Short Term Expatriates Effectiveness: A Four Stage Training Model Evaluation Study

Transcription

1 Short Term Expatriates Effectiveness: A Four Stage Training Model Evaluation Study By Nealia S. Bruning* Xiaoyun Wang I. H. Asper School of Business University of Manitoba Winnnipeg, Canada bruningn@cc.umanitoba.ca xiaoyun_wang@umanitoba.ca and Brigitte Lapierre Doug MacDonald Centre for Intercultural Learning Canadian Foreign Service Institute Ottawa, Canada brigitte.lapierre@international.gc.ca doug.macdonald@international.gc.ca Corresponding Author: Nealia S. Bruning, Ph.D. bruningn@cc.umanitoba.ca

2 Short Term Expatriates Effectiveness: A Four Stage Training Model Evaluation Study ABSTRACT This study focuses on short-term expatriate effectiveness with a pre/post design and multiple source data. Seventy-two Canadian expatriates on a 6-month assignment in Japan participated in the study. A four-stage training model was presented and tested through multiple regression analyses. Partial support for the model was evidenced, specifically that communication skills and knowledge of Japanese culture predicted self development and task effectiveness predicted peer-rated peer relationships. Implications of the study for training design and effective management of short-term expatriates is discussed. Keywords : Cross cultural management, human resource development, international human resource management, executive training/ability/education Expatriates are business or government organization employees sent overseas to accomplish a job or organization-related goal for a limited time period (Aycan & Kanungo, 1997). They serve as a primary link between domestic and foreign operations and thus facilitate success in global markets and contribute to the development of global management talent. If a country s economic growth and welfare depends on the success of her businesses in the global environment and foreign operations are frequently managed by expatriates; then expatriates play a significant role in business performance (Johnson, Lenartowicz & Apud, 2006). Thus, it is important to examine factors related to expatriate adjustment and performance in foreign roles and environments. Valid and reliable selection and training processes should be critical preconditions of expatriate successful performance (Collings, Scullion & Morley, 2007). Deficient processes may result in early returns or poor assignment performance, which is expensive and could lead to individual and organizational performance issues (GMAC, 2006; Harrison, Shaffer, & Bhaskar-Shrinivas, 2004; Harzing, 2001a). Along with the increasing importance of global operations, the expatriate literature has become a growing body of literature and through that process has experienced transformation. There has been a trend from regarding expatriation as a difficult assignment that needs adjustment and

3 management, to regarding expatriation as an opportunity for individual employee career development and the development of global management talent (Brewster & Suutari, 2005). Initially, when scholars regarded expatriate assignment as difficult events, studies focused on identifying factors that would help the expatriate adjust; these factors ranged from the individual to the organizational level, such as personality, interpersonal skills, training, family adjustment, and organizational support (e.g., Black & Mendenhall, 1989, 1990; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992; Harrison et al., 2004; Huang, Chi, & Lawler, 2005; Selmer, 2002; Tung, 1998). Meta-analytical results support these studies and demonstrate the importance of these factors and the vital role of expatriate adjustment in job related outcomes (Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005). While this stream of studies is helpful and popular, new trends in expatriate assignments have led to an increased use of expatriate assignments as opportunities for global skill and career development of potential leaders (Caligiuri & DiSanto, 2001; Dickmann & Harris, 2005; Kohonen, 2005; Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002; Yan, Zhu, & Hall, 2002). One route to facilitate global management development is through the use of shorter assignments, which has been reflected in an upwards trend in the numbers of short-term expatriate assignments (Konopaske & Werner, 2005). Cost considerations are a second driver of the growth in short-term assignments (Puccino, 2007). Recent surveys demonstrate that the expatriate population is increasing and that this growth is associated with increased costs (GMAC, 2005). Current strategies used to reduce these expenses include the use of short term and commuter assignments, sometimes termed, nontraditional expatriate assignments or flexpatriate assignments (Collings et al., 2007; Mayerhofer, Hartmann, Michelitsch-Riedl & Kollinger, 2004). Recent authors have further suggested that short-term expatriate assignments may facilitate knowledge transfer to foreign subsidiaries better than long-term assignments (Minbaeva & Michailova, 2004). Thus, short term expatriate assignments are routes to develop global management talent, reduce expatriation expenses, and a means to facilitate knowledge transfer. Despite the growth of the expatriate literature in the last decade and the changing profile of the expatriate population, expatriates on short-term assignments are an understudied population (Mayrhofer, Iellatchitch, Meyer, Steyrer, Schiffinger & Strunk, 2004). An investigation of this particular expatriate population will highlight the importance of adjustment for an increasing segment

