MBH1683 Leading Organisational Change. Lecture 5 The Politics of Change

Transcription

1 MBH1683 Leading Organisational Change Lecture 5 The Politics of Change 1

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5 Learning Objectives By the end of this lecture you will be able to: identify different types of conflict as a means of suggesting possible actions for conflict resolution; critically discuss the relationship between power, conflict and change and ways of managing these. 5

6 Content 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict - Approaches to conflict 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The two faces of power - The problems of change - The positive use of conflict and power - Guidelines for dealing with conflict - Guidelines for dealing with conflict - Action on power, conflict and change 6

7 The concept of conflict itself is by no means uncontentious. What one person calls conflict, another might call hard bargaining. A number of definitions of conflict can be found in the organizational behaviour literature. Examples of these follows. 1. Conflict in organizations We can define conflict as a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. (Robbins, 2005, p. 422) For our purpose we can see conflict as: behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some other person s goals. (Mullins, 2005, p. 904) Conflict is the result of incongruent or incompatible potential influence relationships between and within individuals, groups or organizations. (Gordon, 1993, p. 448) Conflict can be a disagreement, the presence of tension, or some other difficulty between two or more parties. Conflict is often related to interference or opposition between the parties involved. The parties in conflict usually see each other as frustrating or about to frustrate, their needs or goals. (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1994, p. 436) 7

8 1. Conflict in organizations These definitions, collectively, include the following aspects of conflict. First, it must be perceived by the parties to it, otherwise it does not exist. Second, one party to the conflict must be perceived as about to do, or actually be doing, something that the other party (or parties) do not want in other words there must be opposition. Third, some kind of interaction must take place. In addition, almost all accounts of conflict agree that it can take place at a number of levels: between individuals, between groups or between organizations. Gordon (1993) also points out that an individual may experience conflict within themselves; that is, they may experience internal conflict. This might be because of the incompatibility of goals set for them or a confusion over the roles they are asked to play. 8

9 1. Conflict in organizations Conflict, however, is not a unidimensional concept. It comes in different guises according to its degree of seriousness and capacity to disrupt or, in some cases, improve a difficult situation. Thus a further definition that encapsulates the possibilities of conflict is offered by Martin (2005, p. 746): Conflict can be considered as something that disrupts the normal and desirable states of stability and harmony within an organization. Under this definition it is something to be avoided and if possible eliminated from the operation. However, it is also possible to consider conflict as an inevitable feature of human interaction and perhaps something that if managed constructively could offer positive value in ensuring an effective performance within the organization. 9

10 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict Organizational conflict can be thought of as occurring in layers (Open University, 1985). The identification of layers of conflict is useful in demonstrating that not all conflict is of the do or die variety; it depends on what has caused the conflict. 1. Misunderstandings These are getting the wrong end of the stick genuine misconceptions about what was said or done. 10

11 2. Differences of values 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict Conflicting values lead to the most serious disagreements. The values involved may be based on ethical considerations such as whether to take bribes (e.g. sales commissions) or not; the level at which safety should be set; whether to deal with regimes that condone particular ways of behaving (e.g. imprisoning those who disagree with them) which would not be acceptable in the home country. Differences of values may also involve disagreements about the purpose of the organization, that is, the ends for which it exists. Thus differences of values are almost always about ends or goals or objectives. 3. Differences of viewpoint Different parties may share the same values but have differences of view on how particular goals or purposes should be attained. Thus differences of viewpoint are disagreements on the means by which particular ends should be achieved. For example, two parties may agree on the goal to increase profitability but disagree on how to do this. One may argue for increasing price, the other may argue for keeping price stable and cutting costs. 11

12 4. Differences of interest 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict Status, resources, advancement and so on are all desirable goods that most people want and, if they have them, they want to keep hold of them. The distribution of these goods is not a once and for all process; it is constantly being adjusted through budget setting, organizational restructuring, strategic planning and so on. Therefore, competition between individuals and, particularly, departments is ever present. 5. Interpersonal differences These are what most people would refer to as personality clashes. For whatever reason, some people find it difficult to get on with others. This might be because of differences of temperament, style or ways of behaving. Care should be taken, however, not to mistake other types of differences for personality clashes. Accounting for conflict under this heading is often used as an excuse for not facing up to differences that might be occurring for other reasons. 12

