Methods of management and quality control

Transcription

1 Zachodniopomorski Uniwersytet Technologiczny w Szczecinie Wydział Inżynierii Mechanicznej i Mechatroniki Methods of management and quality control Lecture 1-5 introduction, quality tools (10h) Dr. eng. Agnieszka Terelak-Tymczyna

2 Course Literature 1. Ed. By Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun: Poka-Yoke: improving quality by preventing defects, Shigeo Shingo: Zero quality control: source inspection and poka-yoke system, 1986, 3. Shigeo Shingo: A revolution in manufacturing: the SMED system. 4. Montgomery, Douglas of quality management and control C.: Statistical quality control: a modern introduction, Allen, Theodore T.: Introduction to engineering statistics and six sigma: statistical quality control and design of experiments and systems, Besterfield, Dale H.: Quality control, 2004

3 Definition of quality Quality- all characteristics and properties of the product or service affecting the ability of the product to satisfy stated or projected needs. Quality inspection- activities such as measuring, testing, use of tests for one or more characteristics of a product or service and comparing the result with the established requirements to determine compliance. Quality control- position of the same emphasis on control, but the additional inclusion in the system, production workers and creating feedback loops between the results of inspection and production line. Based on the results of the audit the manufacturing process is modified in order to obtain products which conform to the specifications

4 Definition of quality Quality is determined by a series of requirements and features, including: Compliance with standards Durability Reliability Aesthetics Ease of maintenance and repair

5 Definition fo quality control Quality control is a system to prevent defects and shortcomings, the method and operation of the system in place to ensure customer quality requirements by making appropriate product features and characteristics in order to achieve economically efficient quality control involves monitoring the process and eliminating causes of unsatisfactory contractor.

6 Place in the management of quality control Quality Improvement - Part of quality management focused on increasing capacity to meet quality requirements Quality Planning - the part of quality management focused on setting quality objectives and associated resources necessary for the achievement of quality objectives Quality Managementcoordinated activities managing the organization and its supervision according to the quality Quality Control - part of quality management focused on fulfilling the requirements for the quality Quality assurance - part of quality management focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be met

7 Mass production Ford Fundamentals of scientific management - Taylor Control charts- Shewhart Quality control- Ishikawa 14 rules - Deming Kaizen - Toyota Six Sigma - Motorola Standars ISO 9000 Standards ISO 9000:2000 Standars ISO 9000:2008 Development of the concept of quality management Respond to customer needs Deliver the product complies with the specification Quality control Quality Inspection - sort - scrapping - repair - correction Quality assurance - statistical process control - management responsibility - quality system - system audits - supporting methods - quality costs analysis - quality planning - selfcontrolling - statistical control - product testing TQM - universal participation - continuous improvement - process approach - system approach - partnership relations with suppliers

8 Error Detection Check Sheets Control Charts Histogram Ishikawa Diagram Cause and Effect Diagram Error analysis Pareto Diagram Scatter Diagram Process Flow Diagram Seven tradittional quality tools

9 Problem analysis Affinity Diagram Relation Diagram Deciding about action Tree Diagram Matrix Diagram Matrix Data Analysis Chart The sequence of activities - resource planning Process Decision Program Chart(PDPC) Activity Network Diagram Seven management quality tools

10 Process Flow Diagram Block diagram applies to: description of the existing process, designing a new process. It is a schematic diagram that shows the flow of the product or service as it moves through the various processing stations or operations. The diagram makes it easy to visualize the entire system, identify potential trouble spots, and locate control activities.

11 Process Flow Diagram Name Graphic symbol Description/Function Start/Stop Execution Condition Process Arrow Indicates the beginning and end of the process Shall contain the individual actions that must be done to make the process has been carried out Shall contain the condition that determines the way further down the road proceeding. From the symbol facing the two calls: Yes (if the condition is met) and NO (if the condition is not met) Using this symbol you can show a reference to another process It is used to connect the symbols and show the direction of the process

12 Process Flow Diagram START Enter the length of the three sections of the triangle satisfy the condition Select the longest stretch Calculate the square of the length of the longest stretch Calculate the squares of the lengths of two shorter sides Calculate the sum of the squares of the lengths of two shorter sides The triangle is not rectangular Is the sum of the squares of the shorter sides is equal to the square on the longest side The triangle is rectangular STOP

13 Process Flow Diagram Flow diagram for order entry.

14 Cause-and-Effect Diagram A cause-and-effect (C&E) diagram is a picture composed of lines and symbols designed to represent a meaningful relationship between an effect and its causes. It was developed by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1943 and is sometimes referred to as an Ishikawa diagram. C&E diagrams are used to investigate either a "bad" effect and to take action to correct the causes or a "good" effect and to learn those causes responsible. For every effect, there are likely to be numerous causes.