4 of the expatriate workforce. The primary research objective of the current study, therefore, is to further the understanding of expatriate adjustment by focusing on how short-term expatriate effectiveness can be improved. Expatriate effectiveness and adjustment will be assessed through a pre/post design with multisource data. We plan to accomplish this objective by focusing on expatriate training, development of cultural knowledge, task and personal effectiveness and adjustment in a context of Canadian expatriates working on a short-term assignment in Japan. Literature Review Organizations send expatriates overseas to fill positions, control subsidiaries, develop managers, transfer technology, train locals, and fill skills gaps (Harzing, 2001a; Puccino, 2007). Expatriate numbers have dramatically increased in the past 20 years (GMAC, 2005, 2006; Harrison et al, 2004; Harzing, 2001a; 2001b). While filling positions and subsidiary control remain the primary reasons behind expatriate assignments, the trend of using foreign experience to develop global management talent has increased the number of short-term assignments. Organizations send their prospective global leaders on short-term assignments to broaden their international horizons and intercultural experience (Dowling, Welch, & Schuler, 1999; Forster, 2000). Through short-term assignments managers can remain closely connected to home units and further their career development while gaining valuable cross-cultural managerial experience (e.g., Klaff, 2004; Mayerhofer et al., 2004). Organizations are increasingly using short-term expatriate assignments for specific tasks, management development and subsidiary control purposes in lieu of more costly longterm assignments (Mayerhofer et al., 2004). Klaff (2004) reported the results of a 2003 GMAC study where 70 percent of international assignments were less than a year as opposed to about 13 percent in previous years. In many cases short-term assignments disturb expatriates and their families less than long-term assignments, which frequently involve relocation of the family to a different country. Moreover, the development of information technology, such as teleconferences and web-chat rooms, lessen the need for long-term overseas assignments (Mayerhofer et al, 2004). In the current paper, we define short-term expatriate assignment as an international assignment of 3 months to 1 year, which is consistent with common practice (Harris, 1999; Klaff, 2004; Petrovic, 2000). For example, Petrovic categorizes expatriate assignments into four groups:

5 long-term assignment (more than one year), short-term assignment (less than one year), international commuter assignment (commutes from home to another country on a weekly or bi-weekly basis), and frequent flyer assignment (frequent international trips, but no relocation). Collings et al. (2007) found that short-term expatriate assignments are normally characterized as less than a year but longer than a business trip, where the family typically remains at home and where the salary, pension and benefits are managed in the home office. They suggest that the most important element of the short-term expatriate definition is the length of the assignment. In some cases spouses/partners and families accompany the expatriates on short-term assignments, but more often do not. Recent attention has been paid to the different adjustment challenges the non-traditional expatriate assignments. Expatriate Adjustment. Typically, expatriate adjustment is defined as a process where expatriates interact with and learn about the local environment and people to reduce uncertainty and to obtain psychological comfort (Black 1988; Wang & Kanungo 2004). Entering into a different culture can lead to initial psychological discomfort due to perceived differences between home and host cultures. Stress can be created due to the differences between the different home and host environments, management styles that are not transferable across cultural boundaries, and the loss of control in the new environment (Sanchez, Spector, & Cooper, 2000). The general implication drawn from studies on long-term assignments is that short-term assignments should alleviate many of the adjustment challenges, yet recent evidence suggests that other issues might arise with short-term expatriates. Tahvanainen, Welch and Worm (2005), for example, interviewed human resource managers in 11 large Finish firms to explore their experiences with short-term assignments and to contrast the experiences with long-term assignments. They found a number of adjustment challenges for individuals on short-term assignments, such as taxation issues, divorces and alcoholism perpetuated by prolonged separation from significant others (without family relocation) and lack of integration into host work places or communities. They also found that these short-term assignees suffered poor integration in host environments due to problems in working relationships with host country employees. In a PricewaterhouseCoopers survey as cited in Tahvanainen et al. (2005), the HR respondents in parent organizations reported that the dual home and expatriate roles of these shortterm expatriates many times led to stress in responding to the different roles in an effective manner.

6 Brewster, Harris and Petrovic (2001) also found that employees who traveled on short-term assignments reported feelings of stress and burnout from the travel demands Collings et al. (2007) suggest that expatriates on short-term assignments may experience the culture shock cycle but that the stages of the cycle might be more compressed (see also Melone, 2005). Thus, in conjunction, these results suggest that adjustment and relationships with peers could be significant issues for expatriates on short term assignments. One of the challenges for reducing stress for short term assignees is to propose and examine factors that could be related to the expatriate s effective adjustment. Training and Short-Term Expatriate Adjustment Common objectives of expatriate training are to increase the expatriate s abilities to adjust in a foreign environment, to raise their awareness about the local culture, and to prepare them for some unexpected events in the foreign culture (Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001; Earley, 1992; Tung, 1981). Black & Mendenhall (1990) reviewed studies of cross-cultural training and its impact on cross-cultural assignments. They found that training was consistently reported to be a positive influence on skill development (self, relationship, perceptual), adjustment and performance. Deshpande & Viswesvaran s (1992) meta-analysis of empirical studies on expatriate training also demonstrated that training has a major impact on the effectiveness of expatriate managers. Deshpande & Viswesvaran found that expatriate training influenced expatriate self-development, cross-cultural perception, interpersonal relationships, adjustability, and performance. Somewhat in contrast to Deshpande & Viswesvaran s study, Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley and Riedel (2006) note that while a significant amount of research has been conducted on the effectiveness of cross-cultural training, the research designs have lacked strong methodological designs. The studies have rarely included experimental control groups, random assignments, pretest-posttest designs, longitudinal outcome measures or multiple outcome measures. Furthermore, they found that training for employees who would be leaving on short-term assignments tended to focus on factual information about the country and little focus on social and interpersonal skills associated with cross-cultural training. A number of authors have noted a lack of training for expatriate training in general (e.g., Suutari & Burch, 2001), but a number of authors have suggested that training for expatriates on short-term assignments is even less frequent (Mayerhofer, Hartmann & Herbert, 2006; Shen, 2005; Tahvanainen et al., 2005). Thus,

7 evidence of the effects of training on short-term expatriates is seriously lacking in the literature, even though training may facilitate short-term assignees performance and adjustment. Furthermore, research is needed into the types of training that would be more beneficial to expatriates on short term assignments. The characteristics of the training, such as content, length, method of delivery, etc, could all have different effects on the expatriate s development of cross cultural competency and adjustment during the short-term assignment (Earley, 1987; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Selmer, 2005; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005). While it is not realistic to assume that companies would provide lengthy, multimethod and comprehensive training to short-term assignees, we would argue that general cultural training and communication training could help the short-term assignees feel more prepared and facilitate their adjustment during the assignment. As mentioned previously, short-term overseas assignments are increasingly used as a stepping stone for career and skill development. In this context, cultural training could help the expatriates raise self awareness and awareness of local cultural values. The previous literature suggests that short-term expatriates have similar needs for training as do long-term expatriates to adequately prepare them for assignments. It has also been demonstrated that many expatriates on short term assignments experience stress and poor interpersonal relationships, and decreased work performance. Therefore, in this study expatriate training was introduced to cover three areas to address these deficiencies: cultural awareness, prepreparation for the task assignments and communication skills appropriate for the culture. Four-Stage Training Model. Kirkpatrick (1994) identified four levels of training effectiveness which could be applied to the short-term expatriate adjustment context. The first level, reaction, is the initial assessment by trainees of the training s effectiveness. The second level, knowledge, is whether the trainee has understood the various training concepts. The third level, behaviour, is an individual performance dimension after training, and the final level, results, is the hoped for end result. Based on this four-level model of training effectiveness, we developed a training model for short-term expatriates (Figure 1). We believe it is not the presence of training, per se, but the increased knowledge prior to departure and the ability to exercise this knowledge after arrival which should facilitate adjustment. In the current paper, in order to be more consistent with our training model, we have modified the first reaction stage to focus on the knowledge perceived to have been gained from

8 the pre-departure training not a pure reaction to the training. The pre-departure training was designed to facilitate expatriate cross-cultural competency by focusing on three dimensions -- cultural awareness after training, pre-preparation for the task assignment, and communication skills appropriate for the culture. This training effectiveness will be expected to directly influence their acquisition of knowledge of a given culture after their arrival (second stage) and in this case, Japanese culture. We expect that the pre-departure training will sensitize the expatriates to the types of culture specific information they may want to focus on once they arrive in the host country, and facilitate their interpersonal interactions. The third step, behaviour, is expected to be reflected in the task effectiveness and self development reported by the expatriates after their arrival in Japan. Finally, the fourth step, results, is indicated by the level of personal adjustment and the quality of the peer relationships. The model thus leads to hypotheses of both direct and mediating effects. In this study we were only able to test the incremental direct effects due to a restricted sample size. The model was tested in a longitudinal study with data gathered from multiple sources. Specifically, we hypothesized: H1: Pre-departure training effectiveness, measured by perceived cultural awareness, prepreparation and communication skills will positively relate to expatriate s cultural knowledge of Japan after arrival; H2: Expatriates cultural knowledge of Japan will relate to their task effectiveness and self development; H3: Task effectiveness and self-development will result in better adjustment and interpersonal relationships. METHOD Sample The sample was 72 participants from the public sector in Canada sent to Japan for six months to make preparations for a world exhibition. Respondent ages ranged from 20 to 44 years of age with an average of 26.8 years (S.D. = 5.08). Thirty-two percent (32%) of the expatriates were male. All but four had previous overseas experience and a majority of them (98%) had college education. The first round of data was collected right after the participants attended a training session prior to their

9 departure, and the second round of data was collected three months after they arrived in Japan. The response rate for both surveys was 100%. Procedure A number of methodological issues have plagued current research on expatriate adjustment, including the focus on cross-sectional studies and dependence upon data from a single source. The lack of longitudinal studies in the field (with exception of Takeuchi, Wang, & Marinova, 2005) has limited identification of causal relationships. Reliance on single-source independent and dependent variables can potentially result in response bias. While multi-source data is more challenging to collect, different perspectives increase the statistical power in tests of relationships. In order to avoid these weaknesses, we designed our study in two time frames: Time 1 (T1) and Time 2 (T2). At Time 1, our sampled participants completed a questionnaire that measured their perceptions of training effectiveness in three areas, cultural awareness, pre-preparation for task assignments and communication skills. At Time 2, three months after their arrival in Japan, a follow up study was conducted which assessed their knowledge of Japanese culture, task effectiveness and self development perceptions. Peer ratings assessed their adjustment and quality of peer relationships. Instruments Perceived Training Effectiveness. The training effectiveness scale was developed by Center for Intercultural Training, Foreign Affairs, Canada (CIL; Kealey & Protheroe, 1995). It has 14 items on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In order to test the validity of this scale, we ran a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation. Three dimensions resulted: 1) Factor 1: preparation in different aspects (6 items, α =.90); 2) Factor 2: general cultural awareness (6 items, α =.76); and 3) Factor 3: communication skills (2 items, α =.64). Factor loadings on these three factors ranged from.44 to.90 and no cross-loadings were found (see Table 1 for details). These three factors reflected the reaction level of training effectiveness. Knowledge of Japanese Culture, Self Development and Task Effectiveness. Thirteen items were used to measure knowledge of Japanese culture, personal development and task effectiveness. These items were assessed on 10-point semantic differential scales developed by the CIL (Kealey & Protheroe,

