Perceived Organizational Support and Employee Satisfaction and Retention

Transcription

1 Recreational Sports Journal, 2007, 31, NIRSA Foundation Perceived Organizational Support and Employee Satisfaction and Retention Simon M. Pack, Jeremy S. Jordan, Brian A. Turner, and Danell Haines The ability of recreational sport departments to offer quality programming and services often depends on whether they are able to employ and retain quality student employees. These student employees are critical in the performance of tasks associated with the daily operations connected with recreation programs. This study examined the role of perceived organizational support (POS) on student employee attitudes. It is beneficial for university recreational sport departments, specifically directors, to be cognizant of the role POS can play in the work experience of student employees. The relationships between POS and commitment (affective, AC and normative, NC) and satisfaction were investigated for 152 student employees of a campus recreation center. No significant differences in students perceptions of POS were found based on gender, tenure, or type of supervision (student staff member, professional staff member, or graduate administrative assistant). However, the regression equations with POS and AC, POS and NC, and POS and satisfaction were all significant, explaining 46.2%, 39%, and 53.3% of the variance, respectively. The results of this study of the relationship between POS and commitment mirror several others from the field of industrial and organizational psychology, and it can be demonstrated that student employees reciprocate favorable treatment when they trust that their department will reward them in return. Future studies should focus on some of the particular antecedents of POS (e.g., supervisory support, participation in decision making, organizational justice, trust, and careerist orientation), as well as other possible outcomes of POS, and might provide more depth in understanding exchange relationships for student employees of recreational sports departments. Key Words: POS, recreational, satisfaction, retention Recreational sport departments are an important part of student life on most college campuses. The programming offered by these departments is intended to enhance the student experience at the institution. The ability of recreational sport departments to offer quality programming and services is dependent, in part, on the quality of workforce they are able to employ and retain (Jordan, Turner, & Dubord, Pack is with the Dept. of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY Jordan is with the Dept. of Exercise Science, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL Turner is with the Dept. of Sport & Exercise Sciences and Haines is with the Dept. of Recreational Sports, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH

2 96 Pack et al. 2007). Although this is fairly common in all recreation organizations, university recreation departments are unique in that their workforce is composed primarily of student employees (Bower, Hums, & Keedy, 2005; Keizer, 1997). These student employees are critical in the performance of tasks associated with the daily operations connected with recreation programs. Further, although university recreation departments are under the direction of professional staff, student employees often assume supervisory roles and, thus, are responsible for monitoring and directing their peers (Turner, Jordan, & DuBord, 2005). Because student employees serve such an important function in the operations of recreational sport departments, an increased amount of research attention has been devoted to the student employee work experience (DiMonda & Smith, 1994; Ellingson, 1987; Jordan et al., 2007; Kearney & Tingle, 1998; Turner et al., 2005). The focus of these research efforts has been to examine the attitudes of student employees toward their job experience and how these attitudes translate into desirable or undesirable work behaviors. Specifically, attitudes regarding justice (Jordan et al., 2007), commitment (Turner et al., 2005), satisfaction (Kearney & Tingle, 1998), and motivation (Miller, 1993) have been examined in recreational sport settings. In line with this research, and in an attempt to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of why employees develop particular attitudes about their work experience, our study examined the role of perceived organizational support (POS) on student employee attitudes. Within the last 15 years an abundance of organizational behavior and human resource management research has focused on the exchange relationships between employees and their organizations (Aselage & Eisenberger, 2003; Robinson & Rousseau, 1994; Rousseau, 1989; Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002). This research suggests that organizations whose employees perceive that they are treated well get the most satisfactory efforts from the employees. For instance, employees who are treated well are more likely to be committed to their organization (Rhoades, Eisenberger, & Armeli, 2001) and less likely to leave their organization (Allen, Shore, & Griffeth, 2003). More specifically, a bulk of the literature regarding employee organization relationships has focused on POS (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). Consistent with Eisenberger et al. (1986), POS is defined as employees formation of global beliefs pertaining to how much the organization cares about their well-being and values their contributions. This concept is based on social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960). Social exchange theory explains why employees feel obligated to reciprocate actions directed toward them by the organization. Moreover, POS is associated with this exchange in that employees will reciprocate favorable treatment when they trust that the organization will reward them. In recreation management research, there has been a mounting interest in employees commitment, job satisfaction, justice perceptions, and turnover. Turner et al. (2005) found that student employees supervised by a professional staff member demonstrated higher levels of commitment than those supervised by a peer. Further, these authors found that commitment was positively correlated with tenure of employment, indicating that employee turnover could be decreased by strengthening student workers commitment to the recreational sports department. An organization composed of highly committed workers is likely to experience reduced costs associated with employee turnover, as well as a more positive work