13 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict Handy (1993) argues that all conflicts start from two types of difference. First, differing goals and ideologies, which relate most nearly to the level of differences in values. Second, differences about territory, which relate most closely to the level of differences of interest. Other writers (e.g. Pfeffer, 1981; Tosi et al., 1994; Mullins, 2005; Robbins, 2005), between them, offer the following list of sources of organizational conflict. 1. Interdependence Different organizational groupings depend upon each other to a smaller or larger extent. Sometimes the dependence relationship is mutual. Eg, the marketing department is dependent on the production department to produce the goods said to be desired by the customer. Production is dependent on sales and marketing for gaining customers who want the products and thus keep the production workers in jobs. At other times, the dependence is more one way. The direction of dependence is related to power balances between groupings. 13

14 2. Organizational structures 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict Conflict is likely because of the power imbalances that prevail in hierarchical structures. This sort of conflict, of course, overlaps with the concept of dependence. However, horizontal differentiation brings its own problems. Lawrence and Lorsch (1969) that demonstrated how research, sales and production departments all had different orientations towards formality of structure, interpersonal relationships and timescales. They both argue that increased differentiation between departments, with each becoming more specialized in its activities, will lead to increased potential for conflict between them. 14

15 3. Rules and regulations 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict Robbins (2005), in particular, mentions the role of rules and regulations in reducing conflict by minimizing ambiguity. Robbins maintains that where there is high formalization (i.e. standardized ways for people and units to interact with each other) there are fewer opportunities for disputes about who does what and when. Conversely, where there is low formalization, the degree of ambiguity is such that the potential for jurisdictional disputes increases. Robbins maintains that conflict is more likely to be less subversive in highly formalized situations. In situations where the rules are vague, the opportunities to jockey for resources and other power bases increases. What is more, these activities can take place as easily through covert as through overt means. In contrast to this, Tosi et al. warn that rules and procedures do not necessarily guarantee an absence of conflict. In situations of overregulation, people can become frustrated by their lack of autonomy and a perceived lack of trust of them by their superiors. 15

16 4. Limited resources 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict One of the sources of power in organizations is access to resources and the ability to bestow desired rewards on others. In good times, when resources are plentiful, the potential for conflict through competing for resources is reduced. In conditions of reducing profits or revenues or when redundancies are occurring, the potential for conflict over reduced resources rises. In addition, in economically hard times, gaining resources and extra rewards for subordinates is much more difficult, with the attendant potential for increased dissatisfaction among the workforce. 16

17 5. Cultural differences 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict In lecture 4 we identified a number of ways in which people from different nationalities and societies differ. Therefore conflict can arise through misunderstandings or through inappropriate behaviour on the part of those with one set of cultural characteristics towards those with other characteristics. In addition, it would not be surprising to find cross-cultural differences in relation to resolution of conflicts. For instance, people who come from a collectivist culture, such as Japan, are more likely to avoid outright confrontation than people who come from more individualistic cultures such as the US. People from cultures scoring high on Hofstede s (1981) power distance dimension are more likely to appeal to a higher authority and use bureaucratic rules and regulations to resolve conflict than people from cultures that score low on the power distance dimension. 17

18 6. Environmental change 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict Mullins (2005) mentions shifts in demand, increased competition, government intervention, new technology and changing social values as possible causes of conflict. Eg. the UK government threatening to withdraw subsidy from the further and adult education sector for the training of sports coaches. This has resulted in articles and letters in newspapers as well as items on news programmes. If the subsidy is withdrawn it is likely to affect the number of people enrolling on these courses and, therefore, the employment of the tutors concerned. The identification of different sources of conflict is helpful in understanding more about organizational conflict but is not as straightforward as it looks. 18

19 1. Conflict in organizations - The nature of conflict The relationship of sources of conflict to the layers of conflict identified earlier is complex. Many situations involve more than one layer of conflict. For instance, almost all types of conflict will include elements of misunderstanding, and differences of values are often entwined with interpersonal differences. In addition, differences of viewpoint are closely linked to differences of interest. For example, the means thought appropriate to gain particular goals (for instance the formulation of rules and procedures) are intimately related to issues about control, status, resources and so on. 19