10 1995). Each statement has two opposite extremes with the higher score indicating higher knowledge Japanese culture, self development and task effectiveness. We ran principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation. Three dimensions emerged from this scale: 1) Factor 1: knowledge of Japanese culture (5 items, α =.81); 2) Factor 2: self development (4 items, α =.79) Factor 3: task effectiveness (4 items, α =.80); and factor loadings on these three factors ranged from.67 to.90 and no cross-loadings were found (See Table 2.) Peer Evaluation. Since all these expatriates are working together, we asked them to evaluate each other on 6 items that assessed two dimensions: their adjustment and their relationships with their peers. The adjustment has two items: peer-rated adaptation and peer-rated effectiveness; and the relationship dimension includes four items: interpersonal manners, behaviors toward Japanese and peer expatriates, and relationship building. Principal components factor analysis of these 6 items resulted in two factors as hypothesized, factor loadings ranged from.76 to.96 (Eigen values are 3.83 and 1.07, respectively; and variances explained are 63.88% and 17.91, respectively). The reliability coefficients of these two factors are.70 and.92, respectively. RESULTS Table 3 presents the reliability, descriptive and correlation analysis results for all variables. The reliability coefficients (along with the diagonal) are all acceptable, ranging from.64 to.92, although the.64 for communication skills is marginally acceptable and should be taken into consideration in the interpretation of the results. The statistically significant correlation coefficients are in the predicted direction. The multiple regression results are presented in Table 4. The analyses in the model are presented in the order in which the model is built to test the direct relationships. For example in the first step the three perceived training effectiveness variables are expected to predict the knowledge of Japanese culture. In step 2 knowledge of Japanese culture was added to the equation to predict task effectiveness and tested again for self development. The last two analyses add the task effectiveness and self development variables to the equation to predict peer relationships and peer-rated adjustment. The results of the regression analyses did not confirm the direct relationship between predeparture perceived training effectiveness (cultural awareness, pre-preparation and communication

11 skills) and after-arrival knowledge of Japanese culture (Hypothesis 1). However, the beta weight for communication skills approached significance (p<.09). The prediction of perceived training effectiveness failed to predict task effectiveness, however the same marginal relationship was apparent for communication skills as was evident in the first analyses (Hypothesis 2). While the combination of the three training variables did not lead to a significant relationship, communication skills was an independent significant predictor of self development. Knowledge of Japanese culture was a significant predictor of self development as predicted by the model (Hypothesis 2). In the last two analyses the direct relationship between the combined model variables and peer-rated peer relationships and peer-rated adjustment was tested (Hypothesis 3). These results were somewhat supportive of the relationships between task effectiveness and peer rated peer relationships. The overall incremental R 2 was marginally significant (p<.06), and the beta weight was significant between task effectiveness and peer rated peer relationships. The regression analyses failed to demonstrate the direct predictive relationships for the peer-rated adjustment variable. DISCUSSION Globalization continues to present opportunities for organizations to enter foreign markets. Expatriates, as representatives of these organizations, and their effectiveness are keys to organizational success in host country environments. Due to cultural differences between home and host countries, many expatriates confront challenges in effectively adjusting to the local environment and the accomplishment of their work assignments. Many incidents have been noted where expatriates have withdrawn from their assignments or work at less than their optimum capacity due to ineffective adjustment (Harzing, 2001; Tu & Sullivan, 1994). The expatriate adjustment literature has focused on long-term assignments and on antecedent factors of cross-cultural adjustment, ranging from the individual to the organizational level (Aycan, 1997; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Harrison, Shaffer, & Bhaskar-Shrinivas, 2004; Thomas, 1998), but has largely ignored the longitudinal and interactive nature of expatriate adjustment (Harrison et al., 2004). Much of the literature has assumed that most of the adjustment challenges are for expatriates on long-term assignments, and there is little research on the adjustment of expatriates

