EXPATRIATE WORKERS AS CULTURAL BRIDGE BUILDERS: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF THE EXPATRIATE EXPERIENCE

Transcription

1 EXPATRIATE WORKERS AS CULTURAL BRIDGE BUILDERS: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF THE EXPATRIATE EXPERIENCE Diana C. Cooper Doctoral Candidate Human Resource Development University of Minnesota 4005 Natchez Avenue South Edina, MN (952) coope048@umn.edu Conference Stream: Critical Perspectives in HRD Refereed paper Keywords: Expatriate adaptation; Intercultural training; Global HRD

2 1 EXPATRIATE WORKERS AS CULTURAL BRIDGE BUILDERS: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF THE EXPATRIATE EXPERIENCE ABSTRACT International assignments are on the rise for employees in multinational corporations (GMAC, 2006). Expatriate workers find themselves immersed in a foreign culture, commissioned to achieve important business objectives. The 20-30% failure rate of expatriates is defined by early repatriation or damaged work relationships related to an expatriate s inability to adapt to another culture. This qualitative study presents findings from the content analysis of narratives collected from employees from five continents regarding their experience working for a U.S. multinational company in Keywords: Expatriate adaptation; intercultural training; Global HRD International assignments are on the rise for employees in multinational corporations (GMAC Relocation Survey, 2006). Workers employed by multinational corporations (MNC s) often accept an international project for professional and personal development. These expatriates find themselves immersed in a foreign culture while given responsibility for highly visible business initiatives. They need to adjust quickly to a new culture and job, navigating language, social, and management differences in their professional role while dealing with the logistics of a transcontinental move. Researchers in the field of international management and training have examined the challenges of international assignments to provide MNC s with guidance to reduce the 20-30% failure rate of expatriate workers, defined by early repatriation or damaged work relationships related to an expatriate s inability to adapt to another culture (Adler, 2008;

3 2 Black & Gregersen, 1999; Caligiuri & Stroh, 1999; Earley & Mosakowski, 2004; House, et al, 2002; Tung, 1987). Past studies have focused on expatriate selection, preparation, and cross-cultural adaptability. This qualitative study examines expatriate employee narratives from interviews with a sample of eleven workers from five continents working for a U.S. based. Ethnographic research methods and phenomenology were used to gather and interpret data. The study participants share a strong motivation to learn a new culture and act as cultural bridges between their culture and the culture of their assignment. The findings support existing theories on cross-cultural training and adaptation while revealing the important role human resources and work colleagues play in an expatriate s success. The support of family and challenge of intercultural communication are dominant themes. Opportunities for future research include intercultural adaptability assessment of employees before and after assignment as well as the influence of expatriate spouses and managers on the expatriate experience. The Theoretical Framework and Literature Review Researchers use different measures of international worker success, but two key indicators are 1) the expatriate s ability to adapt to a foreign culture and complete the assigned project effectively without early repatriation, and 2) the employee managing the assignment in a way that builds relationships and does not alienate foreign workers, governments, or customers (Oddou, 2002). U.S. MNC s report a 20-30% failure rate of managers selected for an international assignment (Black & Gregersen, 1999). Organizations are concerned about the performance of expatriate workers because the

4 3 financial investment is great and performance is critical. Companies may invest upwards of a quarter of a million dollars on one expatriate package for an annual tour of duty overseas (Deloitte and Touche TCHRA seminar, 2008; Black & Gregersen, 1999). Over the past twenty-five years, various research paradigms have been used to gain insight into ways to improve selection, support, and development of expatriate workers. The purpose of this study is to investigate the expatriate experience in the first decade of the new millennium. Cultural Intelligence: Traits, Self-efficacy, & Social Learning Theory The successful expatriate worker shows a keen interest in different cultures and learning to interact effectively, socially and professionally, internationally. Earley and Mosakowski (2004), have used the term cultural intelligence (CQ) to describe the aptitude for engaging in appropriate behaviors to adapt to foreign contexts. Thomas (2002), maintains that a clear sense of one s identity and personal humility in the face of cultural mishaps is fundamental to the ability to adapt across cultures. This demonstrates self-efficacy: persistence in attempting to attain an outcome in the face of obstacles and mistakes (Vroom, 1964). Two components of CQ that may be developed are the mindfulness of one s motivation behind certain behaviors and the hardiness to learn and grow when faced with unfamiliar or frustrating situations. The evidence that cultural intelligence is trainable through experience with customs, norms, and beliefs of other cultures is rooted in social learning theory (Bandura, 1977; Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Cultural Dimensions

5 4 Culturally acceptable behaviors vary depending upon a group s value system. Extensive research has shown that these values are reflected in dimensions of culture which differ regionally with respect to concepts of power in relationships, monochronic or polychronic time orientation, uncertainty avoidance, the value of collectivism vs. individualism, and masculinity vs. femininity, among others, which influence our perceptions of behavior (Hofstede, 1980a; House, et al., 2002). According to Thomas (2002), our culture provides us with scripts and schemas to interpret and replicate acceptable behavior in society. Hofstede referred to culture as the software of the mind (1980) that gives each person a learned cultural bias about appropriate behavior. Expatriates interpret cultural differences based on the appropriate value system within a given cultural context and control their reactions order to achieve success on assignment. This learning process is the essence of cross-cultural adaptation. Assessment, Training, and Development Individuals can develop their ability to adapt to different cultures once they have an awareness of their own cultural lens and bias. Earley (1987), and other researchers (Tung, 1987; Black & Mendenhall, 1999), have found that intercultural training improves adaptation and performance of American business people sent on international assignments in compared to those who did not receive training. The spectrum of human reactions to a different culture, according to Milton Bennett (1993), ranges from denial, defense, minimization, and adaptation to acceptance. From an ethnocentric stance, a person observing norms, behaviors, or language of another culture may perceive them to be in conflict with his own. Bennett contends that is possible to assess one s level of

6 5 awareness of different cultural contexts and cultivate it through experience, training, adaptation, and exposure. However, the employees selected for expat assignments from U. S. MNC s are less likely to be chosen for intercultural competence and generally fall into one of three categories: the high potential employee, the interested and available employee, and the technical expert (Oddou, 2002). There continues to be an overemphasis on the technical competence criterion to the disregard of other attributes necessary for effective performance abroad ( Tung, 1987, p. 117). Only 30% of American companies invest in training for employees selected for overseas appointments with duration of three to five years (Black, 1988). Without developing awareness of cultural differences, intercultural conflict can impede job performance for those working in multicultural teams (Brett, et al, 2006). This explains why some intelligent people with good social skills can still have problems adjusting properly to a new cultural context (Thomas, 2002, p. 62). Methodology In this study, ethnographic research methods combined with phenomenology were employed to answer the question: what is the lived experience of the expatriate worker? Responses to semi-structured interviews were collected providing a thick description of the expatriate s preparation, relocation, and adaptation while reflecting on the motivation and challenges experienced before and during the international assignment. To initiate the research project, the author contacted the Director of Global Human Resource Office of a U.S. multinational corporation, submitting a proposal to conduct interviews with expatriates who had been on international assignments of at

7 6 least three months within the last five years. The expats could be on a current assignment with the company, a citizen of any country, and could be interviewed by phone or in person. The HR Director forwarded the proposal via to approximately 140 expatriates who went on assignment offering them the opportunity to participate in the research study by nominating themselves or other expat workers. The author received responses from thirteen employees and interviewed eleven. Seven of the expats interviewed were on a current assignment in the U.S. and were not U.S. citizens. There were two women and nine men interviewed; nine participants had family members accompanying them on assignment. Procedure The author conducted forty-five to ninety minute semi-structured interviews with eleven expatriates. Ten of these employees agreed to audio taping of the interview. The tapes were transcribed from interview sessions and notes were content analyzed for patterns and themes emerging form narratives on the expatriate experience. Four of the participants were U.S. citizens from the Southwest, Midwest, East Coast and the South who were sent on assignment outside the U.S. Seven expats came to work in the U.S. from various operations in Asia, Europe, North and South America. The participants were on international assignments between 2003 and Findings What is the lived experience of the expatriate assignee? Expatriates act as cultural bridges, engaging in teams with co-workers from cultures different from their own, willing to adapt their behavior to accomplish company objectives. Commonalities

