households do not associate setting aside materials with resource recovery. TABLE 5. Description of reasons for not separating solid wastes Reason for not separating waste N Percentage (%) Wastage of time 18 10% Time consuming 27 15% Expensive to have more than 1 containers 4 2% Not known to me 61 34% No space for containers 21 12% Not much waste for separation 45 25% Not interested 4 % Total CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION The study on the composition of household waste provided information/data which helped to recognize material categories and their relative proportions in the household waste stream for potential reduction, composting and recycling. Although the composition of household waste indicates the presence of waste materials that can be recovered, the potential for recovery of useful materials from household wastes is currently not being fully exploited. This potential can be enhanced through solid waste separation, so that the amount of waste recovered is increased. However, the fact that currently some households recover plastic and glass containers by putting them aside for re-use, sale or gift imply that resource recovery has an excellent potential and is practicable. This is an important entry point to promote the concept of resource recovery as an integral part of waste management schemes, and implemented in conformity with local needs and constraints. The study revealed that, Kinondoni municipality currently has no policy or programs that encourage resource recovery at household level. Although the practice of resource recovery is not recognized by the municipality and waste separation not supported and also not common knowledge among householders, waste separation for both technical and economic reasons seems to be an important aspect to be (re)considered in the context of future policies on domestic solid waste management in informal settlements in Kinondoni and Dar es Salaam as a whole. It can be concluded that, there should be infrastructural support from the central and local government to encourage and promote resource recovery at household level so as to recover useful waste materials right at the source, which is more effective in reducing waste management costs. Also, resource recovery activities should encompass income generation as to address socio-economic as well as environmental problems. A comprehensive study to assess feasibility and the marketing potential for recyclables and compost should be conducted. The local recyclables market can absorb the portion of waste considered as recyclables. This approach has a greater success potential because it is likely to be more acceptable to beneficiaries. For economies of scale and market acquisition for recyclables and compost, may need to be practised at municipal rather than at a household level.

11 A.S. OBERLIN 573 ACKNOWLEDGMENT This paper was prepared in the framework of the Partnership for Research on Viable Environmental Infrastructure Development in East Africa (PROVIDE) program. The advisory support of Dr Gabor Laszlo Szanto is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks go to all the respondents to the questionnaire survey and interviews for their invaluable time in responding to the questionnaire and interviews. REFERENCE Chaggu E. J., Kaseva M. E., Kassenga G. R., Mbuligwe S. E. (1998). Research and Pilot Scale Demonstration Project on Composting of Domestic Solid Waste: case study-sinza, Dar es Salaam. (Unpublished report). Department of Environmental Engineering, University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Eaton, D. and T. Hilhorst (1993), Opportunities for managing solid waste flows in the periurban interface of Bamako and Ouagadougou. Environment and Urbanization15(1): Environmental Resources Consultancy (2004), Environmental Impact Assessment for Proposed Sanitary Landfill a Pugu- Kinyamwezi, Final report, Dar es Salaam. JICA. (1997). Final Report -The study on the solid waste management for Dar es Salaam City. Dar es Salaam. Kassenga G. R. (1999). Potential and constraints of composting as a market solid wastes disposal option for Dar es Salaam City in Tanzania. Journal of Solid Waste Technol Management26(2): Kasseva, M. E., S. E. Mbuligwe and G. Kasenga (2002). Recycling inorganic domestic solid wastes. Results from a pilot study in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Resource, Conservation and Recycling.35: Kassim, S. M. (2006).Sustainability of private sector in solid waste collection - A case of Dar es Salaam Tanzania. PhD(Thesis): 347pp. Civil and Building Engineering. Loughborough, University. Kakuru P.(1985).Composting of institutional solid waste at Ardhi Institute. Department of Public Health Engineering, Ardhi Institute (Unpublished dissertation report). Dar es salaam, Tanzania, Kinondoni Municipal Council. (2006). Waste management plan for the year Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Lardinois, I. and A. van de Klundert (1993). Organic Waste:Options for small-scale resource recovery Amsterdam. Mbuligwe, S. E. and G. R. Kassenga (2004). Feasibility and strategies for anaerobic digestion of solid waste for energy production in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 42: Mbuligwe, S. E., G. R. Kassenga, Kaseva M. E. and Chaggu E. J. (2002). Potential and constraints of composting domestic solid waste in Developing Countries. Findings from a pilot study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Resources, Conservation and Recycling.36: Memon, A. M (2010). Integrated solid waste management based on the 3R approach. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 12: Nussbaum, (2012), Dar es Salaam United Republic of Tanzania: Housing for People Living with HIV/AID NBS. (2002). Tanzanian household budget survey 2000/2001 National Bureau of Statistics. pp 28 Oberlin, A. S and Szanto, G.L. (2010).Community level composting in a developing country: case study of KIWODET, Tanzania.Waste Management and Research. 29(10): Pokhrel, D. and T. Viraraghavan (2005). Municipal solid waste management in Nepal:Practices and Challenges.Waste Management 25(2): Simon, A. M. (2008). Analysis of Activities of Community Based Organizations Involved in Solid Waste Management, Investigating Modernized Mixtures Approach. The Case of Kinondoni Municipality, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. MSc (Thesis): 93 pp. Wageningen University.

12 A.S. OBERLIN 574 Suchada, P., J. Trankler, K. Cholada and W. Scholl (2003).The role of formal and informal sector in solid waste management of Developing Countries Ninth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Italy. Tchobanoglous G, Theisen H, Vigil SA (1993). Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: McGraw-Hill, 978pp. UNEP (2005). Integrated Solid Waste Management Scoreboard. A Tool to Measure Performance in Municipal Solid Waste Management:57pp. UNEP (2009). Developing integrated solid waste management plan: ( A Training Manual). 176 pp Voegeli, Y., C. Lohri, G. R. Kassenga, U. Baier and C. Zurbr ugg (2009). Technical and biological performance of the arti compact biogas plant for kitchen waste - Case study from Tanzania. Twelfth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Sardnia Italy. Yhdego, M. (1995). Urban Solid Waste Management in Tanzania. Issues, Concepts and Challenges." Resource, Conservation and Research 14: Zaman A.U (2010). Comparative study of municipal solid waste treatment technologies using life cycle assesment method. International Journal of Science and Technology. 7(2) Zurbrügg C (2002).Solid waste management in developing countries. Dübendorf, Sandec. Zurbrugg, C., S. Dreschera, I. Rytza, A. H. M. Maqsood Sinhab and I. Enayetullahb (2005). Decentralised composting in Bangladesh. A win-win situation for all stakeholders.resources, Conservation and Recycling. 43: