1 INTRODUCTION Purpose and Scope... 1

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1 Table of Contents PREFACE... I 1 INTRODUCTION Purpose and Scope Background on Water for Power Plant Cooling Water Use Definitions Configurations that Characterize Water Use of Power Plant Cooling Systems Trends in Power Plant and Cooling System Installations (United States) Measuring and Estimating Thermal Power Plant Cooling Water Consumption and Withdrawal Nomenclature References THE CONTEXT OF THERMAL POWER PLANT WATER USAGE Power Plant Cooling as Part of a Larger Whole System Environmental Considerations for Power Plant Water Usage Environmental Effects of Thermal Power Plants Regulatory Context EPA Analysis of Costs and Benefits of Retrofitting From Once- Through Cooling to Cooling Towers Balancing Thermoelectric Power Production and Thermal Pollution Energy Information Administration Collection and Dissemination of Cooling System Data EIA and Its Relevant Forms Ensuring Accuracy of EIA Data Maintaining Relevance of EIA Data Cooling System Data Collected by EIA... 31

2 2.5 Nomenclature References ENGINEERING AND PHYSICAL MODELING OF POWER PLANT COOLING SYSTEMS Heat and Water Balance of Power Plant Cooling Systems Introduction to Cooling System Types Once-Through Cooling Wet-Cooling Towers Heat Balance of a Cooling Tower Water Balance for Wet-Cooling Towers Wet-Cooling Tower Materials and Design Dry-Cooling Towers Parallel Condensing Systems Hybrid (Wet-Dry) Cooling Towers Wind Impacts on Dry-Cooling Towers Summary of S-GEM: System-Level Generic Model of Thermal Cooling Systems Sensitivity of S-GEM Effects of Ambient Conditions: Once-Through Cooling Effects of Ambient Conditions: Wet-Cooling Tower Cooling of Natural Gas Combustion and Combined Cycle Power Plants Inlet Air Cooling in Gas Turbines Water for DeNOx System in Gas Turbines Natural Gas Combined Cycle Cooling Requirements Extraction of Water From Power Plant Exhaust Gas Condensing Heat Exchanger Flue-Gas Water Recovery Calculation NGCC Example Flue-Gas Water Recovery Calculation Coal Example Specific Cooling Water Requirements in Commercial Nuclear Power Introduction Water needs during normal operation Handling of Spent Reactor Fuel Discharge of Cooling Water Cooling After Shutdown and During Emergencies... 57

3 3.5.6 Advanced Light Water Reactor Designs Summary USGS Estimation of Water Consumption and Withdrawal Including Forced Evaporation Introduction Background Forced-Evaporation Model Discussion Conclusion Evaporation Suppression From Reservoirs Considerations for Water Quality and Treatment for Power Plant Cooling Water Nomenclature References ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS AND DRIVERS Introduction Cooling System Alternatives Once-Through Cooling Closed-Cycle Wet Cooling Dry Cooling Hybrid Cooling Cooling System Selection Methodology and Trade-offs Costs Specific to Cooling System Plant Costs Affected by Cooling System Choice Other Plant Equipment Cooling System Related Penalty Costs System Optimization Cost and Performance Comparisons of Cooling Systems for New Thermal Power Plants Cost of Water Conservation System Economic Studies of Cooling System Retrofits Retrofit Cost Methodology... 14

4 4.5.2 Degrees of Difficulty of Once-Through to Wet-Cooling Tower Retrofits Cost Ranges for Cooling System Retrofits Nuclear-Specific Issues Examples of Thermal Power Plants That Have Retrofitted Once- Through Cooling Systems Economic Benefits of Alternative Cooling Technologies Value of Resiliency Against Water Constraints Insurance Against Water Constraints Applicability to Retrofit and New Construction Nomenclature References COOLING SYSTEM CASE STUDIES Various Case Studies Argentina ACC Instead of Once-Through Sea Water to Avoid Disturbed Habitat for Coastal Tourism ACC to Avoid Visible Plumes North Africa ACC Instead of Nearby Brackish or Sea Water Drought and Water for Energy in Australia Air-Cooling Kogan Creek Power Station Kogan Creek Solar Boost Project Conclusion: Australia Case Study Regulatory Frameworks and Incentives for Australian Power Plants to Adopt Water Efficiency Measures Municipal Water Reuse for Power Plant Cooling Introduction CPS Energy History of Braunig and Calaveras Lake Power Stations Braunig and Calaveras Power Stations Water Chemistry Challenges of Reclaimed Water Use Water Supply Management Strategies Conclusions Acknowledgements... 23

5 5.5 Case Study of Dry Cooling in South Africa Introduction History and Plant Configurations General Operational Experience With Dry-Cooling Systems Power Plant Cooling Systems in Spain Introduction Iberian Climate Atlas Spanish Power Plants Cooling Tendency References GLOSSARY... 1