15 Cause-and-Effect Diagram Is a graphical representation of the relationship between the factors acting on the process and the effects that they cause. It is helpful in solving problems that may arise in the process. When creating a diagram, it is essential to determine how the fact that (effect) will be analyzed. This may be, for example: characteristics of quality, a problem that needs to be solved, a result that needs to be improved controls, or any other outcome, which results from some reason.

16 Cause-and-Effect Diagram The effect is the quality characteristic that needs improvement. Causes are usually broken down into the major causes of : 1. Man, people 2. Machine, measurement 3. Method, work methods 4. Materials 5. Management and 6. Environment.

17 Cause-and-Effect Diagram Each major cause is further subdivided into numerous minor causes. For example, under work methods, we might have: 1. training, 2. knowledge, 3. ability, 4. physical characteristics, 5. and so forth. C&E diagrams (frequently called "fish-bone diagrams" because of their shape) are the means of picturing all these major and minor causes.

18 Cause-and-Effect Diagram Steps in constructing and analyzing a cause-and-effect diagram: Step 1: Identify and clearly define the outcome or EFFECT to be analyzed. Step 2: Use a chart pack positioned where everyone can see it. Draw the SPINE and create the EFFECT box. Step 3: Identify the main CAUSES contributing to the effect being studied. Step 4: For each major branch, identify other specific factors which may be the CAUSES of the EFFECT. Step 5: Identify increasingly more detailed levels of causes and continue organizing them under related causes or categories. You can do this by asking a series of WHY questions. Step 6: Analyze the diagram.

19 Cause-and-Effect Diagram Some of the benefits of constructing a cause-and-effect diagram are that: 1. helps determine the root causes of a problem or quality; 2. characteristic using a structured approach; 3. encourages group participation and utilizes group knowledge of the process; 4. uses an orderly, easy-to-read format to diagram cause-andeffect relationships; 5. indicates possible causes of variation in a process; 6. increases knowledge of the process by helping everyone to learn more about the factors at work and how they relate; and 7. identifies areas where data should be collected for further study.

20 Cause-and-Effect Diagram

21 Pareto Diagram Alfredo Pareto ( ) conducted extensive studies of the distribution of wealth in Europe. He found that there were a few people with a lot of money and many people with little money. This unequal distribution of wealth became an integral part of economic theory. Dr. Joseph Juran recognized this concept as a universal that could be applied to many fields. He coined the phrases vital few and useful many. Pareto Law: The empirical problem is usually about 20-30% of the causes decided by about 70-80% of the consequences. This law can be applied to most practical problems which we face in work and everyday life, such as: 80% of absenteeism in the classroom is due to the absence of 20% of students; 20% of workers have a 80% work in organizations; 80% of defects are caused by the existence of 20% of causes; 20% of the sales staff generates 80% of sales in the company;

22 Pareto Diagram A Pareto diagram is a graph that ranks data classifications in descending order from left to right. Possible data classifications are: 1. types of field failures 2. problems, 3. causes, 4. types of nonconformities, 5. and so forth. The vital few are on the left, and the useful many are on the right. It is sometimes necessary to combine some of the useful many into one classification called other and labeled O in the figure. When the other category is used, it is always on the far right. The vertical scale is dollars, frequency, or percent.

23 Pareto Diagram Sometimes a Pareto diagram has a cumulative line. This line represents the sum of the data as they are added together from left to right. Two scales are used: 1. The one on the left is either frequency or dollars, 2. and the one on the right is percent.

24 Pareto Diagram Construction of a Pareto diagram is very simple. There are six steps: 1. Determine the method of classifying the data: by problem, cause, type of nonconformity, and so forth. 2. Decide if dollars (best), weighted frequency, or frequency is to be used to rank the characteristics. 3. Collect data for an appropriate time interval. 4. Summarize the data and rank order categories from largest to smallest. 5. Compute the cumulative percentage if it is to be used. 6. Construct the diagram and find the vital few.

25 Pareto Diagram Pareto diagrams are used to identify the most important problems. Actually, the most important items could be identified by listing the items in descending order. However, the graph has the advantage of providing a visual impact of those vital few characteristics that need attention. Resources are then directed to take the necessary corrective action. The cumulative percentage scale, when used, must match with the dollar or frequency scale such that 100% is at the same height as the total dollars or frequency. The use of a Pareto diagram is a never-ending process. The Pareto diagram is a powerful quality-improvement tool. It is applicable to problem identification and the measurement of progress.

26 Pareto Diagram The size of the decrease in sales in units The cumulative percentage decline in sales The cumulative Nr Causes decline in sales 1 Too high a sales price ,33% A 2 Difficult conditions of payment ,00% A 3 Lack of information system vendors ,33% A 4 Low level of staff experience ,67% A 5 Unattractive products ,33% A 6 Low staff motivation ,00% B 7 Bad attitude to customers ,00% B 8 Defective Products ,67% B 9 "Acute" competition in the market ,33% B 10 Slow processes ,00% B 11 Too low stocks ,67% C Improper organization of promotional 12 campaigns ,67% C 13 Lack of adequate sales network ,67% C 14 Lack of proper advertising ,33% C 15 Poorly designed processes, customer service ,00% C Determinati on of part

27 Check Sheets The control sheet is a simple, very useful tool for helping to collect and organize all the data. Can be used on virtually every position. The main purpose of check sheets is to ensure that the data are collected carefully and accurately by operating personnel for process control and problem solving. Data should be presented in such a form that it can be quickly and easily used and analyzed. The form of the check sheet is individualized for each situation and is designed by the project team. Checks are made on a daily and weekly basis, and some checks, such as temperature, are measured. This type of check sheet ensures that a check or test is made. Whenever possible, check sheets are also designed to show location. For example, the check sheet for bicycle paint nonconformities could have shown an outline of a bicycle with small x's indicating the location of the nonconformities.

28 Check Sheets Creativity plays a major role in the design of a check sheet. It should be user friendly and, whenever possible, include information on time and location. The basic control sheets are sheets: distribution of numerical parameter decomposition process (similar to the histogram), the incidence of defects location of defects, causes of defects.

29 Check Sheets Cracks places

30 Check Sheets

31 Histogram It describe the variation in the process. The histogram graphically shows the process capability and, if desired, the relationship to the specifications and the nominal. It also suggests the shape of the population and indicates if there are any gaps in the data. A histogram is a type of bar chart. Histograms are used for demonstration of numerical data in a form which can be more easily understood than a table of numbers. The histogram can also draw the boundaries of tolerance, which can immediately give information about the involvement of defective units in total production.

32 Histogram

33 Histogram When Are Histograms Used? 1. Summarize large data sets graphically 2. Compare measurements to specifications 3. Communicate information to the team 4. Assist in decision making

34 Histogram Proceedings: 1. You should collect the necessary data (minimum n = 30 the value of the measurement) and count the total number of measurement values. 2. Divide the range of measurement intervals (classes). 3. You can use the data contained in the following table: Sample size n The number of intervals k Determine the variance values : Range= (highest value) - (lowest value) 5. Determine the number of compartments: Cell Bounderies (class width) = Range / Number of intervals 6. Make the width of the smallest number of classes, which will result in the compartments. 7. Plot the value of the scale and frequency of events. Place the bands on the horizontal axis and frequency on the vertical axis. 8. Draw the height of each compartment. Move data from a table on the axles. All bars should have the same width and contain a total of all the data (it should also be adjacent to each other).

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43 Histogram

44 Histogram Normal: it shows a lot of measured values, the distribution is regarded as occurring most frequently, so if the data are arranged differently, it is often the question "why"? Bi-or multimodal: the data come from two or more of the population treated on two different machines that are operated by different operators, produced on different shifts, etc. With "empty" compartments: it may be due to measurement errors or inappropriate choice of the number of histogram intervals

45 Histogram Negative skewness: found in the case of the characteristics which have a natural upper limit, f.e. strength of materials, it also occurs when action is taken in order to maximize the measured values, f.e. as a result of "falsification" of measurement results, sort of parts Positive skewness: found in the case of the characteristics which have a natural lower limit, eg particle size, waiting time, it also occurs when action is taken in order to maximize the measured values, eg as a result of "falsification" of measurement results, sort of parts Uniform: the process is not monitored, with frequent adjustment process With the "hole" is mostly the result of measurement errors

46 Scatter Diagram Is a graphic illustration of the connection between the two variables. Often it is necessary to collect data to analyze the relationship between various factors. The simplest way to determine if a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables is to plot a scatter diagram.. Graphs of correlation is a system of coordinates X and Y. It is used to: 1. Determine whether there is a relationship between variables. 2. Determine the direction of the relationship. 3. Show the strength of the relationship.

47 Scatter Diagram

48 Scatter Diagram (d) Negative Correlation May Exist (e) Correlation by Stratification (f) Curvilinear Relationship

49 Scatter Diagram Correlation between two random variables X and Y is a measure of the strength (degree) linear relationship between these variables.

50 Control Charts Shewhart control charts are a fundamental tool in statistical process monitoring and control, especially in mass production, to quickly determine when the process has been put out of adjustment and prevent the manufacture of products not conforming to specifications. It presents a graphic display of process stability over time. A control chart, illustrating quality improvement. Control charts are an outstanding technique for problem solving and the resulting quality improvement.

51 Control Charts Quality improvement occurs in two situations. 1. When a control chart is first introduced, the process usually is unstable. As assignable causes for out-of-control conditions are identified and corrective action taken, the process becomes stable, with a resulting quality improvement. 2. The second situation concerns the testing or evaluation of ideas. Control charts are excellent decision makers because the pattern of the plotted points will determine if the idea is a good one, poor one, or has no effect on the process. Your team will benefit from using a control chart when you want to: 1. monitor process variation over time; 2. differentiate between special cause and common cause variation; 3. assess the effectiveness of changes to improve a process; 4. and communicate how a process performed during a specific period.

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53 Control Charts Control charts for the characteristics evaluated numerically (measurable): 1. Card of the mean value (X) and range (R) - is a card (X - R) 2. Card of the mean value (X) and standard deviation (s) - is a card (X - s) 3. Card individual observations (xi) and movable range (R) - is a card (xi - R) 4. Card median (Me) and range (R) - is a card (Me-R) 5. Cumulative sum cards 6. Card moving average Control charts for the characteristics evaluated as an alternative (unmetered) 1. Card fraction of individuals do not comply (p) 2. Card number of non-conformity (np) 3. Card number of non-compliance (c) 4. Card number of discrepancies per unit (u)

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62 Control Charts Points outside the DLK and the GLK - the average sustained shift 8 points on the same side LC - permanent offset average Increasing or decreasing trend - moving to the average 2 of 3 consecutive points in Zone A warning about a possible transfer medium 4 of 5 consecutive points in zone B- warning about a possible transfer medium 14 points alternately above or below each other - more samples from different machines from different operators 15 consecutive points in Zone C (above and below the central line) - the measurement error, reducing dispersion, control lines are set incorrectly, the elements of the samples come from different populations

63 Problem analysis Affinity Diagram Relationship Diagram Deciding about action Tree Diagram Matrix Diagram Matrix Data Analysis Chart The sequence of activities - resource planning Process Decision Program Chart(PDPC) Activity Network Diagram Seven management quality tools

64 Affinity Diagram It is a tool that gathers large amounts of language data (ideas, opinions, issues) and organizes them into groupings based on their natural Relationships. The Affinity process is often used to group ideas generated by Brainstorming

65 Affinity Diagram When to Use the Affinity Diagram? Sift through large volumes of data Encourage new patterns of thinking

66 Affinity Diagram Creating an Affinity Diagram Step 1 - Generate ideas Step 2 - Display ideas Step 3 - Sort ideas into groups Step 4 - Create header cards Step 5 - Draw finished diagram

67 Affinity Diagram What Is a Header? An idea that captures the essential link among the ideas contained in a group of cards: 1. Single card or post-it 2. Phrase or sentence 3. Clear meaning

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73 Relations Diagram When to use it 1. Use it when analyzing complex situations where there are multiple interrelated issues. 2. Use it where the current problem is perceived as being a symptom of a more important underlying problem. 3. It is also useful in building consensus within groups. 4. It is commonly used to map cause-effect relationships, but also can be used to map any other type of relationship. 5. Use it, rather than an Affinity Diagram, when there are logical, rather than subjective, relationships. 6. Use it, rather than a Cause-Effect Diagram, when causes are non-hierarchic or when there are complex issues.

74 Relations Diagram Fig. 1. Using the Relationship Diagram in problem solving

75 Relations Diagram

76 Relations Diagram The cause-effect Relations Diagram contains one or more effects and multiple causes, with arrows pointing from cause to effect. The network of arrows is built up as multiple causes interrelate. The result can be considered as a complex Cause- Effect Diagram.

77 Relations Diagram Several useful points may be identified when interpreting a causeeffect Relations Diagram: 1. Arrows flowing only away from a cause indicate a root cause. Eliminating root causes can result in subsequent causes also being eliminated, giving a significant improvement for a relatively small effort. 2. A cause with multiple arrows flowing into it indicates a bottleneck. This can be difficult to eliminate, due to the multiple contributory causes. 3. A key cause is one which is selected to be addressed by future action. Key causes may be highlighted in some way, such as double circling.

78 Relations Diagram

79 Relations Diagram

80 Relations Diagram How to do it 1. Form a team of between four and seven people to work on the problem. 2. Identify the type of relationship to be mapped, and how this is to be displayed. 3. Define each problem clearly, writing it as a complete, but brief, sentence on a 3" x 5" card. 4. Produce the set of items to be related in the diagram. Write each item on a 3" x 5" card, distinguishing item cards from problem cards, for example by writing problem cards with heavier printing or adding a box around the text. 5. If Brainstorming was used in step 4, then put the item cards randomly in a 'parking area' where they may be transferred to the main 'organization area'. If other methods were used, then they may already be in an order which is worth keeping (such as Affinity groups). 6. Determine where to place the problem description card(s) from step 3 in the organization area.

81 Relations Diagram How to do it 7. Select a card in the organization area and look for a card in the parking area which answers the question identified in step 2. For a cause-effect Relations Diagram this will be a card which is a direct cause of a problem card. 8. For each card laid in step 7, repeat the process of searching for cards in the parking area that are directly related to it, then placing this new card nearby. 9. Review the layout with the team and use the question from step 2 to help draw arrows between cards on the diagram as relationships are agreed. Draw the arrows going from causes to effects. Avoid confusion where lines cross by using a 'hump-back' bridge. 10.Identify and mark key items that are to be addressed further, such as with shading or emboldening. 11.Treat this diagram as a first draft. 12.Review the marked changes, update the document accordingly and repeat the review as necessary. Plan and implement concrete actions to address key items.

82 Relations Diagram

83 Tree Diagram The Tree Diagram is used to break down a topic into successive levels of detail. The main objective of tree diagram analysis is to identify the efficient improvement strategies to reduce and stabilize the level and distribution of dust pollution.

84 Tree Diagram When to use it 1. Use it when planning, to break down a task into manageable and assignable units. 2. Use it when investigating a problem, to discover the detailed component parts of any complex topic. 3. Use it only when the problem can be broken down in a hierarchical manner. 4. Use it, rather than a Relations Diagram, to break down a problem when the problem is hierarchical in nature.

85 Tree Diagram Fig. Using the Tree Diagram in Problem Solving

86 Tree Diagram The Tree Diagram gives a simple method of breaking down a problem, one layer at time, into its component parts, as Fig.

87 Tree Diagram How to do it 1. Identify the objective of using the Tree Diagram. 2. Assemble a small team of people to work on the diagram. 3. Define the top-level 'root' statement. This should be a brief phrase which clearly describes the problem at this level, making it easier to identify its individual sub-components. 4. Define the process for breaking down each 'parent' statement into 'child' statements. This can be helped by defining a question to ask of the parent statement, based on the original objective defined in step Define the criteria to be used to identify when bottom-level 'leaves' have been arrived at, and the problem does not need to be broken down further. For example, 'Tasks that may be allocated to a single person, and will take no more than one week each to complete'.

88 How to do it Basic techniques of problems diagnosis and analysis Tree Diagram 6. Apply the process defined in step 4 to the top-level statement from step 3, in order to produce the first-level child statements (although if the top-level statement was derived from another tool, then it may be reasonable to also derive the first-level child statements from the same place). 7. Repeat this process for each card in the first level, first checking whether the criteria defined in step 5 indicates that further breakdown is required. Arrange the child cards to the right of their parents, ensuring that family groups do not merge.

89 Tree Diagram Fig. 1. Arranging the cards

90 Tree Diagram How to do it 8. Continue to repeat the process until the criteria defined in step 5 are met and no further breakdown is required. If cards become cramped together, take time to rearrange them such that all parent-child relationships between cards are clear. 9. When the diagram is complete, review the stages, looking for improvements, such as: Statements which are in the wrong place, for example where enthusiasm at early levels has resulted in statements that should be lower down the tree. Levels where the child statements together do not represent their parent very well. General imbalances in the tree, for example where an understood subject is pursued in detail at the expense of other subjects. 10.Use the completed tree to help achieve the objective as identified in step 1.

91 Tree Diagram Fig. 1. Different shapes for Trees

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93 Matrix Diagram It is a tool that is used to identify the relationship between pairs of lists. When to use it 1. Use it when comparing two lists to understand the many-tomany relationship between them (it is not useful if there is a simple one-to-one relationship). 2. Use it to determine the strength of the relationship between either single pairs of items or a single item and another complete list. 3. Use it when the second list is generated as a result of the first list, to determine the success of that generation process. For example, customer requirements versus design specifications.

94 Matrix Diagram Fig. Using the Matrix Diagram in problem solving

95 Matrix Diagram Fig. Relationships between lists

96 Matrix Diagram Fig. Many-to-many relationships in a matrix

97 Matrix Diagram Fig. Showing and summing strength of relationship

98 Matrix Diagram Fig. Different types of Matrix Diagram

99 Matrix Diagram How to do it 1. Define the objective of using the Matrix Diagram. This may be a statement such as, 'Focus design improvements on key customer requirements', which will be used later to direct activities. 2. Recruit a team who have the time and knowledge to work on achieving the objective. Building a Matrix Diagram can take a lot more effort than some of the other diagrams described in this book, and a longer term commitment may be required. 3. Decide what needs to be compared to achieve the objective. This will result in two or more lists being identified where the investigation of their relationships will help to achieve the objective. This might also include identification of criteria to help decide what should and should not be included in the list. For example, if comparing insects with diseases, one criterion may be to exclude any insects which are unlikely to appear in the geographical area of study.

100 Matrix Diagram How to do it 4. Identify the appropriate matrix to use. In approximate order of common use, these are: The L-matrix is by far the most common diagram. If there are more than two lists, then a set of L-matrices may still be the best approach, unless the additional relationship mapping given by other matrices is required. The T-matrix is useful when there are two distinct sets of questions about a core list, for example comparing school subjects against students and against teachers. An indirect relationship can be inferred between the two side lists. The Y-matrix closes the loop on the T-matrix, and is useful for comparing three tightly coupled lists. It can also be used as a practical simplification of the C- matrix. The X-matrix is useful for comparing two pairs of complementary lists, with each pair occupying diagonally opposite lists (as they have nothing in common and need not be compared). For example comparing men and women against activities in athletic and intellectual pastimes, with men and women opposite. The C-matrix compares three lists simultaneously, such as the people, products and processes in a factory. Being three-dimensional, it is difficult and complex to produce and draw. It becomes easier if there are few relationships to map.

101 Matrix Diagram How to do it 5. Decide how list items are to be compared. 6. Derive the lists, using guidelines from step 3. Individual items may be easily available, or may require significant effort to acquire, for example when determining key customer requirements. 7. Perform the comparison of the matrices, consistently using the rules defined in step Evaluate the final matrix, looking for items of significance which will result in specific actions being carried forwards. Things to look for include: Unimportant items which have few or no relationships with the other lists. Key items which relate to many of the items in the other lists. Patterns which strike you as odd, and which may bear further investigation.

102 Matrix Diagram Example Matrix Diagram

103 Matrix Data Analysis Chart The Matrix Data Analysis Chart (MDAC) is used to identify clusters of related items within a larger group. When to use it 1. Use it when investigating factors which affect a number of different items, to determine common relationships. 2. Use it to determine whether or not logically similar items also have similar factor effects. 3. Use it to find groups of logically different items which have similar factor effects

104 Matrix Data Analysis Chart Fig. Using MDAC in problem solvin

105 Matrix Data Analysis Chart Fig. MDAC plot

106 Matrix Data Analysis Chart Fig. Clustering

107 Matrix Data Analysis Chart Typical items of interest on an MDAC include: 1. The behavior of logical groups of items, which might be expected to form close clusters. For example, in a washing powder test, logical groups might be woolen items, acrylics and mixtures. 2. Actual clustering on the chart which might highlight divergence from expected behavior, and prompt new actions. For example, investigation of an unexpected cluster of different fiber types might show that they come from one manufacturer who has developed processes to give different fibers with similar specifications.

108 Matrix Data Analysis Chart How to do it 1. Identify the items which are to be compared, and decide on the primary objective of using the Matrix Data Analysis Chart. For example, a restaurant may compare menu items with the objective of finding out what makes popular dishes. 2. Identify the measurement units for the horizontal and vertical axes of the chart. These should be two factors which are the most critical representations of the objective identified in step 1. For example, the restaurant may use a survey to find the aspects of eating that their customer most value. 3. Measure the factors identified in step 2, aiming to get realistic and unbiased values. Thus, the restaurant might take an average of customer ratings for texture and flavor of each menu item over several months. 4. Draw a chart and plot each point on it. Ensure that the scale on the axes results in the points being spread over the whole chart area.

