Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Entrepreneurial Disposition: Proactivity and Creativity. DST Brunei/ HR Manager

Transcription

1 1 Title: Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Entrepreneurial Disposition: Proactivity and Creativity Name of author(1): Dr Noor Maya Salleh Organisation affiliation/position: Institut Teknologi Brunei/ Director of HRD and Principal lecturer Name of author (2): Shamsul Baharin bin Abdul Rahman Organisation affiliation/position: DST Brunei/ HR Manager Address: Jalan Tungku Highway, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam address*: Stream: Innovation, sustainability and HRD Submission type: Refereed Paper

2 2 Abstract This paper aims to test empirically the relationships between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial attitude such as creativity and proactivity among employees working in a monopoly company in Brunei. There is emerging research investigating the relationship between affect and entrepreneurship. Academic research further investigate entrepreneurs role of affect in enhancing the potential success of entrepreneurial ventures. A set of questionnaires survey was completed by 111 employees at any level in the organization. Emotional Intelligence was measured using Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS). The WLEIS was designed as a short measure of EI for use in organizational research. It is a 16 items self-report emotional intelligence measure. Results shows variance in the result from existing literature showing negative and weak relationship between emotional intelligence and proactivity and creativity. Factors such as emotion state of employees, culture and the organization s market status could have influenced the relationships among variables.

3 3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ENTREPRENEURIAL DISPOSITION: PROACTIVITY AND CREATIVITY Noor Maya Salleh Institut Teknologi Brunei Negara Brunei Darussalam Shamsul Baharin Abdul Rahman DST Negara Brunei Darussalam Introduction There has been mounting pressure on today s organizations on the need for their employees to have entrepreneurial disposition such as proactivity and creativity in this competitive and challenging environment. Both employees creativity and proactivity are becoming critical to an organization s competitive advantage and survival. As competition increases and technology changes unpredictably, managers perceive the urgent need to encourage their employees to be more creative (Shalley & Gilson, 2004) which later leads to innovation. This significant implication of proactivity and creativity to the workplace has further trigger its importance in the academic research in particular on how creative thinking and working proactivity can be fostered in the workplace in order to achieve sustainability. Evidence suggests that individual s dispositions may play a somewhat a larger role in the origins of entrepreneurship than it does in business success in general. Prior research also suggests that personality variables may play an important role in developing alternative models to the entrepreneurial process (see Zampetakis et al., 2008). In addition to that, more recently, studies on the role of affect and feelings and its significant contribution to the success of organization as a result of employees entrepreneurial disposition has also increased. For example, research indicates that positive emotions may enhance entrepreneurial creativity (Boren, 2010).

4 4 The main objective of this research is therefore to identify the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and components of entrepreneurial personality, that is, creativity and proactivity of employees at workplace in Brunei. The existence of relationships will support existing studies and perhaps will contribute to management development strategy towards organization s sustainability in challenging global environment. Entrepreneurial Attitude and Emotion The term entrepreneurial attitude is borrowed from the business context which refers to the study of human behaviour involved in identifying and exploiting opportunities through creating and developing new ventures. Entrepreneurial attitude is critical to the phenomenon of entrepreneurship and venture creation such that entrepreneurship does not happen until individuals take action. In fact it is widely addressed that the significant impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth, continuous business renewal, and employment is crucial. Among the components of entrepreneurship attitude include proactivity and Creativity (Zampetakis et al., 2008). Creativity has been defined as the generation of novel and useful ideas (Amabile, 1988) and serve as a function of employees dispositional characteristics, contextual factors, and the interaction between these factors (Amabile, 1996). While proactivity refers to the active attempts made by the individual to effect changes in his or her environment (Bateman and Crant, 1993). Employees who are coordinated and proactive can create and implement changes to improve the effectiveness of services and human capital productivities. With the spirit and behavior that they possess, they can move forward to face existing challenges that will continue to increase.