8 7 between these expatriate experiences emerged from content analysis of employee interview narratives. The most common assignment length for this group was three to five years in duration, with a range of eighteen months to thirteen years. Several of the participants had been on multiple assignments. The study supports extant research emphasizing the importance of self-efficacy, mindfulness of different values from one s own culture, and the ability to adjust behavior to customs within a new culture without sacrificing one s own identity. The predominant themes centered on the expatriate culture of resourcefulness, persistent culture learning, and family support. Questions raised by the study include the role of coworkers and managers in completing the cultural bridge built by the expatriate within the company. Adaptability: The Expatriate as a Cultural Bridge When asked about the most rewarding part of the expat experience the response was: Learning about another culture and to perform a job well in a foreign work environment. The initial six months are intense while the expatriate is still learning the language and norms of a new culture. For most of the expats in this study, English was the second language and the U.S. was the foreign culture though they all worked for an U.S.- based company. The expat is constantly learning nuances of differences in behavior and communication and contrasting them to familiar ones. In this way, the expatriate assumes the role of the cultural bridge between the two cultures. One expat explained he feels the need to accept be respectful and be open to be a part of this culture to

9 8 do what they do but noted that it would be helpful if his manager would meet me half way and understand the effort put into the cultural adjustment. The experience of living outside of your own country, you cannot put a value on it. It s very nice and you can never lose it. The pain is part of the experience as well You get to see how the company treats their employees and to cope with the culture. Anonymous participant in the study Expats referred to the process of learning the culture as thrilling and frustrating in the same breath: To being able to live in another country, doing the work there, and take a deep dive into the culture is also the most challenging...it s a rewarding thing to test my limits expand my horizon (Anonymous participant). Another expat said, everyday is a learning experience and It took a while to figure it out. The first year is every day you are figuring things out by yourself. The dedication to the ongoing cultural adaptation process was articulated this way: That s exciting Every day I read the press from [Europe] and also the reviews from here, from the U.S. the angle is different the same event will have two different interpretations really exciting to see both sides We understand the same event. It s not better or worse it s just different at the beginning you think you understand but you don t understand It s exciting as well once you know that you don t know. (Anonymous participant) The interviews revealed a multitude of tiny distractions produced by cultural differences throughout the assignment. One expat from Europe initially relied on his English teachers to respond to questions about U.S. culture during the first six months of his assignment because he was not sure how his American colleagues would respond. One U.S. citizen working in South America recollected the first few months: I was frustrated at work I felt like I was banging my head against the wall then you learn the culture and the language how to motivate people (Anonymous participant)

10 9 Another expat, who brought her family from Asia, reflected on her adjustment: You are learning about it the hard way. [You need] dedication to wanting to learn with a steep learning curve if you did not have the positive attitude you would give up. A common goal of the expatriates is to engage in a constant cultural learning process outside of their comfort zone. This bridging would be made easier by managers, co-workers, and human resource professionals who have experienced life in another culture or received some intercultural training to understand the intense adaptation process undergone by expat colleagues. Expatriate Training and Selection Formal training for expatriates was launched in this company in As a result, only two expats of the eleven interviewed received intercultural training prior to or during their assignments. Both of these were Europeans who were assigned to work in the U.S. They received general cross-cultural and culture specific information as well as training on coping skills for intercultural adaptation. One participated in three days of pre-assignment training and both went through an on-boarding training session in Minnesota. None of the participants took a formal assessment for their potential ability to adapt to life overseas. International assignees went through the standard selection process for any employee applying for the job. The two employees who received formal training felt it prepared them for their adjustment: you would still have problems [adjusting] but you d know how to handle them. This was, I think, why my [other] assignment was not so successful. (Anonymous participant)