109 Matrix Data Analysis Chart How to do it 5. Look for significant clusters of points on the chart, and highlight them by linking them together into a ring. The appearance and ease of interpretation are more important than the order of linkage. Groups may be either of: Items that have a close logical relationship, e.g. fish dishes. Items that form a close physical group on the chart. 6. Interpret the chart and act on the results. Typical activities include the investigation into and subsequent action on: Why items which might be expected to group closely do not. Why items unexpectedly form clusters. Why individual items are not positioned where they were expected to be on the chart.

110 Matrix Data Analysis Chart Fig. MDAC example

111 Process Decision Program Chart The Process Decision Program Chart (commonly just referred to as PDPC) is used to identify potential problems and countermeasures in a plan. When to use it 1. Use it when making plans, to help identify potential risks to their successful completion. 2. When risks are identified, use it to help identify and select from a set of possible countermeasures. 3. Also use it to help plan for ways of avoiding and eliminating identified risks. 4. It is of best value when risks are non-obvious, such as in unfamiliar situations or in complex plans, and when the consequences of failure are serious.

112 Process Decision Program Chart

113 Process Decision Program Chart Fig. From Plan to risks and countermeasures

114 Process Decision Program Chart Fig. Risk activiti

115 Process Decision Program Chart How to do it 1. Identify the objective of using PDPC. 2. Identify the areas of the plan which need to be examined in order to meet the objectives. If it is a large plan, then attempting to examine all elements of it will result in a practical limitation on the effort that can be put into each element. It is usually better to use PDPC only on the higher risk areas of the plan. 3. Gather the people to work on the PDPC. Between them, they should have as wide a view as possible of the situation, so that diverse risks may be identified. These may include: High-level managers who can see the 'big picture' and relationships with other people and events. Experts in specific elements of the plan who can see potential problems with planned actions. People experienced in planning and using PDPC, who may have discovered other problems in similar situations.

116 Process Decision Program Chart How to do it 4. Identify the criteria for making decisions during construction of the PDPC. These include: How to identify a risk (step 5). How to select risks that need countermeasures to be identified (step 6). How to identify countermeasures (step 7). How to select countermeasures to implement (step 8). Factors to consider when identifying selection criteria include: Time. How much time would a risk cost? Is it on the critical path of the schedule? How much time could countermeasures save? Cost. What would be the overall cost of a risk occurring? What would be the cost of a countermeasure? Would it be worth it? Control. How much control do you have for preventing the risk? What control would you have should it occur? How could you change that? Information. How much do you know about the risk? What warning would you have of its impending occurrence?

117 Process Decision Program Chart How to do it 5. For each plan element to be considered, identify potential problems that could occur. Ask, 'What if...', using Brainstorming techniques to identify a broad range of risks. 6. For the risks identified in step 5, decide which ones should be carried forward onto the PDPC. These will be examined in more detail when determining countermeasures in step 8. This may be carried out by Voting, Prioritization Matrix or some other method for selecting items. To keep the PDPC manageable, select only a few risks per plan element (typically three or less). 7. Put the identified risks on the plan, using shaped boxes or some other method to enable these risks to be clearly differentiated from then plan elements.

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119 Process Decision Program Chart How to do it 8. For each risk now on the PDPC, identify possible countermeasures in a similar manner to the identification of risks in step 5, but now asking, 'How can this risk be reduced?'. Look for methods of eliminating, reducing or handling the risk. 9. In a similar manner to step 6, prioritize these countermeasures and select those which are to be carried forward to the PDPC, using the criteria determined in step In the same way as step 7, add the selected countermeasures to the plan under the appropriate risk item. Steps 8 to 10 are illustrated below.

120 Process Decision Program Chart

121 Process Decision Program Chart How to do it 11.Carry out or otherwise prepare the selected countermeasures, ensuring that any changes to the plan are fully resourced and are treated thereafter as normal plan elements. Actions here might include: Changing the plan, e.g. to remove or replace high risk elements. Adding new elements to the plan, e.g. verification activities. Preparing contingency plans which will only be executed should specific risks occur.

122 Process Decision Program Chart How to do it 11.Carry out or otherwise prepare the selected countermeasures, ensuring that any changes to the plan are fully resourced and are treated thereafter as normal plan elements. Actions here might include: Changing the plan, e.g. to remove or replace high risk elements. Adding new elements to the plan, e.g. verification activities. Preparing contingency plans which will only be executed should specific risks occur.