3 POS and Recreational Sport Departments 97 environment (Meyer & Allen, 1997). A positive work environment can assist with the retention of productive employees and the successful recruitment of new workers. The relationship between organizational justice (i.e., employee perceptions of fairness in the workplace) and job satisfaction for student employees was explored by Jordan et al. (2007). Like Turner et al. (2005), these authors found that the type of supervision and length of employment were significantly related to students perceptions of fairness. Student employees who had a longer work history and were supervised by professional staff members tended to have more positive perceptions of organizational justice. Further, perceptions of organizational justice explained over 30% of the variance associated with job satisfaction. These authors found that a larger portion of this variance was explained with male employees, students supervised by professional staff, and those who had a longer work history with the recreational sports department. Consistent with Turner et al. (2005), these authors concluded that recreational sport departments who treat student employees in a fair manner are more likely to create a positive work experience leading to increased satisfaction. This reiterates the notion that POS is a reciprocation of fair treatment of employees by the organization. Industrial and organizational psychology scholars have deemed reciprocal, exchange relationships a trade of effort and loyalty for material or social rewards (e.g., Blau, 1964; Levinson, 1965). Although POS has yet to be introduced into the recreational sport literature, the development of employees POS has received considerable attention in the industrial and organizational psychology literature. An overwhelming majority of studies concerning POS based on organizational support theory (OST) have established the unidimensionality of the support construct. For instance, Eisenberger et al. (1986) reported that employees demonstrated a steady pattern of agreement with statements pertaining to the type of treatment received under certain circumstances (e.g., future illness, mistakes, and exceptional performance). Thus, although POS is a response to the organization as a whole, it is also considerably influenced by attitudes, policies, procedures, and decisions of the organization (Shore & Tetrick, 1991). It is beneficial for university recreational sport departments, specifically directors, to be cognizant of the role POS can play in the work experience of student employees. Moreover, although human resource practices may not directly affect turnover, it may signal to employees that the organization values and cares about their well-being and contributions. This may, in turn, result in various favorable outcomes for both the organization and employees. As Shore and Shore (1995) suggested, the history of treatment an employee has received from an organization may have more of an impact on voluntary turnover decisions than the implementation of a particularly favorable human resource practice. The significance of how an employee is treated by an organization was discussed by Jordan et al. (2007), who stated, many recreation departments are limited in their ability to modify employee rewards or organizational policies; however, they do have the ability to change the quality of interaction between subordinates and their supervisors (p. 49). Therefore, student employees, the focus of this study, may not alter their perception of support in reaction to favorable human resource practices if their department and supervisor treat them unfavorably for an extended period of time. This study will introduce POS in a recreational sport context, in addition to extending previous work that examined student employee commitment and turnover in

4 98 Pack et al. university recreational sport departments (Ellingson, 1987; Turner et al., 2005). POS serves as a critical link between the actions and behavior of organizations and employees. When applied to a recreational sport setting, examining organizational support can help provide a greater understanding of student employees voluntary turnover intentions, affective commitment, and job satisfaction. Although POS is a concept closely associated with organizational commitment, it is a departure from the traditional lines of inquiry on organizational commitment and retention. Therefore, POS measures the degree of commitment the organization demonstrates toward its employees, as opposed to the commitment employees demonstrate toward their organization. Moreover, Eisenberger et al. (1986) found evidence for the argument that POS is an antecedent of organizational commitment. In addition, several researchers have also found that POS is related to job satisfaction (e.g., Aquino & Griffeth, 1999; Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch, 1997; Shore & Tetrick, 1991). Following OST, organizational commitment has been identified as an outcome of POS (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-LaMastro, 1990; Rhoades et al., 2001; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Shore & Wayne, 1993). Further evidence of this relationship was demonstrated by Rhoades et al. (2001) in a study using a diverse sample of employees from a variety of organizations. The authors found that POS mediated the positive relationship between work experiences (i.e., organizational rewards, procedural justice, and supervisor support) and affective commitment (i.e., the emotional attachment individuals have to their organization). Therefore, it was concluded that employees can determine the positive nature of certain work experiences and then sum those experiences to establish POS, which then brings about affective commitment (Rhoades et al., 2001). Employees who feel they are supported by their organization will have a greater sense of purpose and meaning through their affective commitment to the organization (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Normative commitment, on the other hand, involves the principle of loyalty to an organization, thus obligating employees to remain with their employer. Moreover, based on Gouldner s (1960) norm of reciprocity, employees feel as though they have a sense of indebtedness that they must repay to their organization through commitment. In sum, the establishment of employees POS is manifested in a commitment to the organization, a desire to help the organization achieve its goals, and an enhanced expectancy that performance will be noticed and justly rewarded (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Shore & Shore, 1995). Based on previous literature espousing a positive association between POS and affective (Eisenberger et al., 1990; Shore & Wayne, 1993; Wayne et al., 2002) and normative commitment (Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003; Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002), the two were advanced as consequences of POS in our study. As noted in the discussion regarding commitment as a consequence of POS, the more supportive the organization, the greater the likelihood a particular consequence will be realized. Because of the negative correlation between job satisfaction and turnover (e.g., Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Meyer & Allen, 1997), it is relevant for supervisors to understand the consequences of supportive behavior. Moreover, increased support will positively influence work attitudes such as job satisfaction (DiMonda & Smith, 1994; Jordan et al., 2007). Satisfaction, an affective reaction to various elements of work, is directly affected by POS (Shore & Tetrick, 1991).

