REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Transcription

1 CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Job satisfaction and organization commitment are the most studied and researched topic in organizational behaviour and psychology since it has direct link with the organization. Either they are studied independently or jointly to know what is keeping an employee to enjoy the job and retain association with the organization. An employee enters into an organization to perform some job hence job and organization is tightly linked. Researches on retail sector are conspicuously scanty especially in India. For the purpose of the study review of the all studies are divided into groups as studies in abroad and study in India, and arranged in chronological and alphabetical sequence in ascending order. The combined studies of job satisfaction and organizational commitment are considered in the head of organizational commitment of respective categories, as, abroad or Indian. 2.1 Studies on Organizational Commitment Abroad: Porter et al. (1974) conducted a study on organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians. They conducted the longitudinal study on a sample of psychiatric technician trainees. They found organization commitment was the clearly the most important variable in 73

2 differentiating between stayers and leavers, and satisfaction with opportunities for promotion and work were next most important. They concluded that attitudes held by an individual are predictive of subsequent turnover behaviour and individual who ultimately leave the organization having less favourable attitude than individual who stay. And there is an inverse relationship between favorable attitudes and turnover. The differential relationship between turnover and the two attitude constructs suggests that commitment and satisfaction are related yet distinguishable attitudes. Further added that greater level of time is required for an employee to determine his level of commitment to the organization than would be the case with his level of job satisfaction, and satisfaction is unstable and immediate affective reaction to work environment. Buchanan II (1974) in his study to know building organizational commitment: the socialization of managers in work organizations, to know the kinds of organizational experiences which have the effects of stimulating commitment among the people who manages large organization. He took a sample of 279 business and government managers from eight organizations where five from federal government in Washington and three from fortune 500 manufacturing companies. The findings registered as first year one major cause of turnover in junior managers is discrepancy between expectations and reality, and unfulfilled expectations; also noted that self image and personal investment and importance as determinants of organizational commitment. He concluded that 74

3 social interaction with organizational peers and superiors, job achievement, years of organizational service and hierarchical advancement are determinants of various aspects of organizational commitment. He found that nature and quality of work experience during tenure in the organization significantly influences the organization commitment and explained work experience is viewed as major socializing force and is important influencer in shaping attachment to the organization. He found that higher level of organizational commitment among managers in private sectors than those in public sector thus sector is a moderator. Steers (1977) conducted a study on a sample of scientists and engineers to know antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment. He found that antecedents to organizational commitment are personal characteristics; job characteristics and work experience are significantly related to organizational commitment where work experience is more closely related to organizational commitment. And other antecedent variables significantly associated with commitment are need for achievement, group attitudes towards the organizations, education (inversely), organizational dependability, personal importance to the organization and task identity, in addition to the above some other antecedent variables identified as opportunities for optional interaction, age, met expectation, and feedback. 75

4 While studying the out-come variables it is found that commitment was closely related to desire to remain and intent to remain and actual turnover, the attendance commitment relationship was not significantly defined. He further concluded that there was no consistent relationship between job performance and organizational commitment. The above study was performed on two diverse samples of employees in separate organizations, first was employees of a major mid-western hospital and second was research scientists and engineers of an independent research laboratory. Marsh and Mannari (1977) did a work on organizational commitment and turnover to know that why Japanese organizations have lower turnover rates than American organizations. They studied one of leading electric house hold appliance company in Japan data collected from 1033 employees. They have found commitment values as a predictor of turnover behaviour; and Job satisfaction, job autonomy and cohesiveness have only direct effects on life time commitment, and organizational status has both direct and indirect effects through job satisfaction and job autonomy on commitment. In their study they suggested that when a man s status in the company rises that has; first, increase in commitment, secondly, increase in job satisfaction which in turn increases organizational commitment, thirdly, in increase in perceived job autonomy which in turn decreases organizational commitment. Further they have added job autonomy is not an important source of job satisfaction. 76