20 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict Strategies for managing conflict will vary according to the frame of reference of an organization s management. The orientation of managers subscribing to a unitary philosophy of organization will be to suppress conflict whenever possible. Conflict is likely to be seen as the work of agitators and the dominant strategy will, therefore, be one of denigrating those thought to be the cause or dismissing them from the organization. The paradox is, however, that, in a democratic society, this strategy will either cause further, more extreme conflict behaviour or drive the expression of conflict underground. 20

21 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict The suppression of conflict within a unitary frame of reference will be successful so long as those without power fear the consequences of conflict (e.g. lockouts, dismissal, unemployment) sufficiently to avoid it. However, as soon as acceptable alternatives to the prevailing situation are available (e.g. alternative employment, successful industrial action), then conflict will again manifest itself, thus reinforcing the view that organizations cannot, in general, be managed as unitary wholes. Recognition of their pluralist characteristics is required if conflict is to be managed successfully. 21

22 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict Schelling (1960) suggests that parties to a conflict can act in three different ways. The first is to compete, in which case one party wins and the other loses. The second is to cooperate, in which case both parties win. The third is a mixture of these two where the parties both compete and cooperate, with both winning something but not all they had hoped. 22

23 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict A more comprehensive model of conflict resolution behaviours is Thomas s (1976) conflict-handling styles (see Figure 5.2). Reference to Figure 5.2 shows that Thomas identifies five styles for handling conflict: competing; collaborating; avoiding; accommodating; compromising. Each style is positioned on two axes representing two different concerns. The vertical axis represents a concern to satisfy one s own needs. The horizontal axis represents a concern to satisfy the other party s needs. Illustration 5.13 identifies the situations when it would be most appropriate to use each conflict-handling style. 23

24 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict Competing Collaborative 24

25 Situations in which to use the five conflict-handling styles (Refer figure 5.2) 1. Competing 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict a) When quick, decisive action is vital e.g. emergencies. b) On important issues where unpopular actions need implementing e.g. cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline. c) On issues vital to company welfare when you know you are right. d) Against people who take advantage of non-competitive behaviour. 2. Collaborating a) To find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised. b) When your objective is to learn. c) To merge insights from people with different perspectives. d) To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus. e) To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship. 25

26 3. Compromising 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict a) When goals are important, but not worth the effort or potential disruption of more assertive modes. b) When opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals. c) To achieve temporary settlements of complex issues. d) To arrive at expedient solutions to complex issues. e) As a back-up when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful. 4. Avoiding a) When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing. b) When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns. c) When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution. d) To let people cool down and regain perspective. e) When gathering information supersedes immediate decision. f) When others can resolve the conflict more effectively. g) When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues. 26

27 5. Accommodating 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict a) When you find you are wrong to allow a better position to be heard, to learn and to show your reasonableness. b) When issues are more important to others than to yourself to satisfy others and maintain cooperation. c) To build social credits for later issues. 4 To minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing. d) When harmony and stability are especially important. e) To allow subordinates to develop by learning from mistakes. Source: Thomas, K. W. (1977), Toward multi-dimensional values in teaching: the example of conflict behaviors, Academy of Management Review, vol. 12, p

28 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict Each conflict-handling style has an outcome in terms of its capacity to tackle the content of the conflict and the relationship with the other party as follows: 1 Competing. This creates a win/lose situation, therefore the conflict will be resolved to suit one of the parties only. The win/lose situation can lead to negative feelings on the part of the loser and damage the relationship. 2 Collaborating. This creates a win/win outcome, where both parties gain. It frequently brings a high quality solution through the results of the inputs of both parties. Win/win outcomes result in both sides being reasonably satisfied. They require openness and trust and a flexibility of approach. 28

29 1. Conflict in organizations - Approaches to conflict 3 Compromising. The needs of both parties are partially satisfied. It requires a trading of resources. Openness and trust may not be as great as for collaboration but compromise might set up a relationship that, in the future, could move to collaboration. 4. Avoiding. This does not tackle the problem. It creates a no-win situation. It does, however, allow a cooling-off period and allows the parties to (perhaps) gather more information to begin negotiations afresh or decide there is no conflict after all. It can give rise to frustration on one side if they think the issue is important while the other side do not. 5. Accommodating. This can create a lose/win situation, but retains a good relationship between the parties. It involves recognizing when the other party might have a better solution than oneself. It is used when relationships are more important than the problem. It builds goodwill. 29