5 POS and Recreational Sport Departments 99 Administration must support the intricate facets involved in the makeup of job responsibilities for both employees and organizations to experience and reap the benefits of job satisfaction. Employees expect their needs to be fulfilled; when those needs go unfulfilled, both the employees and the organization will experience the detrimental effects of decreased job satisfaction. In addition to creating employees obligation to help the organization, POS serves as a critical socioemotional function (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Although this may depend on individual differences, employees with a heightened sense of POS will find their jobs more gratifying and will be less likely to leave the organization. The primary purpose of this study was to examine POS among student workers employed at a university recreational sport department. Specifically, the relationship between POS and two of its purported outcomes (commitment and satisfaction) was investigated. Further, based on the work of Turner et al. (2005) and Jordan et al. (2007), differences in students perceptions of POS were examined based on gender, tenure, and type of supervision (student staff member, professional staff member, or graduate administrative assistant). Participants Method Student employees of a recreational sport department at a large, midwestern university served as participants for the present study. An was sent to students asking them to participate in an online study of recreational sport employees. As an incentive to participate, students were given the opportunity to enter a random drawing for a prize (an MP3 player). Of the 494 student workers at the time of the study, 152 completed the online questionnaire for a response rate of 30.8%. Measures POS was measured using the eight-item, short version of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (SPOS) developed by Eisenberger and colleagues (1986). This shortened version of the SPOS has demonstrated high internal reliability and unidimensionality in finance, insurance, and industrial settings (e.g., Eisenberger et al., 1986; α =.97). Subsequent internal consistency reliability estimates for the SPOS have been reported to be between.74 and.97 (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Additionally, SPOS items have been found to load highly on the main factor and, most important, they seemed applicable to student employees. A sample item adapted for this study is: The organization (recreation department) fails to appreciate any extra effort from me. As a modification to the SPOS, the referent organization was replaced with recreation department for all items. Cronbach s alpha for the POS scale was.92. To measure organizational commitment, items from Meyer, Allen, and Smith s (1993) instrument were used to measure affective commitment (AC) and normative commitment (NC). AC reflects employees emotional attachment to their organization, while NC relates to their feeling of obligation to their organization. Three items for AC and three for NC were chosen based on the factor loadings presented by Meyer et al. Shortening of these scales has been done in several