5 Bagozzi (1978) studied the relationship of performance and job satisfaction on industrial sales persons and found that sales performance has significance positive impact on job satisfaction. Whereas, role conflict has significance negative impact on job satisfaction. Bartol (1979) in his study on 250 professionals found that valuing professional behaviour is associated with higher organizational commitment and lower role stress, turnover, and turnover expectancy. The professional dimensions viz. autonomy, professional commitment and ethics influenced organizational commitment in positive direction where collegial maintenance of standards was negatively related to organizational commitment. Angle and Perry (1981) in an empirical assessment of organizational commitment and organizational effectiveness on a sample of 1244 bus service drivers of 24 organizations, which operated fixed-route bus services in western United States, the evidence provided that there is an inverse relationship between organizational commitment and employee turnover. Organizational commitment was found to be associated with organizational adaptability, turnover, and tardiness rate, but not with operating costs or absenteeism. Two subscales were constructed to measure value commitment and commitment to stay in the organization. 77

6 Meyer and Allen (1984) conducted a study to test Side bet theory of Organization commitment in two different samples of 64 male and female introductory psychology students and 130 full time employees at various job levels in four administrative departments in a large Canadian university. They found from the study that organization commitment is not only because of side bets but also because of emotional attachment with the organization. It is named as affective attachment. Here they proposed organization commitment as two dimensions affective (AC) and continuous commitment (CC). They described that both, affective and continuous commitment, are different, and reflect a link between the employee and the organization that decreased the likelihood of turnover. Bateman and Strasser (1984) in their study from longitudinal data of 129 nursing department employees found that organizational commitment is antecedent of job satisfaction rather than out come of it. Also studied other variables for establishing relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and found leadership punitive behaviour has negative causal impact on commitment, whereas, age and education have zero order correlation with commitment. They have suggested that improving the job or reducing the job tension may result in higher job satisfaction but not organizational commitment. 78

7 Fukami and Larson (1984) tested parallel models of commitment to company and commitment to union tested on a sample of 114 full time employees of the papers transportation department and result showed that personal characteristics, age, education and organizational commitment, are significantly correlated to company commitment and unrelated to union commitment. Job scope and Job stress are significantly correlated with company commitment but unrelated to union commitment. And work experience is the only antecedent factors to be related to both company and union commitment. Reichers (1985) in his study to review and reconceptulisation of commitment considered commitment has multiple foci and commitment experience of one individual differ from experience of another individual. He proposed that a multiple commitment approach could aid organizational diagnosis and intervention procedures that could pinpoint the strength, presence, or absence of particular commitment. The knowledge of source and type of commitment of an individual may responsible for the investment in organizational membership may allow for the prediction of changes in commitment level. He has noted that there may be a potential conflict in different commitment, and turnover would result not only from decreased organizational commitment but also from conflicting organizational commitment and individual conflict 79

8 resolution style plays important role in determining the commitment withdrawal relationship. Glisson and Durick (1988) studied predictor of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in human service organization reported that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are significantly correlated since both are dependent variables. Organizational characteristics (consists variables viz. organization age, workgroup size, workgroup age, leadership, workgroup budget etc.) are the strongest predictors of commitment. Job characteristics are strong predictor of job satisfaction. Mottaz( 1988) made study on 1385 full time workers of six diverse organizations viz. a small university, five elementary schools, a hospital, an order processing firm, a plastic factory and a large law enforcement agency to know the determinants of organizational commitment. He concluded that five demographic variables have a significant relationship with commitment, as; education has the strongest relationship followed by marital status, family income, sex and job tenure respectively. He found that impact of demographic factor on commitment is indirect through work reward and values. And if work rewards are considered effect of demographic factors no longer significant. He suggested that if workers perceive the organization as providing interesting and meaningful task, a friendly and supportive environment, as well as good pay and promotional opportunities, commitment to the organization likely to be 80

9 high. At the same time if workers have high level of work values it may be difficult for the organization to match the work reward and as a result high level of organization commitment will not develop among these workers. Therefore, accepted organizational commitment requires attention for both work reward and work values. He added the content of job itself influences commitment to the organization. Thus a proper job design Meyer and Allen (1988) studied to link between work experience and organizational commitment during first year of employment. The study was conducted on a sample of 97 recent graduates with full time permanent jobs with number of different companies; the majority of participants were between ages of 21 and 25 and the study done for the period one, six and eleven months after employment. They suggested that work experience should be managed carefully in the first month of employment to set the process off in the desired location. The results as suggested: employees experiences immediately following entry into an organization are instrumental in shaping their commitment to that organization. The starting salary had a positive effect on commitment after 6 months of employment, and marital status (being married) had a positive influence on commitment after 11 months. Education had strongest effect on commitment those with graduate degrees were less committed after 11 months with compare to non graduates in the same 81

10 company. Probably those with higher levels of education experience greater conflict between professional / occupational and organizational values.. Arvey et al. (1989) in an attempt to investigate genetic influence on job attitudes as job satisfaction: environmental and genetic components. The sample taken for the study was monozygotic twins who reared apart from an early age. The study was done on a sample of monozygotic twins as 25 female pair and 9 male pairs. They found that there was significant relation of genetic component to intrinsic and general satisfaction whereas there was no significant relation observed with extrinsic job satisfaction. Gary Blau (1989) in a longitudinally tracked sample of 133 full time bank tellers working for a non unionized bank. The results indicated that career commitment was distinct from job involvement and organizational commitment. Organizational commitment, job involvement and career commitment are significantly positive related to each other. He raised an issue of mobility in the job it is stated that higher the perceived mobility, the more likely employee may distinguish their vocation from their particular job and/or organization. Shore and Martin (1989) on a study of job satisfaction and organization commitment in relation to work performance and turnover intention on a sample of bank tellers and hospital professionals found that organizational 82

11 commitment was more strongly related to turnover than job satisfaction in bank tellers. Work attitude among professionals may be much less predictive of intention to remain in the organization than non professionals. Since professionals remain in the organization for different reasons than non professionals, and professionals have stronger commitment on occupation. They pointed that job satisfaction and organizational commitment may not be completely distinct attitudes but with some uniqueness these attitudes to account for distinct variance in same work outcome. Job satisfaction was related more strongly than organizational commitment with supervisory ratings of performance in both the professional. Job satisfaction accounted for more unique variance in performance ratings than organizational commitment. On measuring relationship with short term and long term performance and work attitude it is found that long-term performance, to be more closely related to global attitudes toward the organization, like organizational commitment, whereas job satisfaction has stronger relationship to performance in short term than organization commitment. The importance of multiple measures of performance is different types of measures may be related to different types of attitudes. They suggested that job attitudes are more closely associated with task-related outcomes whereas organizational attitudes arc associated more closely with organization-related outcomes. In both the samples, it is suggested that job satisfaction and organizational commitment were highly 83

12 related but possess some uniqueness given the ability of these attitudes to account for distinct variance in the same work outcomes. Caldwell et al. (1990) in study of a sample of 291 respondents from 45 firms in USA to know more intensive recruitment and socialisation process to be linked with higher level of commitment. They concluded that there is a positive relationship between strong organizational recruiting process and socialisation process, and individual commitment when firms have well developed recruitment and orientation procedures and well defined organizational value systems employees manifest higher level of normative commitment to the organization. In addition to these effects they concluded that well articulated reward systems are positive related to instrumental based commitment. According to Caldwell et al. (1990) factors related to an individual s decision to accept a job offer can influence his or her subsequent organizational commitment. Cohen and Lowenberg (1990) made a Meta analysis for side bet theory as applied to organizational commitment. The meta analysis was done considering 11 side bets viz. age, tenure, education, gender, marital status, number of children, level in the organization, number of jobs in the organization, skill level, perceived job alternatives and pay and result reported that meta analysis results do not support the side bet theory. 84

13 Koslowsky (1990) noted that organization commitment was not related to staff/ line variable but job commitment (job involvement) is function of this dichotomy. On a sample of 207 police officers of the Israeli police department he reported that line (field) employees will show more job commitment than staff (administrative) employees. Meyer, Allen and Gellatly (1990), analysed the affective and continuous commitment to the organization on three different samples of employees in different time lag and concluded that continuous commitment scale to be divided into two sub-scales i.e. two dimensions. The additional dimensions added to continuous commitment scale were lack of alternatives and personal sacrifice (loss of side bets) Mathieu (1991) on a sample of 588 ROTC cadets for studied antecedents of organizational commitment and satisfaction. He found that organizational commitment and job satisfaction are reciprocally related. The influence of satisfaction on commitment was found to be stronger than the reverse effect. McNeilly and Goldsmith( 1991) in a studied the effects of gender and performance on job satisfaction and intention to leave the current sales job found that gender can cause differences in job attitudes, job satisfaction, and intent-to-leave. Other studies have used job performance, satisfaction, and intent-to-leave to show that low and high performing employees leave their 85