11 10 Two useful pieces of advice that expats received from relocation services and professional development were to 1) go on vacation somewhere besides your home country, so you will come home to your new home and not feel so homesick, and 2) know the culture shock curve, so when it takes six months to adjust you know it s normal. One expat who received training upon arrival in the U.S. reported that the training increased his work productivity and his spouse s adjustment compared to a past assignment in Indonesia for which there was no culture training. Culture training here at the beginning is a big plus, to know what is coming. You are aware you will have the cultural shock. In [another assignment] we did not have [training] either before or during the time we were there. This I think [decreased work] efficiency for say the first half year. My wife did not do well even though she is from [the continent we were assigned]. We were not prepared that [the location] was like time had gone back 50 years. We were not fully aware of that [before going on the assignment]. Especially not just the work environment but the social environment is just as important. (Anonymous participant) This feedback supports research on the effectiveness of cultural training and realistic job previews for expatriates. Some locations are more challenging than others. According to expats who have been on several assignments, some countries afford an easier cultural adjustment. Health care and safety are primary concerns, especially for expatriates with families in developing or politically unstable countries. Connections with other expats from the same culture are helpful in preparing for differences between country systems. One expat was distressed over the disparity in standard of living between workers the same company on his assignment. These are the kinds of issues that culture training may address to ease culture shock and help the expat understand national

12 11 differences. The contrast between cultures may be very extreme: You can drink water from the tap things you never thought about a good health system (Anonymous participant) Culture shock the second time around. Expats who went on two or more assignments noted that one international move does not eliminate culture shock the second time around. One reported that the adjustment was really hard the second time probably harder (Anonymous participant) Corporate management cannot make the assumption that Western Europeans have an easy time adapting to life in North America and vice versa. According to one European expat: This adjustment was longer than I expected to me it was easier to adjust in Africa than in the U.S.The organization of the day-to-day life was the same [in Africa as my home country]. Expatriates who had not received culture training were aware of the recent implementation of the program. The expatriates in the study had not been asked to participate in intercultural training sessions or share their perspectives on international assignments with colleagues in the company. Mentors In absence of formal training, the expatriates in this study often sought out a mentor to act as a guide in understanding cultural norms. Though the company assigned some expatriates with mentors, only two of the eleven expatriates found their assigned mentor a significant factor in their adaptation process: [The Mentor was] mainly for work. Mine is from [the U.S.] which was perfect She is a great friend we

13 12 were very fortunate. That worked very well. One manager observed: I think the success takes two if you have a mentor who is very responsive to the mentee needs, it works I fear some of the mentees don t find it very useful. (Anonymous participant) Roughly half of the expats in the study met members of the host country work group prior to their assignment, which was helpful in the transition both professionally and personally. Several expats mentioned it would have been beneficial for the company to arrange introductions to meet others from their native country on expat assignment in the same company location as part of the on-boarding process. Most expats took initiative to find other workers from their country on their own but felt the corporate office s assistance would expedite the process and prevent them from feeling isolated during their initial months away from home: Make this intentional, do not rely on individual favors. The expats from the same country became informal mentors who understood the culture from the expat s standpoint and became the cultural bridge. For some employees it took several months up to a year to find these colleagues to assist them in interpreting the new culture. One U.S. employee tracked down another American assigned to the same country to coach her with the initial logistics of the move: Having somebody there who has already gone through those things that are very prevalent in their mind, looking back, going, Here s the form you really need for the license. They re not going to tell you about this, and having [the company] take care of the Visa so I don t have to worry about that myself.. (Anonymous participant) Resourcefulness, Humor, and a Positive Attitude