5 5 Leading to that, is an emerging research on entrepreneurs that pertains to the role of affect such as feeling and emotions in enhancing the potential success of entrepreneurial ventures. There is evidence that positive moods increase awareness and enhance the breadth and flexibility of thinking (Isen, 1999). This is the pathway towards higher proactivity (Amabile, Barsade, Mueller & Staw, 2005). At the same time, it has been found that when experiencing negative affect, employees who are aware of that affective state and who are in a situation that clearly calls for creativity, will interpret their negative mood as a need to find a creative solution (George and Zhou, 2002). At work, there have been several literatures demonstrating how positive emotion at work enhances employee creativity. Positive affect, for example, has been mentioned numerous times in the literature as the key antecedent of employee creativity. For example, Amabile (et al.,2005) examined how affect was related to creativity at work. Existing theories of affective influence on cognition further shows that positive affect increases the breadth of cognitive associations, scope of attention, and cognitive flexibility, thus making employees more creative (Amabile et al., 2005). Emotional Intelligence and Creativity and Proactivity The origins of emotional intelligence as a concept can be found in the early work of researchers on intelligence such as Binet, Thorndike, Guildford and Gardner. Gardner (1983) developed the concept of social intelligence as a means to explain the variance in outcome measures not accounted for by IQ. Gardner and Hatch (1989) further developed the term multiple intelligences for a similar reason. However, they were unable to find any significant relationship between multiple intelligence and IQ measures. This led to the conclusion that

6 6 there was an other intelligence which was a distinctly different construct from the IQ (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000). Later Mayer and Salovey (1990) explicitly defined the construct and developed the emotional intelligence theory and demonstrated the measurement of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence concept is thus defined as a set of individual abilities, specifically as a learned ability to perceive, understand and express our feelings accurately and to control our emotions so that they work for us, and not against us (Mayer and Salovey, 1997). Their definition viewed emotional intelligence as a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one s own and other s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one s thinking and action. Existing literatures refer organizations as emotional places because the core organization of work concerns what employees do with their feelings. Emotional expression also becomes a key part of the work role. This gives rise to the concept of emotional intelligence and its impact on the overall organization. There have also been many seminal writings on emotional intelligence that examining its implication on individual well-being and life outcomes, job satisfaction, work performance and leadership (Salleh, 2010). Several studies have also concluded that emotional intelligence is particularly important in apprehending and managing stress (e.g Salleh, 2010; Clarke and Salleh, 2011). Those who are able to manage their stress well are able to bring positive energy to their surroundings. Likewise, those having positive emotions may enhance entrepreneurial creativity, including opportunity recognition (Baron, 2008). Jung, Pai, Choi & Lee (2011) also examined how being happy at work can facilitate creativity at work. This consequently may encourage proactivity at work through positive emotion and thinking.

7 7 Further to that, Aqayar and Sharifi (2007) argue that emotional intelligence is about the ability to understand the effective use of power, intelligence and emotion as a source of energy, information, confidence creativity and effectiveness. Besides having string analytical abilities, achieving success in life, practical and creativity abilities are also important. Another study by Dadvar, Mohamadrezaii & Fathabadi (2012) also studied the association between emotional intelligence and creativity among female high school students. Their study demonstrated the existence of significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and student s creativity. Background of the Study DST is considered a large corporate structure by Brunei standard. Today DST is a diverse group comprising of seven subsidiary companies under the umbrella of Datasream Technology Sdn Bhd as their holding company providing mobile services, broadband internet, broadcasting and content. Currently the group employ more than 700 employees of whom more than 95% of them are local Bruneians dispersed within its 1 holding and 7 subsidiary companies. The group s revenue is currently in excess of 300 million dollars a year (DST, 2012a; 2012b). The bulk of the revenue stream comes from DST Communications Sdn Bhd, its flagship subsidiary company providing mobile services for its 400 thousand customers. Most of the rest of its revenue came from its telco retail outlets, its 30 thousand satellite TV subscribers and thousands of broadband internet subscribers (DST, 2012a). As a leading company in Brunei, DST is currently placing a lot of efforts to inculcate a set of desired corporate values to be adopted by its employees in its mission to inculcate a relevant