14 jobs for different reasons. In the present study used a sample of 138 salespersons drawn from a variety of companies to explore whether (1) gender and (2) performance do moderate the relationship between job satisfaction and intent-to-leave. The study showed a tendency for men and women salespersons to leave their current sales position because of dissatisfaction with different aspects of the job and also confirmed previous research that had showed that high and low performing salespeople leave for different reasons. Becker (1992) studied different foci and bases of commitment to find distinction between them noted that the distinction of foci and bases of commitment is important and organization commitment has multiple foci and bases. In organization employee carries foci to different identity as top management, supervisor, work group and organization; and foci and bases of commitment helped to predict job satisfaction and intent to quit. He further added that study of individual attachment to include foci and bases of commitment is the creation of commitment profile. Cohen and Gattiker (1992) did an empirical assessment of organizational commitment using side bet theory approach on 463 white collar employees in Canada and the U.S.A.. They found that age and tenure had no correlation with organizational commitment and Gender was an important variable for organizational commitment in Canada but in USA gender was not a significant determinant of commitment. They resulted that western conception of 86

15 commitment may apply to similar cultures not to different cultures such as those of Japan and India. Begley and Czajka (1993) in their attempt to understand the effects of organizational commitment on the stress outcomes relationship under adverse organizational conditions found moderating effect of commitment on job displeasure ( job dissatisfaction, intent to quit and work related irritation) and stress increase job displeasure only when organizational commitment was low and no effect when high in organizational commitment. They have found when commitment is treated as a precursor to changes in job satisfaction its interactive effects with satisfaction should be accessed. Cohen (1993) studied age and tenure relationship with organization commitment and considered important correlates of organizational commitment (OC). However, the relations between these variables and OC were found to be relatively weak. This meta-analysis examines the relations between age and tenure and OC across different time frames of employment stages. The numbers of samples dealing with the relations between OC and age and between OC and tenure were 84 and 80, respectively. Age and tenure were divided into time frames of employment stages and a separate meta- analysis was conducted for each of these subgroups. The findings indicate different patterns of relations across employment stages. The relation between OC and 87

16 age was strongest for the youngest subgroup. The relation between OC and tenure was strongest for the oldest tenure subgroup. Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993) tested commitment to organization and occupation for three component conceptualization. They noted that there is positive correlation between affective and normative commitment since they have common antecedents e.g. positive work experience; continuous commitment increases as affective and normative commitment decreases. Job satisfaction is found to be positively correlated to affective commitment and normative commitment whereas negatively correlated to continuous commitment. And, normative commitment is positive correlated and continuous commitment to professional activities. Tett and Meyer (1993) examined job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention and turnover and found that job satisfaction and organsiational commitment are distinct concepts and contribute uniquely to turnover process. They further added that commitment does not correlate more strongly than satisfaction does with intention/ cognitions, although difference identified was very small. Withdrawal cognition measures correlated more strongly with job satisfaction, whereas turnover intention measure correlates more strongly with turnover. 88

17 Vandenberg and Self (1993) in their study for accessing newcomers changing commitment to the organization during the first six months in different periods as first day, third and sixth month and found that there is decline in levels of organizationally relevant attitudes over the periods; and concluded that initial work experience and socialization can affect organizational commitment of an employee. Dunham et al.( 1994) conducted a study on a 9 series ( N = 2734) on the members of different organizations, job and individual characteristics represented by full time, part-time and volunteer organizational members to evaluate the construct definition, measurement, and validation of organizational commitment ( OC) and wide range of antecedents of the various dimensions of OC. The result supports the existence of three dimensions affective, continuous and normative, of organizational commitment with two sub dimensions (personal sacrifice and lack of alternatives). Brett et al. (1995) on examined impact of organizational commitment on economic dependency on a sample of sales persons found that there is strong relationship between performance and organizational commitment for employees with relatively with low financial requirement than for the employees with high financial requirement. Workers with low financial requirements may experience greater pressure to maintain cognitive balance between their attitude and behaviour than employee with high financial 89

18 requirement. They have noted that role of financial requirement as a moderator of the relationship between attitudinal organizational commitment and performance. Allen and Meyer (1996) in an examination of construct validity of affective, continuous and normative commitment to the organization for the study they considered 40 employee samples, representing more than employees from a wide variety of organizations. From the study he conclude that three measures of commitment- affective, continuous and normative, are distinguishable from each other and continuous commitment comprises two highly related factors though practical implications was not cleared and stressed to conduct future research. Also addressed that affective commitment correlates with measure reflecting other foci (e.g. job satisfaction, job commitment (involvement), work values and career commitment) whereas Normative and continuous commitment correlate weakly with other work attitudes. Affective commitment is positive correlated with positive dispositional affect and negatively correlated with negative dispositional affect. They identified affective commitment is correlated with work experience like fair treatment, challenging tasks, feedback and approachable management. As consequences of commitment they identified that absenteeism is negatively correlated with affective commitment, and continuous and normative commitment are not significantly related to absenteeism. In work performance 90