14 13 One of the remarkable characteristics the expatriates participating in the study held in common was resourcefulness. They routinely reported a sense of both pride and frustration in obtaining basic resources to perform their job and function in their new home. They kept their sense of humor while acknowledging the inconvenience of logistical problems with establishing consumer credit, receiving a driver s license, government visa, or work permit, which can take months to obtain. Moving to a new address disrupts a family s routine for weeks and months after the initial move. The international component multiplies the complexities of obtaining official documents, credit, and dealing with bureaucracy. One common solution among the study participants was to find another expat from their home country to guide the process: The initial move up there was overwhelming Any move is stressful, then you go and add the, this is a foreign country You ve got to think about visas It was certainly beneficial having [another expat from the home country] there. People on both sides were very supportive about me being there, more than willing to help. (Anonymous participant) For those who did not find a mentor in the transition process, the first few months on assignment were very stressful for some expatriates. One expat on assignment noted that his work permit did not arrive until the week before he returned home from assignment. Resilience for one expat wore down to the extent that he said he would not do it again had I known. For others, self-efficacy and hardiness was demonstrated with a combination of patience, persistence, and problem solving to obtain resources needed to function both at work and at home. One expat, who arrived in the Midwest from Asia, described her disbelief and amusement in finding her home stocked with appliances she would never

15 14 use in Malaysia, while missing the proper pot to cook rice, a staple for her family. The narratives of these employees reflected a positive attitude and humor while finding a way to overcome obstacles to carry out their daily routines. Global Mobility Support Many expats commented on the helpful planning and logistical support provided by corporate human resource professionals working with expatriate assignments. However, services to expedite financial matters and obtain official documents received mixed reviews for company responsiveness and resulted in varying levels of stress for the expatriate and their family. It was common for expats to report being offered their overseas assignment two months prior to the start date on their new job. This is short notice to provide time to sell a home, buy a new one overseas, submit paperwork for official work documents, and enroll children in school. [The global mobility professionals] really try to help you to do all the work you have to do at least you know exactly what you have to do. Everything they finance...we just have to execute. Creates an environment of trust...they really help you to have a great transition. Mainly for the family. We had a familiarization visit. The expat organization is pretty well designed My main complaint in the process with [the company] is you had different contacts and it s very hard to figure out the person who is the best contact. It would be better to have one point of contact and this person behind the scenes will make sure of the coordinating... (Anonymous participant) Participants in the study reported that the global mobility office presents the relocation package, sends the family on a familiarization visit, and connects the expat with relocation specialists in the host country to assist in settling major decisions about housing and schools if there are children involved. Nonetheless, attending to some of

16 15 the details slipped through the cracks. One expat was still learning the language of his host country when he arrived in South America and attempted to obtain his Visa. The customs of the country required engaging in behavior that would be considered illegal in the U.S. So the expat solicited the advice of an administrative assistant in his new office who guided him through the process. There were other instances in which the company assisted with bureaucratic processes after the expat ran into problems. One expat discovered that getting a cell phone in the U. S. requires a social security number and the expat had not applied for one before needing to go on business travel. After several attempts to sign up for mobile phone service, the expat asked the global mobility specialists for assistance, who then offered a corporate plan. Knowing the company will automatically attend to these kinds of details enables the expat to be more productive and less distracted during the initial months of the assignment. Setting expectations about the package. It is very important for the expatriate to know the services included in their relocation package. Employees who observe services provided by the company to expatriates coming to one country may assume that a move to another country will result in the same services. These observations can be misleading, since amenities and services provided by the company for expatriates vary by country. Employees who have servants to clean house, cook and chauffeur for their family in Asia may be assigned to another country and receive none of these services: Yes, we have relocation services but if I were to compare of the expatriate who comes to [my country] it is the sky and the sea difference. Here they will provide you the avenue to get help but they will