8 8 corporate culture that reflects a positive image of a technology-based company (DST Website, 2013; DST, 2012b). Tagged as DINAMIC these values include: (1) Dynamic, (2) Innovative, (3) Accountability, (4) Teamwork, (5) Integrity, and (6) Customer Focus. DST has always been putting emphasis on equipping its employees with the right competencies to be able to perform the required tasks of DST s operations and administrations in the face of ever changing market challenges. Apart from the hundreds of job-specific functional competencies and more than twenty role/behavior competencies required for leaders at different levels within the company, three core competencies (customer service, adaptability and teamwork) have been identified as a must-have competencies across the board (DST, 2012b). DST intensified its efforts to find new initiatives to develop staff performance and competency to meet its technology-driven market. In doing so, a consultant, was engaged to conduct detailed listing and mapping of the required competencies for every position in the organization and to review the existing competency framework to align with the organization s performance and key result areas. The results of the project shows that the top and middle management staff were feeling cautious and pessimistic and therefore found to be emotional, high in stress and feeling apprehensive (Aon Hewitt Consulting, 2012a). At the same time, DST staff was also found to score low on innovation for business and developing people competencies. Such low scores have resulted in sporadic creativity throughout the organisation and the tendency to be reactive towards the market and industrial challenges (Aon Hewitt Consulting, 2012b). The management concluded the low score as a result of the negative affect and DST s status as the market leader in Brunei (Oxford Business

9 9 Group, 2012). Where no threat or challenges are seen, people will work in a comfort zone that eventually will not trigger them to think creatively and proactively. Research Objectives There has been increasing focus on the academic investigation on the success stories of individuals at work as a result of their positive mood. Individuals high in emotional intelligence are likely to persevere when problems arise and search for challenges and therefore challenging opportunities. High emotional intelligence person may also show a higher degree of personal initiative and actively search for information. This study therefore seeks to identify the relationship between entrepreneurial attitude of creativity and proactivity among employees in the private company in Brunei. This will be a breakthrough research since no study so far has been conducted to seek the relationship between emotional intelligence and creativity and proactivity in Brunei context. Hypotheses Research indicates that creativity and proactivity assist in the positive effect of emotional intelligence thus showing a relationship between emotional intelligence and these entrepreneurial dispositions (e.g. Zampetakis et al., 2008). Hypothesis 1: There is a positive and strong relationship between emotional intelligence and creativity. Hypothesis 2: There is a positive and strong relationship between emotional intelligence and proactivity.

10 10 Hypothesis 3: There is a significant difference in relationship between emotional intelligence and creativity and proactivity between genders. Hypothesis 4: There is a significant difference in relationship between emotional intelligence and creativity and proactivity between types of job. Research Methodology Data was collected through the distribution of three sets of measurements: emotional intelligence, creativity and proactivity. Emotional Intelligence was measured using a validated instrument Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) (Please refer to Appendix A). The WLEIS was designed as a short measure of EI for use in organizational research. It is a self-report emotional intelligence measure developed for Chinese respondent (Wong et al., 2008) and comprises 16 items, responded to on a 7-point Likert scale. WEIS is a scale based on the four ability dimensions described in the domain of emotional intelligence including (1) appraisal and expression of emotion in the self; (2) appraisal and recognition of emotion in others; (3) regulation of emotion in the self ; (4) use of emotion to facilitate performance. This measurement was used due to its development background which was based on the Asian culture which to some extent has similar context to Brunei. Wong and Law (2002) also report good internal consistency reliabilities for their measure. In terms of validity, they present data showing that scores on the WLEIS are related to job performance and job satisfaction. While, the creativity was measured using Zhou and George s (2001) and proactivity was measured using Baterman and Crant s (1993) (Please refer to Appendix B and C respectively). A set of 140 questionnaires were administered to DST employees which is 20% of the total 700 employees. However, only 111 completed questionnaires were returned. Due to the