6 100 Pack et al. previous studies (Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman, 2000; Iverson & Buttigieg, 1999; Turner & Chelladurai, 2005). The reliability estimates (Cronbach s alpha) of.89 for AC and.82 for NC are comparable to those reported by Meyer et al. (2002). Since this research was concerned with a measure of overall job satisfaction for student workers, a single-item measure was chosen to assess satisfaction. Wanous, Reichers, and Hudy (1997) found that single-item measures of overall job satisfaction were significantly correlated with instruments using multiple measures of overall job satisfaction. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of overall job satisfaction on a 7-point scale, from Very Unsatisfied to Very Satisfied. Items were also used to gather demographic information including gender, length of employment with the department (1, 2, 3, or 4+ years), and the type of supervision for student employees (i.e., student staff member, professional staff member, or graduate administrative assistant). Demographics Results Of the respondents, 81 were female (53.3%), and 69 were male (45.4%; 2 respondents did not give their gender). Almost 70% of the respondents (n = 104) were in their first or second year of working in the department; only 26 respondents (17.2%) were in their fourth year of employment with recreational sports. A little over one-half of the students (n = 88; 57.9%) were supervised by professional staff members, 44 (28.9%) were supervised by a student staff member, and 20 (13.2%) were supervised by a graduate administrative assistant. Group Differences Before examining the relationship between POS, commitment, and satisfaction, analyses were done to determine whether there were differences in POS based on gender, tenure, and type of supervision. Using an independent sample t test, there was not a significant difference in POS between male (M = 3.30; SD = 1.32) and female respondents (M = 3.02; SD = 1.11), t (147) = 1.406, p =.162. Furthermore, using two separate ANOVAs, there were no significant differences in POS based on tenure, F (3, 149) = 1.382, p =.251, nor on type of supervision, F (2, 150) = 1.733, p =.180. POS and Outcome Variables Two separate simple linear regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between POS and commitment (both AC and NC). The regression equation with POS and AC was significant, F (1, 150) = , p <.001, explaining 46.2% of the variance. Similarly, the linear combination of POS was significantly related to NC, F (1, 150) = 96.85, p <.001, explaining 39% of the variance. Finally, the regression equation was significantly related to overall satisfaction, F (1, 148) = , p <.001, explaining 53.3% of the variance in this outcome.

7 POS and Recreational Sport Departments 101 Discussion The primary purpose of this study was to examine the POS of student workers employed at a university recreational sports department, as well as to identify a variation based on gender, tenure, or type of supervision. Previous research on student employees revealed that levels of commitment, satisfaction, and organizational justice differed based on one or more of these characteristics (Jordan et al., 2007; Turner et al., 2005). However, in our study POS did not differ based on the gender of the employee, length of employment, or type of supervision. This indicates that the recreational sport department provided support to student employees in an equitable manner and that POS was applicable to both male and female employees, employees at all phases of tenure with the department, and for employees with various supervisors. In addition, this demonstrates the degree of value shown by the recreational sports department toward student employees who achieve organizational goals and objectives. It can be surmised that this equitable treatment and valuing of student employees will serve the department in reducing both absenteeism and turnover, which are quite common among student employees (Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003). A second purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between POS and student employee commitment and job satisfaction. Two dimensions of commitment, affective and normative, were both found to be significantly related to POS. Therefore, when student employees feel as though their department cares about their contributions and well-being, they will reciprocate those feelings. The results of this study regarding the relationship between POS and commitment mirror several others from the field of industrial and organizational psychology (e.g., Eisenberger et al., 1990; Eisenberger et al., 1986; Meyer et al., 2002; Rhoades et al., 2001; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Shore & Wayne, 1993). Moreover, it can be ascertained from Blau s (1964) social exchange theory and Gouldner s (1960) notion of the norm of reciprocity that student employees reciprocate favorable treatment when they trust that their department will reward them in return. Gakovic and Tetrick (2003) reiterate this notion, stating, Organizations value part-time employees because of the flexibility contingent workers provide to the organizations (p. 660). Another possibility discussed by Gakovic and Tetrick, which also pertains to the results of this particular study, is that part-time, student employees may feel more valued because the part-time nature of their work allows them the flexibility to meet academic demands. Student employees that feel they are supported by their department will have a greater sense of purpose and meaning through their affective commitment to the department (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Consistent with Gouldner s (1960) norm of reciprocity and normative commitment, student employees may even feel as though they are indebted to their department and must repay the department. This establishment of student employees POS is manifested in an attachment to the department that can ultimately lead to decreased absenteeism and reduced turnover. As in the case of commitment, the more supportive the department, the greater the job satisfaction of student employees. Shore and Tetrick s (1991) research found