17 16 not physically give you a helping hand they give you Map quest (Anonymous participant). Intercultural Communication and Language Differences Although several of the expats resonated with the common corporate culture of high ethical and performance standards in their company across cultures and countries, they noticed the contrasting communication and management styles between international operations. The study revealed different perceptions of diverse groups and cultures even among expatriates. The U.S. citizens who were expats noted that when they went to English speaking countries the culture is not that different from the U.S. Whereas, Europeans noticed subtle but significant culture differences: Americans and Europeans are not as close as I thought. The way you treat each other and how you see things (Anonymous participant). Another European perceived stronger emphasis on face-saving and hierarchy the U.S. corporate offices. He noticed how little vacation time U.S. employees and managers take, associating that practice with the lack of job security: Most places in American society there is much more of a premium placed on face, more so than Europeans There are many ways in which [U.S.] behavior and mindset are closer in culture to the Chinese than to the European. The values about hierarchy, about how how subservient you should be to managers is much less collegial than my [European] experiences. (Anonymous participant) Culture and language are intertwined and can be misinterpreted easily even after years of living in another culture: every time I think, I got it now oh no I don t! It s really confusing, was the description of the experience by an expat from France. Also,

18 17 learning a language does not always mean the expat can speak words understandably to colleagues in work and social situations: You have a word but you don t pronounce it correctly, so the person doesn t understand (Anonymous participant). Inbound expatriates to the U.S. demonstrated a strong command of English in the interviews for this study. English was usually the third or fourth language they acquired. Only one out of the four Americans interviewed learned another language for the assignment and found it a huge asset professionally and personally. The experience enabled him to understand and communicate with colleagues and manage his direct reports in other countries more effectively than he could with a translator: Learning a second language opened up a lot of doors for me It s been beneficial to be able to conduct safety meetings now with employees in Spanish, that s their first language, so that s really helped [Growing up in the Midwest] I just had no exposure to diversity, and I tell you when you start working in other cultures, and not only in South America but India and Belgium, you really start to look at people and understand their differences. And you kind of focus on, hey this person is good at this, and this is what we will focus on, and this is where we need to develop this person. (Anonymous participant) Diversity can also be a source of conflict. Expats commented that it is wonderful to work with colleagues with international backgrounds in their business units and work groups. The breadth of difference between communication styles can affect the corporate norms, as is seen by expats who have been on multiple assignments. Latin American communication involves face-to-face meetings and telling the details behind a decision whereas American managers want people to get to the point and may opt for conference calls instead of face-to-face meetings: I would say the corporate culture is different More meetings, in terms of [South Americans] are very, very interactive, very, very much in terms of communication. They like to have face-to-face communication. We do a lot of

19 18 things in the U.S. by conference call because of efficiency and larger business units that s one difference. (Anonymous participant) This cultural difference makes some expats feel like outsiders to the U.S. operations and unable to fully express themselves, emphasizing being succinct over giving background for a decision. In Asia, leaders employ indirect communication whereas in the U.S. leadership training may suggest direct communication and speaking up to make a point. Paradoxically, when U.S. managers give feedback, expats noted they are Minnesota nice, meaning they are overly polite by not telling specific areas for improvement: The negative in management sometimes it s hard to know if it s a good job or not a good job. Are people being nice? being supportive is one thing but need to know if [work] needs improvement. (Anonymous participant) In the U.S. you can make a mistake by assuming they mean what they say. If someone asks your opinion they don t actually want to know they just want you to agree it s a verbal check like, you know? [There are] unwritten rules in [each] society one of the things you learn is you take things for granted that s the way we do things here, you aren t even aware that they are hardwired. (Anonymous participant) Another expatriate shared the difference in U.S. communication style and behaviors that, in an Asian culture would be considered very disrespectful. When I talked to my boss over here he did not understand they did not understand from the tone of my voice. Communication style is very different. Same business unit the values and faces are the same gives me a level of comfort. Management style [is] the same but it is the communication style. My manager put his feet up on his desk In [my country] that is totally offensive. (Anonymous participant)