11 11 expense, time and convenience factors, randomisation and clustering sampling method was used in cross-sectional fashion in the final quarter of It should be noted that the survey was conducted mainly in December, traditionally a slow and serene month for DST staff work-wise. From the overall participants, 75 (67%) of them were female. The average working experience was 8.5 years with the lowest being less than 1 year and the highest being more than 36 years. Proportionately, in terms of their working experience, 40 (36%) of them had more than 10 years, 18 (16%) had between 6 and 10 years, 53 (48%) had been working for 5 years or less. In addition to this, 34 (31%) of the participants worked at the front desks (customer facing). While, 39 (35. %) of the participants were non-customer facing and 33(29.73%) of them were the technical staff. Results The relationship between emotional intelligence (as measured by WEIS) and creativity (as measured by Zhou & George scale) was also examined using Pearson product-moment correlations coefficient. There was a small positive correlation between the two variables [r=.126, n=111, p<.05]. This indicated that employees with high levels of emotional intelligence have a small chance of being creative (Table D1). Insert Table D1 about here The (r²) method was also used to explain the variability in creativity through staff emotional intelligence variable. The results shows that the.126 squared resulted in.016. Therefore this

12 12 survey found that only 1.6% of the differences of creativity can attributed to staff s variations in level of emotional intelligence. The result therefore supports H1 that there is a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and creativity. Nonetheless, despite the positive relationship, the strength of the relationship was rather weak. The relationship between the emotional intelligence (as measured by WEIS scale) and proactivity (as measured by Baterman & Crant scale) was examined using Pearson productmoment correlations coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure there was no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was a small and negative correlation between the two variables [r=-.172, n= 111, p<.05] with high level of emotional intelligence associated with low levels of proactivity (Table D1). Insert Table D1 about here In order to explain the measure of how much of the variability in the pro-activity variable can be explained by variation in the emotional intelligence variable, the correlation was squared (r²). The result of squared is.03. Therefore this research found that only 3% of the variation in employee s proactivity can be explained by differences in levels of emotional intelligence. The result however does not support H2 that there is a significant positive and strong relationship between emotional intelligence and proactivity. The relationship between emotional intelligence and proactivity was found to be a weak but negative relationship.

13 13 The control variables of gender and departments were used to further investigate and compare the strengths of the correlation coefficients between two different groups. First the relationship was tested by investigating males and females separately. From the output given in table, the correlation between emotional intelligence and creativity affect for males was r=.407 while for females it was much lower at r=.061. The correlation was significant at p>.05 level for males but not so for the females (Table D2). Insert Table D2 about here To calculate if there is a statistically significant difference between the two correlations coefficient the z abs value was calculated. The z abs obtained was 1.78 which was within the boundary of -1.96< z abs <1.96. This indicates that the correlations coefficients between creativity and emotional intelligence of males and females are not significantly different. Meanwhile, the correlation between emotional intelligence and pro-activity affect for males was r=-.340 and for females it was r= The correlation for males were negatively significant at p>.05 but not so for the females (Table D2). Insert Table D2 about here z abs was also conducted to test the two correlation coefficient significance. The result was z abs =1.05 and within the boundary of -1.96< z abs <1.96. This also means that the correlation coefficient of proactivity and emotional intelligence differences between males and females are not statistically significant.

14 14 When investigation was done on the relationship between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial attitude between genders, no significant difference was found between male and female participants. This therefore rejects H3. On the other hand, the correlation between emotional intelligence and creativity for customer-facing staff was r=.086 while the non-customer facing staffs r=.218. The correlations strength between the emotional intelligence and creativity variables for both categories turned out to be small (Table D3). Insert Table D3 about here z abs test conducted resulted in z abs = which is within the boundary of -1.96< z abs <1.96 for the difference of correlations for customer-facing and non-customer facing employees for the two variables This indicated that differences between the categories of employees emotional intelligence and creativity correlations are not statistically significant. Further, the correlation between emotional intelligence and proactivity for customer facing and non-customer facing staff was found at r=-.126 and r=-.132 respectively. Both categories recorded small correlation strength between emotional intelligence and proactivity variables (Table D3). Insert Table D3 about here Consequently, the z abs test conducted for the emotional intelligence and pro-activity correlations resulted in z abs = which is within the boundary of -1.96< z abs <1.96 for the