30 2. Power and conflict in times of change The preceding discussion shows, power and conflict, turned into politics, can be used to negative effect. The issue for managers of organizational change, therefore, is to use power and conflict in positive ways to enhance the change process and reduce unnecessary resistance. However this is, as they say, easier said than done. 30

31 2. Power and conflict in times of change -The two faces of power The idea that power has two faces was put forward by McClelland (1970) to explain its positive and negative aspects. French and Bell (1990, p. 280) say: The negative face of power is characterized by a primitive, unsocialized need to have dominance over submissive others. Positive power derives from a more socialized need to initiate, influence and lead. Therefore positive power recognizes other people s needs to achieve their own goals as well as those of management and the organization. Negative power is about domination and control of others; positive power seeks to empower, not only the self, but also others. 31

32 2. Power and conflict in times of change -The two faces of power The terms constructive and destructive can also be used in relation to different types of conflict and are clearly linked to the concepts of positive and negative power. The use of negative power almost inevitably results in destructive conflict, with the attendant breakdown in communications and unwillingness to contemplate any view but one s own. Discontent such as this tends to multiply in conditions of uncertainty that are an inherent part of situations of change. It is in such situations that power balances are upset and disagreements that might, normally, have been settled by compromise, escalate into destructive win lose situations. Organizations facing conditions of change are, in many respects, at their most vulnerable to the political actions of those who stand to gain from the change as well as those who stand to lose. 32

33 2. Power and conflict in times of change -The problems of change Some types of change are less problematic than others and, clearly, radical, frame-breaking change is more likely to bring the greatest conditions of uncertainty and fear of what the future may bring. Even so, small scale, incremental change can upset the balance of power through small but significant redistributions of resources or changes in structure that make some people s skills or experience more desirable than those of others. However, regardless of the content of any change, most writers would agree that it is the process through which the organization must go to get from one state to another that brings the most problems. 33

34 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The problems of change Nadler (1988) suggests three major problems associated with this transition process. the first of these is the problem of resistance to change; the second the problem of organizational control; and the third is the problem of power. Figure 5.3 builds on these ideas to illustrate some interconnections between power, conflict, change and political action. Figure 5.3 shows some possible implications for people s attitudes and behaviour during periods of organizational change. Thus the transition process from the current organizational state to the desired one, rather than being merely a series of mechanistically designed steps, is fraught with possibilities of conflict and political action. 34

35 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The problems of change 35

36 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The problems of change Figure 5.3 illustrates the role of power and conflict during periods of organizational change. Behind each of the elements are many of the concepts discussed in relation to power, conflict and their expressions in political action. For instance, some types of change will challenge some people s values and beliefs and so induce an internal state of conflict that, in turn, means they are likely to resist the change. In addition, because values and beliefs are involved, this resistance will have a moral imperative attached to it. Confusion about the means of organizational control that is, who and what is being monitored and how is closely associated with disturbances in the power balance which will most frequently be linked to position and resource power. During times of confusion such as this, opportunities present themselves for taking political action using invisible sources of power. In this context conflict, viewed as a problem, is likely to be resolved, if at all, by the use of win lose strategies. 36

37 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The positive use of conflict and power Robbins (2005) and the Open University (1985) use the terms functional or dysfunctional, and constructive or destructive conflict respectively. Functional conflict - refers to the interactionist approach to conflict which views it as not only a positive force, but also one that is absolutely necessary for a group to perform effectively. In support of this contention he argues that too low a level of conflict is just as dysfunctional as too high a level. Thus there is a level of conflict an optimal level of conflict that engenders self-criticism and innovation to increase unit performance. Robbins (2005, p. 424) says about this: When conflict is at an optimal level, complacency and apathy should be minimized, motivation should be enhanced through the creation of a challenging and questioning environment with a vitality that makes work interesting. Figure 5.4 illustrates this. 37

38 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The positive use of conflict and power Figure depicts a 5-stage process of moving from an initial conflict situation through to alternative positive or negative outcomes. Note stage III Intentions uses Thomas s (1976) model of conflicthandling styles shown in Figure 5.2. The Open Univ draws attention to the fact that conflict acts to draw those on the same side together in solidarity, but it can also create solidarity among those who are on different sides. This is because, as each side puts its point of view forward (even though in argument), information is revealed and shared and awareness of each other s goals and views is enhanced. Therefore, conflicts can result in integrative effects, but only if attempts to work through the conflict are non-coercive and use methods of openness and honesty. 38

