Nuclear power requires relatively large capital investments, long lead times, and a solid supporting infrastructure.

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1 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.1: LIGHT WATER REACTOR (LWR) Source Country for Data: IAEA Date: August, 1994 Technology Data Type: Best Available Practice GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Sector: Electricity. Applications: Electric power generation. Typical Size: MW e unit capacity. The average load factors of light-water reactors in the world in 1993 were about 70%. Design Fuels: Uranium (enriched). Performance Measure: Net thermal efficiency ranges from 31 to 34%. Design Lifetime: 30 years as economic lifetime, but life extension can reach 60 years. Construction and Delivery Timeframe: Normally, 3 years for siting and licensing; 7-9 years construction duration for a 1000 MW e plant. Development Status: Commercial. Light-water reactors have been the most widely deployed systems among the proven types of reactors commercially available today in the world. More than three quarters of the total number of reactors operating worldwide (430 at the end of 1993) belong to this class of reactors. COST INFORMATION Location and Year: U.S., Capital and Installation: Base construction costs range from US$ /kW. Capital cost is the major part of nuclear electricity generation costs, with a share of about 50-70%. Nuclear power requires relatively large capital investments, long lead times, and a solid supporting infrastructure. Non-fuel Operating and Maintenance: US$ 40-70/kW-yr. Decommissioning costs are high in absolute terms, ranging between 10 and 20% of initial capital cost, but when discounted this amounts to only a few percent of the total investment cost of the plant. Decommissioning costs represent a very minor component of overall electricity generation costs. Fuel: 5-8 mills/kwh. 92

2 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.1: LIGHT WATER REACTOR (LWR) (Cont'd) ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS Waste Streams: For a 1000 MW e plant, about tonnes of radioactive spent fuel would be produced to be disposed or reprocessed. Potential sources of releases to the environment from the operation of nuclear plants include mainly radioactive gaseous and liquid effluents and solid wastes, thermal discharges from condensed steam and chemical discharges from different systems in the plant. Strict controls and continuous monitoring before discharge are generally used to ensure that environmental regulations and safe levels are not exceeded. Air Pollutants: Negligible. Carbon Emissions: None. Site Specific: Land requirements are about 2600 m 2 /MW e ; Consumptive loss of cooling water is estimated at m 3 /s/gw e. Emissions Retrofit Potential: None. IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS (LABOR AND INFRASTRUCTURE) Operating & Maintenance Personnel: Operating and maintenance personnel: persons for a 1000 MW e plant. Personnel must be highly qualified and certain additional educational and training infrastructures would be needed. Most of the operations and maintenance people will be technicians and craftsmen. Infrastructure Requirements: Must be connected to an electricity transmission grid system, and to heavy load transport routes (about 500t). Any country for which nuclear power is a viable option must have an electric system of reasonable size, a basic industric infrastructure, and a corresponding organizational and regulatory framework. REFERENCES International Atomic Energy Agency Guidebook on the Introduction of Nuclear Power, IAEA Technical Reports Series No. 217, Vienna, Austria. International Atomic Energy Agency Expansion Planning for Electrical Generation Systems, A Guidebook, Technical Reports Series No. 241, Vienna, Austria. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Nuclear Power Economics and Technology: An Overview, Paris, France. 93

3 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.2: HEAVY WATER REACTOR (HWR) Source Country for Data: IAEA Date: August, 1994 Technology Data Type: Best Available Practice GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Sector: Electricity. Applications: Electricity power generation. Typical Size: MW e unit capacity. Design Fuels: Natural uranium. Performance Measure: Net thermal efficiency 29-32%. Design Lifetime: 30 years as economic lifetime, but life extension can reach 60 years. Construction and Delivery Timeframe: 3 years for siting and licensing; 6-8 years construction for a 900 MW e plant. Development Status: Commercial. Heavy-water reactors with a pressure tube design have been developed mainly in Canada and have been operated in several countries. The Canadian CANDU reactor is one variety of this reactor type. COST INFORMATION Location and Year: U.S., Capital and Installation: Base construction costs: US$ /kWe, although the large reactor core usually leads to a higher capital cost than for light-water reactors. Non-fuel Operating and Maintenance: US$ 40-70/kW-yr. Operation and maintenance costs for heavy-water reactors are high in some countries due to heavy water leasing and top-up costs. Decommissioning costs are similar to that of light-water reactors. 94

4 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.2: HEAVY WATER REACTOR (HWR) (Cont'd) COST INFORMATION (Cont'd) Fuel: 2-5 mills/kwh. ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS Waste Streams: The spent fuel should be stored permanently; no reprocessing option is available. Al gaseous and liquid effluents are strictly controlled concerning their radioactivity. Air Pollutants: Negligible. Carbon Emissions: None. Site Specific: Similar to light water reactors. Emissions Retrofit Potential: None. IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS (LABOR AND INFRASTRUCTURE) Operating and Maintenance Personnel: Operating and maintenance personnel: 350 persons for a 450 MW e plant. Infrastructure Requirements: Similar to light-water reactors. REFERENCES International Atomic Energy Agency Guidebook on the Introduction of Nuclear Power, IAEA Technical Reports Series No. 217, Vienna, Austria. International Atomic Energy Agency Expansion Planning for Electrical Generation Systems, A Guidebook, Technical Reports Series No. 241, Vienna, Austria. International Atomic Energy Agency Advances in Heavy Water Reactors, IAEA-TECDOC-738, Vienna, Austria. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Nuclear Power Economics and Technology: An Overview, Paris, France. Rahu, F.J., et al A Guide to Nuclear Power Technology, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA (US). 95

5 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.3: LIQUID METAL FAST REACTOR (LMFR) Source Country for Data: IAEA Date: August, 1994 Technology Data Type: Best Available Practice GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Sector: Electricity. Applications: Electric power generation. Typical Size: MW e unit capacity. Design Fuels: Uranium and oxides of plutonium. Performance Measure: Net thermal efficiency 38-41%. Design Lifetime: 30 years. Construction and Delivery Timeframe: 3 years for siting and licensing; 8-10 years construction for a 1000 MW e plant. Development Status: Development. A number of demonstration plants are being operated, but LMFRs have yet to be used commercially on a large scale. At present (1994), 11 LMFRs are operating in seven countries, with almost 200 reactor-years experience in total. Most of these reactors, however, are prototypes. COST INFORMATION Location and Year: U.S., Capital and Installation: Base construction costs: US$ /kW. First-generation LMFRs are at a disadvantage as compared with light-water reactors in terms of specific capital costs and electricity generation costs. With technical progress, the anticipated capital costs of a commercial LMFR may be reduced to 25-50% greater than that of a comparable advanced light-water reactor. Non-fuel Operation and Maintenance: US$ /kW-yr. 96

6 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.3: LIQUID METAL FAST REACTOR (LMFR) (Cont'd) COST INFORMATION (Cont'd) Fuel: 6-12 mills/kw. Fuel costs of LMFR are also higher than those of light-water reactors as a result of fuel enrichment, and operation of the first generation under conditions of unclosed fuel cycle. Any future increases in uranium prices will create comaprartive advantages for the LMFR. ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS Waste Streams: May generate radioactive waste at lower rates than other technologies by burning actinide and plutonium. All gaseous and liquid effluents are strictly controlled concerning their radioactivity. Specialists believe that LMFR is the only proven technology capable of utilizing depleted uranium, transforming long-lived transuranic waste and enabling the efficient clean use of both military and civilian plutonium, low grade uranium and thorium. Air Pollutants: Negligible. Carbon Emissions: None. Site Specific: Similar to light water reactors. Emissions Retrofit Potential: None. IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS (LABOR AND INFRASTRUCTURE) Operating and Maintenance Personnel: Similar to light water reactors. Infrastructure Requirements: Similar to light water reactors. REFERENCES International Atomic Energy Agency Guidebook on the Introduction of Nuclear Power, IAEA Technical Reports Series No. 217, Vienna, Austria. International Atomic Energy Agency Status of National Programmes of Fast Reactors, IAEA- TECDOC-741, Vienna, Austria. Golan, S., et al "Liquid-Metal Fast Reactors: Technical and Economic Status," IAEA Bulletin, 31(3), Vienna, Austria. 97

7 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.4: GAS COOLED REACTOR (GCR) Source Country for Data: IAEA Date: August, 1994 Technology Data Type: Best Available Practice GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Sector: Electricity. Applications: Electricity power generation and process heat application. Typical Size: MW e unit capacity. Design Fuels: Uranium, thorium. Performance Measure: Net thermal efficiency 39-42%. The advanced gas-cooled reactor was the world's best performing reactor type in terms of average annual load factor (about 74% in 1993). Design Lifetime: 30 years. Construction and Delivery Timeframe: 3 years for siting and licensing; 7-9 years construction for a large unit. Development Status: Commercial. COST INFORMATION Location and Year: U.S., Capital and Installation: Base construction cost: US$ 2200/kW, projected for 4 x 287 MW e GT-MHR plant. Non-fuel Operation and Maintenance: US$ 60-70/kW-yr. Also, decommissioning costs of GCR are higher than that of light water reactors, as much larger amounts of waste arise from decommissioning. For operation and maintenance of a 690 MWe modular HTGR, approximately 300 persons are required. Fuel: mills/kwh. Fuel costs are slightly higher for this technology due to higher fuel enrichment and higher fuel cycle costs. 98

8 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY C.4: GAS COOLED REACTOR (GCR) (Cont'd) ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS Waste Streams: The high thermal efficiency of high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR) results in a reduced environmental impact from non-usable heat. Thus a HTGR releases approximately 25% less waste than a light-water reactor of the same capacity. Treatment systems using devices similar to those used in light-water reactors will keep liquid releases as low as practicable. Produces less solid waste relative to light-water reactors. All gaseous and liquid effluents are strictly controlled concerning their radioactivity. Air Pollutants: Negligible. Carbon Emissions: None. Site Specific: Similar to light water reactors. Emissions Retrofit Potential: None. IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS (LABOR AND INFRASTRUCTURE) Operating and Maintenance Personnel: Operating and maintenance personnel: Similar to light water reactors (300 persons for 690 MW MTGR). Infrastructure Requirements: Similar to light water reactors. REFERENCES International Atomic Energy Agency Guidebook on the Introduction of Nuclear Power, IAEA Technical Reports Series No. 217, Vienna, Austria. International Atomic Energy Agency Status and Prospects for Gas-Cooled Reactors, Technical Reports Series No. 235, Vienna, Austria. International Atomic Energy Agency Case Study on the Feeasibility of Small and Medium Nuclear Power Plants in Egypt, IAEA-TECDOC-739, Vienna, Austria. Rahu, F.J., et al A Guide to Nuclear Power Technology, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA (US). 99