12 on short-term assignments. Given the growth in short-term assignments and the developing literature which suggests that short-term assignments present unique and significant adjustment challenges, the current study presented an exploratory model on how these adjustment challenges can be alleviated. We utilized a modified version of Kirkpatrick s four level training model and identified variables indicative of expatriate adjustment problems in order to develop the model presented and tested in this study. Significant strengths of the study included the multi-time period and multi-source design. Results of the current study provide some support for the proposed model, but the sample size limited the statistical power of the regression analyses. The most robust results were for the communication skills training variable which predicted self development and marginally predicted knowledge of Japanese culture and task effectiveness. However, the communications skills scale had the lowest reliability which suggests that further development of the scale is needed in order to more clearly identify the impact of this factor in expatriate adjustment. Significant results were also found for the task effectiveness prediction of peer rated peer relationships. These findings suggest that for short-term expatriates, training on communication skills may be more important than other aspects, such as cultural awareness and preparation for assignments, to facilitate task accomplishment. These findings are also in line with the results from Tahvanainen et al. (2005) when they summarized one interview with an HR manager, when the assignment is short, home unit work practices may be followed excessively, totally neglecting the local way of operating, (which) in the worst scenario, this can lead to serious conflicts (p.669). These results support the predicted relationships by suggesting that poor task effectiveness can lead to diminished peer relationships. Another strength of the study is the non-governmental organization (NGO) sample. Both Bonache, Brewster and Suutari (2001) and Chang (2005) point to the dearth of studies conducted with NGOs. Large numbers of expatriates are on assignment for these organizations, and many of the assignments are very difficult, such as rescue and development missions. More attention needs to be paid to this population of expatriate workers. It would be beneficial to expand this research by comparing results from expatriates from different types of NGO organizational settings, and to develop information that could help prepare expatriates more effectively for different types of assignments. The NGO sample also limits the generalizability to traditional business contexts.

13 Some limitations in the current study suggest a need to follow-up the current research and test of the proposed model. While the study used a strong study design, the small sample size reduced the statistical power of the regression analyses, partially indicated by the relatively small R 2 and the decline in the adjusted R 2. The restricted sample size also prevented the exploration of mediating relationships as defined in the model. Counterbalancing these limitations were the strength of incorporating multi-source data into the study design and analysis. The strength of some of the relationships is evident by the significant results obtained through the multiple source data. The statistical analyses and results, through multi-source data and the structure of the multiple regression analyses were conservative tests of the direct effects in the model. Even with these controls in place, some of the predicted relationships were supported (task effectiveness and peer-rated peer relationships). Future research should continue with strong research designs but use larger sample sizes to increase statistical power. Research on short-term assignees will also be challenged due to the lack of training provided to expatriates on short-term assignments (Tahvanainen et al., 2005; Collings et al., 2007). Another limitation in the current study was the developmental nature of the scales. These scales were developed for this study and need further validation and refinement in future research. The model framework and research literature could provide a basis for scale refinements. In conclusion, the current study presented data which indicates a growing trend of expatriates on short term assignments. This group has been understudied, yet current research suggests that these individuals experience significant adjustment challenges that are unique from those experienced by expatriates on long-term assignments. Organizations tend to minimize the training supports provided to long-term assignees. Limited training could reduce the preparedness of short-term assignees and lead to performance, development, adjustment and peer relationship issues. Focused training which is designed and examined through Kirkpatrick s four levels of effectiveness may facilitate short-term expatriate adjustment and performance. More research is needed to clarify and test these effects utilizing strong methodological frameworks and analyses. Hopefully, individual and organizational performance can improve through effective training and short-term assignee s improved adjustment.

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20 Table 1 Results of Factor Analysis for Training Effectiveness Factor Factor Factor Items Obtaining adequate information and resources for the project Obtaining adequate information about the work environment Developing strategies for involving employees at the mission Developing strategies for engaging local people Finding out about practical matters, like health, education of children etc Obtaining adequate information to help you get started on your assignment How much would you say you currently know about the unwritten rules of social behavior in your native country? How much would you say you currently know about the unwritten rules of social behavior in your country of assignment? I am fully aware of the cultural rules and values that govern my behavior I have a clear vision of what I want to accomplish on my overseas assignment How familiar are you with current theories of culture? How much do you currently know about your country of assignment? When being introduced to people anywhere, it is important to communicate your respect and sincerity by looking them straight in the eye While people appear different from culture to culture, a smile is a Smile no matter where you come from Eigenvalue Proportion of Variance accounted for