39 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The positive use of conflict and power Figure 5.4 The conflict process Source: Robbins, S. P. (2005) Organizational Behavior, Concepts, Controversies, Applications, 11th edn, Prentice Hall, p

40 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The positive use of conflict and power Mills and Murgatroyd (1991, p. 159) talk about conflict and consent being in tension. Most members of organizations will not revolt if they perceive that the methods of control used to achieve organizational purposes are based on some shared view of how these methods will be applied. For instance, Hofstede s (1981) concept of power distance as one of the dimensions of culture is useful in explaining why people from some cultures will accept a more authoritarian type of decision making and control than will people from other cultures. If an organization s workforce is culturally inclined to risk taking and the tolerance of uncertainty, it will not be as comfortable with strict rules and regulations as one that, in Hofstede s terms, has high uncertainty avoidance. Furze and Gale (1996) take an optimistic view of conflict in entitling their chapter on this Making conflict useful. The next slides lists a number of guidelines given by Furze and Gale for dealing with conflict. see Illustration 5.14 in Senior & Fleming 40

41 2. Power and conflict in times of change - The positive use of conflict and power The guidelines for dealing with conflict are general ones and, if adhered to, may result in what Thomas (see Figure 5.2) called collaboration, where both parties stood to win. These same guidelines are also useful in the context of organizational change and are even more desirable in view of the increased potential for conflict at these times. However, as the account of change in Illustration 5.15 shows, one result of the use of power by Brian Davies was to the detriment of the people who lost their jobs. Even so, because the basis on which people were chosen for the newstyle company was seen to be open and fair not based on politics or tribal allegiances the changes appear to have been accepted and new confidence instilled in the employees. As far as can be gained from this account, the use of power has been put to positive effect. 41

42 2. Power and conflict in times of change - Guidelines for dealing with conflict 1 Encourage openness. This refers to the need to explore objectives, facts, views and the assumptions that surround the issues. Openness requires statements of who benefits and how. It assumes that conflicts cannot be resolved if issues associated with them remain hidden. 2 Model appropriate responses. The issue here is one of role modelling. If one party is prepared to make positive responses to contention, rather than being defensive or dismissive, this acts to encourage the other party to do likewise. 3 Provide summaries and restatements of the position. Doing this helps to keep communication going and is a helpful slowing down of the process when it becomes heated and points that are made are in danger of beingignored and lost. 42

43 2. Power and conflict in times of change - Guidelines for dealing with conflict 4 Bring in people who are not directly involved. These outsiders can act as additional fact providers or take on the more process-oriented role of mediator or arbitrator. A mediator can facilitate a negotiated solution while an arbitrator can dictate one. Other possibilities are conciliators who act as communicators between the two parties (particularly if they will not communicate directly) and consultants. Instead of putting forward specific solutions, the consultant tries to help the parties learn to understand and work with each other. 5 Encourage people to take time to think and reassess. This means building in time for reflection and space apart. It may mean shelving the problem for a short 6 Use the strengths of the group. This refers to taking advantage of opportunities to use noncombative members of the group to which the combatants belong. Doing this brings others into the conflict, not to take sides but to play a positive and creative role. 43

44 2. Power and conflict in times of change - Guidelines for dealing with conflict 7 Focus on shared goals. Rather than concentrating from the start on differences, seek instead to identify where agreements exist even if these are very small and, apparently, insignificant. These form a useful base on which to move outwards to assess just where differences exist. Parties to a conflict are often surprised at the amount of agreement present but of which they were unaware. 8 Use directions and interests to develop areas of new gain. Concentrating on other people s ideas can identify areas of potential gains. Then using guideline 2, summarize these in order to move forward. 9 Try to build objectivity into the process. Objectivity can be encouraged by asking those involved to express both the strengths and weaknesses of their position. What must be recognized, however, is that objectivity will always be tempered by people s value systems. 10 Adopt an enquiring approach to managing. This means probing through what appear to be the symptoms of conflict to understand the actual causes. Unless the fundamental cause is identified, the conflict will continue to flare up at regular intervals. 44