15 15 difference of correlations for customer-facing and non-customer facing employees for the two variables This indicated that differences between the categories of employees emotional intelligence and proactivity correlations are also not statistically significant. When investigation was done on the relationship between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial attitude between genders, no significant difference was found between customer-facing and non-customer facing employees. This therefore rejects H4. Discussions and Future Study Overall the current study demonstrated interesting findings and differs from prior research on the significant relationship emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial disposition. The strength of the relationship between emotional intelligence and creativity was found to be rather weak. While the relationship between emotional intelligence and proactivity was found to be negative. Many existing literatures had confirmed the association between positive affect and entrepreneurial disposition that those who acquire positive emotion are more able to turn past experiences into present solutions through heuristic processing (such as Boren, 2008 and 2010). Such positive passion also helps individuals to deal effectively with the persistent stress (Carver and Scheier, 2001). Baum and Locke (2004) earlier also suggested that those who display passion, positive intense feelings tend to be more successful. These current findings are therefore thought-provoking.

16 16 The already existed negative emotion such as feeling of stress and apprehension among the management, could have led to the negative and weak relationship between emotional intelligence and lack of creativity and proactivity. Cultural bias could also have an impact on the affect of the employees which further moderating the relationship between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial disposition. Earlier, several studies also highlighted the impact of culture on emotion (such as Mesquita, 2001; McEnrue, M.P., Groves, K.S., Shen, W. 2006; and Kitayama et al., 2000). Clarke and Salleh, (2011) studied the emotional intelligence score of employees in the private companies in Brunei using ability model and found low score of emotional intelligence among the employees. Other factor could also influence the current study s result. DST is currently the leading telecommunication and broadcasting company in Brunei (Oxford Business Group, 2012). Such status and lack of competition and challenges could have led to complacency and therefore resulted in lack of entrepreneurial disposition. The organization as a whole is working in a comfort zone and non-challenging market environment. This thus may lead to employees not being proactive and thinking creatively. Perhaps such situation is normal for larger corporations employees to display lack of creativity and not proactive. This study therefore demonstrates that emotional intelligence is not strongly related to two important components of entrepreneurial attitude and does not support existing literatures. This is an important piece of puzzle concerning culture and market status that should be focused in the future study on its implication to relationships of the variables. This evidence further adds to the academic literatures on emotional intelligence and proactivity and creativity and should offer a strategy for management development for enterprise s overall sustainability in a challenging environment.

17 17 REFERENCES Aon Hewitt Consulting.2012a. DST: Project Highlights. March 14, Aon Hewitt Consulting. 2012b. DST: Competency Audit. March 14, Baron, R.A The role of affect in the entrepreneurial process. Academy of management Review, 32(2): Bateman, T.S. & Crant, J.M The Proactive Component Of Organizational Behaviour: A Measure And Correlates, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 14: Baum, J.R and Locke, E.A The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and motivation to subsequent venture growth. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(4): Boren, A.E Emotional Intelligence: The Secret of Successful entrepreneurship?. Leadership in Agriculture.2: Carver, C.S. and Scheier, M.F Optimism, pessimism, and self-regulation. In E.C Chung(Ed.), Optimisms for theory, research, and practice: Washington, D.C: American Psychology Association.

18 18 Clarke, N; & Salleh, N Emotions and Their Management During A Merger In Brunei. Human Resource Development International Journal. 14(3): DST. 2012a. DST Annual Internal Report, May 2011-April DST. 2012b. DST Annual HR Management Report, May 2011-April DST Group The Brunei Times. May 15, DST Website Corporate info. January 20, Eunjin Jung, E; Pai, J; Choi, J; & Lee, S How Employee Happiness Facilitates Creativity at Work: Unpacking Multiple Pathways. Proceeding of AHRD Conference, Kuala Lumpur. Groves, K.S., McEnrue, M.P., Shen, W Developing and measuring the emotional intelligence of leaders. Journal of Management Development. 27(2): Kitayama, S., Markus, H.R., & Kurokawa. M Culture, emotion, and well-being: good feelings in japan and the United States. Cognition and Emotion. 14(1): Law, K. S., Wong, C. S. ; Huang, G.H. & Li, X The Effects Of Emotional Intelligence On Job Performance And Life Satisfaction For The Research And Development Scientists. China Asia Pacific Journal Management 25:51 69