19 affective commitment is positive related to supervisor s rating is to overall performance. Becker et al. (1996) studied foci and bases of employee commitment and its implication on for job performance found that employee in many organizations distinguish between commitment to supervisor and organization and between identification and internalization as bases to these two foci. They have found that certain forms of commitment are related to job performance in predictable and meaningful way whereas overall commitment to organization was not related to performance; commitment to supervisor was strongly related to job performance than was commitment to organization. It was noted that commitment based on internalization rather than identification is more relevant to job performance. Cohen (1996) studied the discriminate validity of Meyer and Allen scale and its relationship with different foci work involvement, job involvement, career commitment and protestant work ethic. He found that affective commitment dimension scale has highest positive correlation with job involvement, career commitment and work commitment and there is no concept redundancy. Leung (1997) studied the relationships among satisfaction, commitment and performance for the study he considered retail chains specializing in casual 91

20 apparel in Hong Kong. He worked on a sample of 231 sales staff from 26 shops of a retail chain with 78.2% female and rest male of age group between 21and 30 years and most of the staff worked for more than six months in the shop. He reported that general satisfaction is strongly correlated with organizational commitment; general satisfaction and organizational commitment correlated significantly with self reported with performance but the satisfaction showed a higher correlation than commitment did. He concluded that general satisfaction showed a much higher correlation with organization effectiveness. Organizational effectiveness is a useful as consequences of job satisfaction. The link of organizational commitment is not related to performance have several reasons as other variables such as work performance and productive norms have direct impact on work performance and these factors overwhelm the influence of commitment. Cohen (1999) in an empirical assessment for relationships among five forms commitment proposed that work commitment models organizational commitment is an endogenous variable and protestant work ethics (PWE work value commitment) is an exogenous one, while job involvement mediates this relationship. The findings suggested first, career commitment is an endogenous variable in the interrelationships together with the two forms of organizational commitment, second, career commitment moderates the relationship between job involvement and organizational commitment, 92

21 Employees who are highly involved in their job have more positive work experiences, attributed to organizational officials or their career decision, and will reciprocate with high commitment to these foci. Job involvement has significant relationships with gender, tenure, and job satisfaction and not related to perceived performance or to life satisfaction. Currivan (1999) in his attempt to analyze the causal relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment in employee turnover noted that there is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and organization commitment and added that the causal relationship in job satisfaction and organizational commitment is spurious which is due to common determinants. In the study he considered 13 determinants, and on analysis of the determinants found that four of the propose determinants: routinisation, peer support, supervisor support and work load, significantly influence both job satisfaction and organizational commitment, whereas autonomy has a positive effect on satisfaction only. Role ambiguity, role conflict and pay have small or insignificant effects on the two employee orientations. O Driscoll and Randall (1999) studied perceived organizational support, satisfaction with rewards and employee sjob involvement and organizational commitment on a sample 350 employees in four diary co-operatives two in Ireland and two in New-Zealand. The sample had an average age 42 years, average association with the organization 8.3 years, non managerial 54%, first 93

22 line managerial 22%, middle level manager 17% and 5% as senior managerial level. The results proposed as two attitudes job involvement and organizational commitment were substantially linked but not to the extent they are mutually redundant and these variables are virtually unrelated to continuous commitment, and proposed that emotional attachment to the organization is distinct from continuous commitment. Perceived organizational support and satisfaction with intrinsic rewards made significant positive contributions to job involvement and affective satisfaction, and reward satisfaction, intrinsic and extrinsic, was not linked with continuous commitment where perceived support reflected negative association with continuous commitment. Intrinsic reward satisfaction was related to both job involvement and organizational commitment whereas extrinsic reward satisfaction related to affective organizational commitment, that is intrinsic reward satisfaction plays stronger role than extrinsic reward satisfaction in the organization. Beck and Wilson (2000) in their attempt to know the development of affective organizational commitment in change with tenure on officers of police department in Australia noted that there was strong co-relationship between age and tenure and development difference in commitment may have resulted from either of these variables. They have registered that the relationship between age and organizational commitment is non significant keeping tenure effect controlled but tenure and commitment relationship is significant when age is 94