21 Table 2 Results of Factor Analysis for Expatriate Adjustment Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Although I do respect the Japanese way of life, I am not comfortable doing things the Japanese way. I find things are so complicated in Japan that it is often difficult to understand how things operate. I have found that the behavior of Japanese colleagues on and off the job is, in most respects, similar to our own behavior as Canadians. I m confused when some of the Japanese people I have met say one thing and do another. I don t feel the need to observe the Japanese in order to adapt effectively I experience frustration in working on this project in Japan I find it difficult to get things done here as I do not have the same support and resources as I have on my job in Canada. In my experience, there are definitely constraints on this project which interfere with my ability to work effectively. I would not be someone identified as contributing a lot to the success of this project. I am someone who remains consistent in my behaviour no matter where I go I experiment with doing things the Japanese way to better understand this culture I am able more and more to understand how things operate in Japan I can give examples of how Japanese cultural values and traditions influence the behavior of Japanese colleagues on and of f the job I have become more skilled at understanding the nonverbal and contextual aspects of communication in Japan I make a point of observing the behavior of Japanese people in order to adapt effectively I am enjoying the experience of working on this project in Japan I am able to get things done here using the systems and supports which are available to me I have found that the overall working conditions here enable me to work effectively I am someone who is acknowledged for working hard to make this project a success I believe that I will look at life in a different way after leaving Japan. I don t feel that an awareness of stages in adjusting to a My awareness of the stages in adjusting to a new

22 new culture is of any practical use for me. I had expected to experience more personal growth during this assignment. I don t foresee that what I have learned from this experience in Japan will have any great impact on my future undertakings culture has helped me to be realistic in adapting to life and work in Japan I believe I am learning more about myself from my experience in Japan I am learning things from this experience in Japan that I will be able to make use of in the future. Eigenvalue Proportion of Variance accounted for

23 Table 3 Descriptive, Reliabilities and Correlation Coefficients Variable Mean S.D. α Age n/a 2. Gender n/a Cultural awareness (T1) Pre-preparation (T1) *.41*** 5. Communication skills (T1) Knowledge of Japanese Culture (T2) * Task effectiveness (T2) Self Development (T2) *** Peer-rated adjustment (T2) Peer-rated peer relationships (T2) *.09.36*** Note: N = 72; * p <.05, two-tailed. ** p <.01, two-tailed. *** p <.001, two -tailed For Gender, 1 = Male; 2 = Female T1 = Time 1 T2 = Time 2

24 Table 4 Model Direct Effect Regression Results Independent Variable Dependent Variable R R 2 (Adj R 2) R 2 F Change df Sig of F Beta t Sig of t CulA Japan Cul (Stage 2) PPrep Commun.34.12(.05) , Cul A Task Eff (Stage 3) PPrep Commun.34.12(.05) , Japan Cul.35.12(.02) , Cul A Self Dev (Stage 3) PPrep Commun.36.13(.06) , Japan Cul.57.33(.26) , Cul A Peer Rel (Stage 4) PPrep Commun.22.05(-.09) , Japan Cul.25.06(-.05) , Task Eff Self Dev.46.22(.06) , Cul A Adj (Stage 4) PPrep Commun.28.08(.00) , Japan Cul.34.12(.01) , Task Eff Self Dev.36.13(.03) , Variable key: Cul A = Cultural Awareness; PPrep = Pre-preparation; Commun = Communication Skills; Japan Cul = Knowledge of Japanese Culture; Task Eff = Task Effectiveness; Self Dev = Self Development; Peer Rel = Peer Relationships; Adj = Adjustment

25 Figure 1 Model of Short-Term Expatriate Adjustment. Expatriate Training Cultural Knowledge Task and personal Adjustment effectiveness Cultural Awareness Pre-preparation Communication Skills Knowledge of Japanese Culture Task Effectiveness Self Development Adjustment Peer Relationships