45 2. Power and conflict in times of change - Action on power, conflict and change Nadler (1988) proposes four action steps for shaping the political dynamics of change. Step 1: Ensure or develop the support of key power groups. This involves identifying those individuals and groups who have the power either to assist change or to block it. As Nadler says, not all power groups have to be intimately involved in the change. However, some groups will need to be included in the planning of any change to guard against their ultimately blocking it, not because it might affect them adversely, but because they had been ignored. Step 2: Use leader behaviour to generate energy in support of the change. In addition, sets of leaders working in coordination can significantly influence the informal aspects of organizational life. Step 3: Use symbols and language to create energy. This is in reference to the use of symbolic power in managing strategic change. Step 4: Need to build in stability. This is the use of power to ensure some things remain the same. These might be physical locations, group members, even hours of work. It is helpful to provide sources of stability such as these to provide anchors for people to hold on to during the turbulence of change. In addition, there is a need to let people know what will remain stable and what is likely to change. 45

46 2. Power and conflict in times of change -Action on power, conflict and change Managers who, in times of change, can reasonably assess who has what power and the way in which it will be used with possible consequences for potential and actual conflict have a good chance of implementing the change they seek. The chapter concludes, therefore, with a description of one way of analyzing the potential for action of individuals and groups according to: (a) their power to block change and (b) their motivation to do so. 46

47 2. Power and conflict in times of change -Action on power, conflict and change The first step in analyzing the potential for action, in favour of or against change, is to identify who holds sufficient power to assist change or, alternatively, to work against it that is, to carry out a power audit. This can be done by using a questionnaire such as is shown in Figure 5.5. (see handout). This is based on the descriptions of the characteristics and sources of power discussed earlier in the chapter. The questionnaire in Figure 5.5 should be used for each individual or group that is considered to be significant for the success or otherwise of any change process. 47

48 2. Power and conflict in times of change -Action on power, conflict and change The second step is to compare the power of any individual or group to block change with their desire or motivation to do so. Assessing motivation to block change is not straightforward. It can be gauged, however, by considering whether the changes proposed will alter the degree of power held. As a general rule, if this is likely to be lowered, then resistance to change can be expected and vice versa. Figure 5.6 allows any individual or group to be categorized according to their power to block change and their motivation to do so. Each cell of the matrix shown in Figure 5.6 represents a different situation and strategy to deal with it. Thus, if an individual or group has little power to block change and, in addition, little motivation to do so (as represented by cell C), no immediate action needs to be taken. However, if there is both power to block change and the motivation to do so (cell B) this represents a serious situation in terms of the need to negotiate with those concerned and, if possible, to reach a collaborative agreement. 48

49 2. Power and conflict in times of change - Action on power, conflict and change A potential danger to any change is represented by those who fall into cell A of the matrix those with a high degree of power but little motivation to do anything about the change. This is because, if the situation itself changes, their interest could be increased and this might then move them into cell B. A strategy towards these people, therefore, should be one of keeping them satisfied. This means maintaining their awareness of how the change might benefit them. Cell D of the matrix represents a different kind of problem. It might be tempting to ignore these people but, because change situations are dynamic particularly situations of incremental change the people categorized into cell D might begin to gain power and thus move into the more contentious group represented by cell B. Consequently, these people should be kept informed of change developments, with some effort being made to persuade them that the change might bring them benefits. However, it must be recognized that these people may be the ones who, in any radical restructuring or change in systems, lose their jobs. Containment in the short term might, therefore, be the most appropriate strategy. 49

50 3. Comments and Conclusion Some individuals and groups have larger and more varied sources of power than others and, in the nature of a competitive society and environment, will choose to use them to influence others in desired directions. In addition, some groups are relatively powerless, not because of their diminished abilities, but as a reflection of the position occupied in the wider society. A characterization of power proposed by Buchanan and Badham (1999, p. 56) is helpful, as a shorthand, in remembering what power encompasses: 1. Power is a property of individuals, defined across a number of identifiable power sources or bases, some structural, some individual, and exercised in attempts to influence others. 2. Power is a property of relationships between members of an organization, identified by the extent to which some individuals believe, or do not believe, that others possess particular power bases. 3. Power is an embedded property of the structures, regulations, relationships and norms of the organization, perpetuating existing routines and power inequalities. 50