20 19 Still another expatriate from Europe working in the U.S. appreciated the lack of analysis paralysis in his business unit. He felt decisions were made more quickly in the U.S. corporate offices compared to his experience in two international offices: Management more supportive here in my group. We all want to be successful. People are willing to help you. More efficient. Make decisions quicker it s a positive. Can make a wrong decision and change sometimes in [Europe] we can take too long to make a decision. To preserve understanding and limit offense in verbal and nonverbal communication, it may benefit U.S. managers who work with expatriates to attend a cultural training seminar, to learn about variations in styles and meanings in various cultures represented in the company. The Importance of Family Support Expatriates who go on assignment with their family credit their success to the support and encouragement they derive from their spouse and children. Several expats mentioned the importance of learning another language, for themselves and their family. Accepting an expatriate assignment may be a deliberate move to grow professionally and well as foster personal growth for the entire family. Although past expatriate research has indicated that families may be a liability on expatriate assignments, this was not the case for the expatriates in this sample. The first six months I was miserable at that time we fully knew that there [would be] a lot of changes but we embrace it with a positive attitude we have fun in figuring things out but in hind sight 20/20, I would not want anyone else to go through that without the family support; it would be so hard. (Anonymous participant)

21 20 Nine of the participants in the study brought family members on their international assignment. Each one expressed the importance of the family dynamics in their new surroundings. Another reward is that I got closer to my family. So you have to stick together. It s not easy, I would say but it s a good test of how good your relations are. So I think also the relationship grew throughout these assignments forced to talk about problems because you can t avoid them-- have to bring them up and [put them on] the table. (Anonymous participant) One expat from the Midwest reaffirmed the importance of his wife approaching this assignment with him as a team: My wife...fit right in...she was never homesick. She was very active in the community and the things that interest her it was just easy. Technology aids in the process of adjustment for family members. The issues that may cause emotional stress for expatriates and their families are not necessarily a result of culture shock but their own absence and the separation from events and relationships at home. Several expats mentioned missing weddings of friends and relatives or other events since they could not fly home for a weekend. How the spouse copes with the experience, one expat told me, is probably the success of an expatriation. The success is definitely the family. For family who want to stay in contact with friends and family in their home country and with spouses on business travel, expats reported that mobile phone plans, Skype, and make it easier to maintain international personal relationships, affordably, on a daily basis. Limitations of the Study

22 21 As with any ethnographic or phenomenological study, the findings are not generalizable. The interviews were limited to one U.S. company. Purposeful sample respondents may represent only satisfied expatriates. As with any ethnographically informed research, the transferability will be limited to a time period between Interpretation of the narratives is subject to the biases of the researcher. Conclusions and Future Research The themes that emerged in this qualitative study focused on the expatriate employee experience. Content analysis of the narratives and from employees supports extant theories regarding cross-cultural adaptation and development through experience in another culture allowing them to become cultural bridges to colleagues in another culture. The participants noted logistical services provided by corporate human resource professionals to support them while sharing the need for resourcefulness when services fall short. Expats expressed the importance of family and mentors in completing their expatriate assignments. In particular, expatriates expressed the value of mentors for expats from the same culture, the value of culture training prior to and during assignment, the potential value of culture training for managers, co-workers, and HR professionals working with expats. Future areas of study could focus on the experience and development of the expatriate, expat spouses, and managers of expatriates based on assessments of the individual s intercultural adaptability. Studying the effect of using telecommunication

23 22 devices between the expatriate worker and their family members (with their home office and family in their home country) on culture shock and adaptation to an international location could be explored. Research on the effect of intercultural training of expatriate managers on expat employee performance could be instructive for training policies and processes in multinational corporations. Finally, research could test the theories of performance and learning orientation as they relate to adaptability of expatriate workers learning to conduct business in a new culture.