19 19 Mesquita, B Emotions in Collectivist and individualist Contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 80(1): Oxford Business Group The Brunei Times. November 14, Salleh, N Correlation Between Employees Emotion And Emotional Intelligence During Change In Brunei. Brunei Darussalam Journal of Technology and Commerce. 5(1): Salleh, N. M, & Clarke, N Cultural Influences Affecting Employees Emotional Responses To A Merger Between Two Banking Institution Organizations In Brunei: The Significance Of Social Identity & Perceived Control. The 6 th International Critical management Conference, Warwick Business School (CMS 2009) Conference proceedings July Wong, C.S., & Law, K.S The Effects Of Leader And Follower Emotional Intelligence On Performance And Attitude: An Exploratory Study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13: Zampetakis, L.A; Kafetsios, K,; Bouranta, N.; Dewett, T; & Moustakis, V.S On The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence And Entrepreneurial Attitudes And Intentions. International Journal of Entreprenuerial Behaviour & Research, 15(6):

20 20 APPENDIX A Measurement for Emotional Intelligence: Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) Please circle the number on the right hand columns to indicate your agreement with the following statements: 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=slightly disagree; 4=neither disagree nor agree; 5=slightly agree; 6=agree; 7=strongly agree 1. I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings most of the time I have good understanding of my own emotions. 3. I really understand what I feel. 4. I always know whether or not I am happy. 5. I am able to control my temper so that I can handle difficulties rationally. 6. I am quite capable of controlling my own emotions. 7. I can always calm down quickly when I am very angry. 8. I have good control of my own emotions. 9. I always set goals for myself and then try my best to achieve them. 10. I always tell myself I am a competent person. 11. I am a self-motivating person. 12. I would always encourage myself to try my best. 13. I always know my friends emotions. 14. I am a good observer of others emotions. 15. I am sensitive to the feelings and emotions of others. 16. I have good understanding of the emotions of people around me.

21 21 APPENDIX B Measurement for Creativity: Zhou and George s (2001) Please circle the number on the right hand columns to indicate your agreement with the following statements: 1= Not At All Characteristics 5= Very Characteristics 1. Suggests new ways to achieve goals or objectives Comes up with new ideas and practical ideas to improve performance 3. Suggest new ways to increase quality 4. Is a good source of creative ideas 5. Is not afraid to take risks 6. Exhibits creativity on the job when given the opportunity to. 7. Often has new and innovative ideas 8. Comes up with creative solutions to problems 9. Often has a fresh approach to problems 10. Suggest new ways of performing work tasks

22 22 APPENDIX C Measurement for Proactivity: Baterman and Crant s (1993) Please circle the number on the right hand columns to indicate your agreement with the following statements: 1 = I strongly agree; 2 = I agree; 3 = I neither agree nor disagree; 4 = I disagree 5 = I strongly disagree 1. I am constantly on the lookout for new ways to improve my life Wherever I have been, I have been a powerful force for constructive change. 3. Nothing is more exciting than seeing my ideas turn into reality. 4. If I see something I don't like, I fix it. 5. No matter what the odds, if I believe in something I will make it happen. 6. I love being a champion for my ideas, even against others' opposition. 7. I excel at identifying opportunities. 8. I am always looking for better ways to do things. 9. If I believe in an idea, no obstacle will prevent me from making it happen. 10. I can spot a good opportunity long before others can.

23 23 APPENDIX D Table D1: Correlations between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Creativity and Proactivity Creativity Proactivity EI Pearson Correlation Creativity Proactivity EI Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Table D2: Correlations between variables (Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Creativity and Proactivity) and gender Gender Creativity Proactivity EI Female Male * p<.05 Creativity Proactivity EI Creativity Proactivity EI Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation *.407 * Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation * * Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation.407 * * 1 Sig. (2-tailed) N

24 24 Table D3: Correlations between variables and gender Type of job Creativity Proactivity EI Pearson Correlation *.218 non customer facing customer facing * p<.05 Creativity Proactivity EI Creativity Proactivity EI Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation * Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N