23 controlled It is concluded that tenure is important index of development of commitment not age. They have also noted that potential importance of commitment norms to the development of newcomers commitment level in all organization. Maier and Brunstein (2001) tested the role of personal work goals in newcomers job satisfaction and organizational commitment on a sample of 81 full time university degree holder employees of 14 companies in Germany in different time zones 20 weeks (T1) and subsequent period were 4 months (T2) and 8 months (T3) later. The study revealed that among newcomers who were strongly committed to their goals with favorable conditions for reaching goals displayed an increase in job satisfaction and organization commitment and in contrast, if poor condition for attaining personal goals at work with a decline in job satisfaction and organization commitment. Further to that gender accounted for a significance portion of variance in job satisfaction at T2 and organization commitment at T3 where men scored higher than women. They concluded that new comers will be likely to identify themselves with their organization if they perceive it to be facilitative of personal goal achievement. Rhoades et al. (2001) conducted three studies to examine the interrelationship among work experiences, perceived organizational support (POS), affective commitment and employee turnover. They considered three studies for the research in United States. 95

24 Study one a sample of 367 employees of diverse jobs and organizations with age group (25-60) were taken. Result showed that work experience, perceived organization support and affective commitment were distinct in nature. POS mediated the association of organizational rewards, procedural justice and supervisor support with affective commitment. That is favourable work experiences attributable to the organization s discretionary actions (organizational rewards, procedural justice and supervisor support). In the second study, to know the directionality of POS and AC, two samples of employees 2 years and 3 years interval from large electronic and sales appliance organization were taken. They found that perceived organizational support leads to affective commitment but not the reverse. In third study two samples one from a retail sales organization and poultry and feed processing plant taken. They found that affective commitment mediates the relationship between perceived organizational support and subsequently to turnover. Finally, concluded that organizational rewards, procedural justice and supervisor supports are readily modifiable work experiences that lead to affective commitment via perceived organizational support and thereby reduces turnover.. Wasti (2002) studied affective and continuance commitment to the organization: test of an integrated model in the Turkish contest for the work he 96

25 conceptualized commitment as two dimensional affective and continuous. He hypothesized affective commitment develops from positive work experiences and to predict desirable outcomes. Continuance commitment, on the other hand, was argued to be culture-bound. The study in two phases was conducted in Turkey. In phase one 916 private sector employees 45.3% females and rest males with modal age of years and modal tenure 1-4 years taken for study to understand the nature of organizational commitment and in phase two 83 employees from various organizations ( e.g. private, state-owned and family owned) of differ in hierarchical level, tenure in organization, gender, age, marital status, education and rural versus urban background were considered to find out emic( culture specific) organizational commitment and antecedent items. The study resulted that affective commitment develops because of positive work experiences- job satisfaction and organizational fairness and associated with higher level of outcomes, such as higher levels of organizational citizenship behaviors, and lower levels of withdrawal behaviors like absenteeism and tardiness i.e. Affective commitment is proposed to develop as a function of job satisfaction and organizational collectivism. Continuous commitment has two primary antecedents: lack of job alternatives and side-bets, that is, anything that increases the cost of quitting, such as investments in the organization in terms of time, money, with others as in- 97

26 group influence, norms for loyalty and informal recruitment. Continuance commitment as such, represents a need to stay with the organization and is not related to positive organizational or individual outcomes. Normative commitment to develop from organizational commitment norms, that develops either during pre-entry (through familial and cultural socialization) or postentry (through organizational socialization) and appears to be predictive of positive outcomes, albeit not as strongly as affective commitment. The study revealed that negative consequences of commitment are turn over intention and work withdrawal and positive consequence of commitment are organization citizenship and satisfaction with life; also confirms that affective commitment is function of positive work experiences, associated with desirable work and personal outcomes, and that these relationships were not different across individuals with differing endorsement of collectivist cultural values that confirmed the cross-cultural generalizability of the antecedents and consequences of affective commitment; also indicated that loyalty norms and in-group approval increased continuance commitment. The influence of norms and the in-group was stronger for allocentrics (Furthermore, for allocentrics, continuance commitment was related to more positive job outcomes. The results underline the importance of normative concerns in understanding employee attachment in collectivist contexts and also point to a need for a better measurement of calculative commitment. 98