24 23 References Adler, N. (2008). International dimensions of organizational behavior. Eagan, MN: Thomson. Bandura, A. (1977) Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bennett, M. (1993) Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In Paige, R.M., ed. Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Black, J. (1988) Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19, Black, J. & Mendenhall, M. (1990) Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review and a theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 15(1), Black, J., Gregersen, H. & Mendenhall, M. (1992) Toward a theoretical framework of repatriation adjustment. Journal of International Business Studies, 23(4), Black, J. & Gregersen, H. (1999) The right way to manage expats. Harvard Business Review, Brett, J., Befar, K., & Kern, M. (2006) Managing multicultural teams. Harvard Business Review, 84(11), Caligiuri, P.M. (1999) Strategic expatriate selection systems: getting the right people, in the right assignment, at the right time. International HR, 25, 1 5. Caligiuri, P. (2000a). The big five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate Success. Personnel Psychology, 53, Caligiuri, P.M. (2000b). Selecting expatriates for personality characteristics: A moderating effect of personality on the relationship between host national contact and cross-cultural Adjustment. Management International Review, 40, Caligiuri, P., Phillips, J., Lazar ova, M., Tarique, I., & Burgin, P. (2001). The theory of met expectations applied to expatriate adjustment: The role of cross-cultural training. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(3), Caligiuri, P., & Phillips, J. (2003). An application of self-assessment realistic job previews to expatriate assignments. Intl. Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(7),

25 24 Caligiuri, P. & Stroh, L. (1995) Multinational corporation management strategies and international human resources practices: Bringing IHRM to the bottom line. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 6(3), Earley, P. C., & Erez, M. (1997) The transplanted executive: Why you need to understand how workers in other countries see the world differently. NY: Oxford University Press. Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: individual interactions across cultures. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. Earley, C., & Mosakowski, E. (2004). Toward culture intelligence: Turning cultural differences into a workplace advantage. Academy of Management Executive, 18(3), GMAC Annual global relocation trends survey: Global markets, record earnings driving unprecedented demand for international job assignments. (2006) Retrieved May 1, 2008, from Gibson, C., Kirkman, B., & Lowe, K. (2006) A quarter century of Culture's Consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede's cultural values framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, Hofstede, G. (1980a). Culture s consequences: International differences in work related values. Sage: Beverly Hills, CA. Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), House, R. & Javidan, D. (2002) Leadership and cultures around the world: findings from GLOBE; An introduction to special issue. Journal of World Business, 37, 1-2. Hurn, B. (2006). The selection of international business managers: Part 1. Industrial and Commercial Training, 38(6/7), Jack, D. & Stage, C. (2005) Success strategies for expats. Association for Training and Development, Sept., Leary, M. (1996). Self-presentation: impression management and interpersonal behavior. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1985). The dimensions of expatriate acculturation: A review. Academy of Management Review, 10,

26 25 Montaglioni, A., & Giacalone, R. (1998). Impression management and cross-cultural adaptation. Journal of Social Psychology, 138(5), Oddou, G. (2002) Managing your expatriates: What the successful firms do. Human Resource Planning, 14(4), Panaccio, A., & Waxin, M. (2005). Cross-cultural training to facilitate expatriate adjustment. Personnel Review, (34)1, Phillips, J., & Gully, S. (1997). Role of goal orientation, ability, need for achievement, and locus of control in the self-efficacy and goal-setting process. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, Robie, C., & Ryan, A. (1996). Structural equivalence of a measure of cross-cultural adjustment. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56, Schenkler, B. (1980) Impression Management: The Self-concept, Social Identity, and Interpersonal Relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Thomas, D. A. (2002) The Essentials of International Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tung, R. (1981). Selecting and training of personnel for overseas assignments. Columbia Journal of World Business, 16, Tung, R. (2006). The identity trap. Auckland Business Review, Autumn, Vance, C., & Paik, Y. (2005). Forms of host-country national learning for enhanced MNC absorptive capacity. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(7), Vroom, V. (1967) Motivation and Work. NY: Prentice Hall.