123 Process Decision Program Chart

124 Activity Network The Activity Network is generally used as a schedule dependent activities within a plan. The Activity Network is sometimes called an Arrow Diagram or PERT Chart, where PERT stands for Programmed Evaluation Review Technique. When to use it 1. Use it when planning any project or activity which is composed of a set of interdependent actions. 2. Use it to calculate the earliest date the project can be completed, and to find ways of changing this. 3. Use it to identify and address risk to completing a project on time. 4. It can also be used for describing and understanding the activities within a standard work process. 5. The resulting diagram is useful for communicating the plan and risks to other people.

125 Activity Network Fig. Using the Activity Network in problem-solving

126 Activity Network Fig. The Activity Network Diagram

127 Activity Network Fig. The Critical Path and Slack

128 Activity Network Fig. Risks in the Activity Network

129 Activity Network How to do it 1. Define the key objective of the plan, for example, 'to lay all paving stones in a street to a given pattern'. This forms the basic boundary of the project and lets you identify when the job is done. 2. Identify other constraints which may affect the actual planned actions. These typically will be around work, time and cost. For example, where the job must be done within a week, within a set budget, using available manpower, to government standards, and with minimum noise and disruption to local residents. 3. Identify the actual tasks that need to be done. This may be done through the use of a Tree Diagram (in this case, only the bottomlevel tasks will be used in the Activity Network). Write a short description of each task onto 3" x 5" cards. Also make space for earliest and latest start and finish dates.

130 Activity Network Fig. Writing the card

131 Activity Network How to do it 4. Write on each card the time that the task will take. Other information may also be included, such as the person (or persons) who will perform the task, the extra tools or resources required, etc. At this time, the person's name may not be known, but the required skill level should be known as this might affect the time estimate. When writing in the time, try to use the same units for each task. 5. Start from the beginning, and ask which tasks must be done first. Place these cards to the left of the working area. If there is more than one, place them spaced out one above the other. 6. For each task just placed, find the task cards which must immediately follow and place these to the right. If a task should start part-way through another task, then break the second task down into two or more tasks to enable clear start and finish links to be made. If the cards becomes squashed up or it is not clear from the positioning which card follows which, take a little time to rearrange them so the correct sequence is clear and there is space for subsequent cards to be added.

132 Activity Network Fig. Positioning the cards

133 Activity Network How to do it 7. Repeat step 6 until there are no more task cards to place. If the sequence of tasks is not clear, it can be easier to start with a central, well-understood task, and identify tasks which must go before and after it. Another strategy is to start at the end and work back to the start by asking of each task, 'What task must be done before I can do this?'. 8. Complete the links between tasks by drawing lines in the work area between cards. To do this, the cards need to be quite firmly attached to a work area that can be drawn on, such as a whiteboard or large sheet of paper. When drawing the links, use arrows to indicate which task follow which. 9. Starting with the tasks at the beginning of the diagram, complete the early start and early finish for each task in turn, following the arrows to the next task.

134 Activity Network Fig. Calculating late start and late finis

135 Activity Network How to do it 10. Starting with the tasks at the end of the diagram, complete the late start and late finish for each task in turn, following the arrows in the reverse direction to the previous task. A task cannot be completed until all of its successors have been completed. The late finish is the same as the late start of the succeeding task (for the final tasks in the project, this is equal to the earliest completion date, calculated in step 9). If there is more than one successor task, then there are several possible late figures. Select the smallest of these. The late start for each task is simply the late finish minus the duration of the task. The final calculation is for the earliest completion time for the project. This is calculated in the same way as the early start date.

136 Activity Network Fig. Calculating backward

137 How to do it Basic techniques of problems diagnosis and analysis Activity Network 11. Calculate the slack time for each task as the difference between the early and late times. Also identify the route through the diagram where the slack time on each task through the route is zero. This is called the critical path, as any slippage in these tasks will affect the overall project completion date.

138 Activity Network Fig. Calculating slack time

139 Activity Network How to do it 1. Evaluate and act upon the results, including checking that the final plan meets any constraints identified in step 2. Actions may include: Reducing the total slack in the project by rearranging tasks. Preventing people from having to work overtime by allocation, reallocation and task rearrangement. Identifying risky parts of the plan and reducing risks by reallocation or rearrangement. Recalculating the early and late times to find the effect of the above actions on the critical path, the project completion time and the slack. Rebudgeting to account for the effects of rearrangement or allocation. 2. Start the tasks, using the diagram to help manage the project. Management actions may include: Substituting actual durations of tasks into the diagram. Re-estimating future task durations, using known task durations. Adding, modifying or removing tasks. Rearranging the resources used. Recalculating the early and late times to find the effect of the above actions.

140 Activity Network