27 Meyer et al.(2002) conducted a study entitled Affective, Continuance and Normative commitment to the organization: A meta analysis of antecedents correlates and consequences within and outside North America to assess- (a) relations among affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization and (b) relations between the three forms of commitment and variables identified as their antecedents, correlates, and consequences in Meyer and Allen's (1991) Three-Component Model. They categorized antecedent variables considered for the purpose of the study into four groups: demographic variables, individual differences, work experiences and alternative/ investment. They found correlation with demographic was low whereas age and tenure (organization and position) was positive with all three components of commitment. Correlations with work experience variables were much stronger than those involving personal characteristics and correlated more strongly with affective commitment. Lastly, the relationship with availability of alternatives and investment variables more strongly related with continuous commitment than with affective commitment or normative commitment. In their study they have found that the three forms of commitment are related yet distinguishable from one another as well as from job satisfaction, job involvement, and occupational commitment, and very strong correlation of organizational commitment with correlates overall job satisfaction, job involvement and occupational commitment. All three forms of commitment 99

28 correlated negatively to withdrawal cognition and turnover intention and turnover but correlate differently with other work behaviours i.e. attendance, job performance and OCB. Affective commitment had the strongest and most favorable correlations with organization-relevant (attendance, performance, and organizational citizenship behavior) and employee-relevant (stress and work family conflict) outcomes. They have observed that affective commitment is strongly related with perceived organization support (POS) and various forms of organizational justice (i.e. distributive, procedural and interactional) and transformational leadership. Rhoads et al.( 2002) did a study for retailing as a career for a comparative study on store based retail position and other marketing related position. On a sample of 545 respondents worked in different marketing related position as industrial sales person, retail store manager, marketing manager and corporate sales executives. The results found that retail store managers have less satisfying work place experience than do other marketers and had a lower level of organizational commitment and higher level of intentions to look for new job. Also, identified that overall well being of retail store managers significantly poorer than those of other marketing related position. Chen and Francesco (2003), in a study of the relationship between the three components of commitment and performance in China, on 253 superior and subordinate pairs in large pharmaceutical manufacturer in south China found 100

29 that the three components of OC are related yet distinct factors in Chinese sample. There is significant effect of affective commitment on performance normative commitment had no effect on performance whereas however normative commitment plays a significant role in tempering relationship between affective commitment and performance. They suggest that managers can enhance employee performance by understanding and managing the nature of employee commitment to the organization. Bowling et al. (2006) in their five year studies predicted that the five workrelated attitudes- job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, career commitment and career satisfaction, would be more stable for individuals who remained with the same employer than for individuals who changed employers. Gellatly et al.( 2006) in their efforts to know the combined effects of the three commitment components on focal and discretionary behavious to test the theoretical proposition advanced by Meyer and Herscovitch ( 2001) that is the interactive effects of affective, continuous and normative commitment on focal( staying intention) and discretionary ( citizenship) behaviour. The study was conducted on 2972 permanent full and part time, non management employees of a Canadian health care organization there were 89% female with average age 46.8 years and average tenure with the organization was 11.2 years. The result was affective commitment (AC) did not correlate significantly 101

30 with continuous commitment (CC) but correlate significantly with normative commitment (NC); intention to stay is significantly with all forms commitment. They have noted that the strong relationship with three components of commitment on focal behaviour. They have predicted that intention to stay with the organization was strong for all the three profile groups; also added that three components of commitment have additive effects on intentions to remain. In studying discretionary behaviour they have found that when affective commitment (AC) and citizenship behaviour was strong when NC and CC were low than when one of the two was high. There was negative relationship in case of CC was high and AC was low. Finally they have noted that employees with strong AC profile are likely to remain with the organization and to be good organizational citizens; in case AC is low and CC is high, NC will be experienced as indebted obligation and reduce the tendency to engage in citizenship behaviour. Hence in case of high AC, NC will contribute to the increase in citizenship behaviour. Also noted that an employee s commitment profile provides a context that can influence how a particular component of commitment is experienced. Arndt et al.(2006) studied the effects of polychronic-orientation upon retail employee satisfaction and turnover. The study was done on 313 retail employees all worked in pharmacies across the state of Washington. He derived that keeping front-line retail employees satisfied, and subsequently 102

31 reducing their turnover, is important in retail management. This study introduces polychronic- orientation, or an employee s preference for switching between multiple tasks within the same time-block, as an employee trait with important implications for retail employee turnover. A polychronic-orientation has both direct (employee fit) and indirect (through fairness perceptions) effects on retail employee satisfaction. Moreover, by exploring these effects across career stages, polychronicity is revealed to be a stable and enduring trait but one whose impact is magnified in early stages of the retail career. Implications for hiring and employee education are derived. Vidal et al.( 2007) conducted a study to know the antecedents of repatriates job satisfaction and its influence on turnover intention on Spanish managers. The sample used for the study was 81 repatriate managers of Spanish international companies. They found that repatriate mangers job satisfaction is negatively and significantly related to their turnover intention and some organizational practices can enhance their job satisfaction. Therefore concluded antecedents of job satisfaction are job they occupied after repatriates and promotion after repatriates and meetings employees with accurate work expectation after repatriates. Brown and Lam (2008) in their meta-analysis study on relationships linking employee satisfaction to customer responses indicated statistically significant and substantively important relationships linking employee satisfaction to 103

32 customer satisfaction and perceived service quality. They found employee satisfaction to be a consistently important driver of customer responses. Brown and Lam (2008) in their meta-analysis study on relationships linking employee satisfaction to customer responses indicated statistically significant and substantively important relationships linking employee satisfaction to customer satisfaction and perceived service quality. They found employee satisfaction to be a consistently important driver of customer responses. Rutherford et al. (2009) investigated the role of the seven dimensions of job satisfaction in salesperson s attitudes and behaviour on a sample of 132 salespersons, average 32 years of age, 69% male and worked in the firm for 2 years. The seven dimensions considered for the study were supervision, overall job, company policy and support, promotion and advancement, pay, coworkers and customers. The result found that emotional exhaustion was positive related to five dimensions of job satisfaction overall job, company policy and support, promotion and advancement, pay and supervision and was not related to co-worker and customers. Further found that organizational commitment was related to four of seven dimensions of job satisfaction -satisfaction with supervision, overall job, company policy and support and emotional exhaustion. Also found emotional exhaustion only has an indirect linkage with propensity to leave through organization commitment, satisfaction with overall job, satisfaction with promotion and advancement. They further found that 104

33 three dimensions of job satisfaction were positive related to organizational commitment and satisfaction with overall job was related to both organizational commitment and propensity to leave. Also indicated that satisfaction with promotion and advancement is significantly and negative related to propensity to leave but not with organization commitment, and satisfaction with pay, coworkers, and customers were not related to either propensity to leave or organization commitment. They concluded that increase in global satisfaction may or may not reduce salesperson s turnover.. Somers (2009) in an effort to know the combined influence of affective, continuous and normative commitment on employee withdrawal noted that there exists different commitment profile which is combination of different commitment and found that sample characteristics (e.g. industry and profession) are obvious factors affecting commitment profile of an individual or group, since the population of the study was nurses and there is strong service element associated with nursing practices leads to affective (AC) and normative (NC) dominant profile. In their study the sample taken was nurses of 288 staff nurses from a large hospital in southern region of United States. Ziauddin et al.(2010) studied impact of employees job stress on organizational commitment on 151 private and public sector employees of oil and gas sector in Pakistan they found there is a positive relationship between job stress and organizational commitment, they have added that relationship between affective commitment and job stress, and continuous commitment with job 105

34 stress is found positive related. They have observed that age below 25 years have relatively low commitment and with age have relatively higher commitment. Bakan et al. (2011) made an empirical study for relationship of education level and organizational commitment found that by the increase in their education level employees commitment to the organizations become more and more strong. 2.2 Studies on Organizational Commitment in India Sharma (1997) designed a study to find out the situational and personal determinants of organizational commitment. 200 skilled workers of a private sector manufacturing organization in Faridabad, India, were interviewed with the help of a structured interview schedule. Results indicated "organizational characteristics" and "task characteristics" are relatively more important determinants of organizational commitment than "personal characteristics". Together, the first two sets of factors explain per cent of the variance in organizational commitment, whereas only about 2 per cent of the variance is explained by the person-related factors. Thus, whether a worker is committed to his organization or not is determined less by his personal characteristics but much more by the situational characteristics. Sharma and Joshi (2001) conducted a study for determinants of organizational commitment in a manufacturing organization in the private 106