8 102 Pack et al. that satisfaction was directly affected by POS. Our study confirms those results as student employees with a heightened sense of POS found their jobs more gratifying. It is noteworthy that in the present study, over half of the variance (53%) associated with overall job satisfaction was explained by POS. This is significant for two reasons. First, as discussed by Colquitt et al. (2001), overall job satisfaction is a rather large construct that is influenced by a number of different employment factors (e.g., organizational rewards, job design, workplace fairness, etc.). The finding that POS explained such a large portion of the variance demonstrates the importance of considering the construct when attempting to improve employee satisfaction. Second, because job satisfaction has been related to a number of other organizationally relevant outcomes (e.g., performance, retention, OCBs, etc.) it would seem prudent for recreational sport departments to consider POS as a mechanism not only for improving satisfaction but for overall organizational effectiveness. However, it is noteworthy that the multiple facets involved in employing student workers must be supported by the department in order for both parties to experience the benefits of the students job satisfaction. Hence, POS serves as a critical socioemotional function for the student employees (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). With regard to the relationship between POS and job satisfaction, it has been noted that voluntary action on the part of the organization is instrumental in establishing POS (Eisenberger et al., 1997). For example, if a recreational sports department does not have the financial resources to reward student employees appropriately, this will most likely not reduce POS, but may decrease job satisfaction. On the other hand, nondiscretionary actions taken by the department to reward student employees and improve the nature of their work environment may increase overall job satisfaction but may not be accompanied by increased POS. Therefore, this will have an effect on the retention of student employees. Eisenberger et al. (1997) reported that employees with a heightened sense of POS will find their jobs more gratifying and will be less likely to withdraw from the organization. The exchange relationship between employees and their organizations has received considerable attention in the literature (Aselage & Eisenberger, 2003; Robinson & Rousseau, 1994; Rousseau, 1989; Wayne et al., 2002). This study concurs with that research and, thus, suggests that student employees, as well as their departments, obtain favorable outcomes based on perceptions of favorable treatment. In other words, students who are treated well are more likely to be committed to their department, satisfied with their job, and ultimately, less likely to leave (e.g., Allen et al., 2003; Rhoades et al., 2001). The results of this study are consistent with the conceptualization of POS by Eisenberger et al. (1986) for student employees. Moreover, the traditional concepts of social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960) have been shown to hold true within a recreational sports context. The impetus of this study concerning POS was a departure from the traditional literature regarding organizational commitment and satisfaction. It was found that POS measured the degree of commitment a recreational sports department demonstrates toward its student employees, as opposed to the commitment student employees demonstrate toward their department. This study concurred with previous research in that POS was antecedent to such attitudinal behaviors as affective and normative commitment (e.g., Eisenberger et al., 1990; Eisenberger et al., 1986; Meyer et al., 2002; Settoon, Bennett, & Liden, 1996; Rhoades et al., 2001; Shore

9 POS and Recreational Sport Departments 103 & Tetrick, 1991) and job satisfaction (e.g., Aquino & Griffeth, 1999; Eisenberger et al., 1997; Shore & Tetrick, 1991). This study is an indication of the impact of student employees POS within recreational sports departments. The results add to the sport management literature by linking POS with such outcomes as commitment and job satisfaction for student employees of recreational sports departments. Therefore, this is an addition to the sport management research regarding how student employees, as opposed to athletes, coaches, or administrators, are satisfied with their jobs, committed to their department, and how their departments are committed to them. From a practical standpoint, the reciprocation of support is ultimately indicated by outcomes such as organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Therefore, for the realization of these outcomes, the appropriate levels of support must be realized. In view of the reliance of recreational sport departments on student employees, these departments must demonstrate the significance of student employees so as to produce certain outcomes such as employee commitment, satisfaction, and retention. With this in mind, these outcomes can be attributed to student employees perceptions of support. Hence, it has been shown to be beneficial for recreational sport departments, as well as directors of recreational sports, to establish a mechanism of support for student employees. A need exists for assessing the role of POS in the relationship between human resource practices and outcomes for student employees. It is also advantageous for directors of recreational sports departments to be cognizant of the role of POS in terms of developing competitive human resource strategies for retaining student employees. Strategies on the part of the recreational sport department such as demonstrating support may signal to employees that the department values and cares about their well-being and contributions. This has been shown, in turn, to result in various favorable outcomes (e.g., affective commitment, job satisfaction, reduced turnover) for both the department and student employees. Although this study does not recommend particular modifications to human resource procedures for recreational sport departments, there is substantial worth in accessing student employees POS. This degree of fairness on the part of the recreational sport department is a way to promote POS. For instance, supervisors who show concern for employee well-being and treat them with respect and dignity help promote a sense of support (i.e., interactional justice). Additionally, having policies and procedures that are deemed fair helps promote a sense of trust based on the premise that the organization wants to and will treat employees fairly. To further extend the application of these ideas by the department, the concept of distributive justice is realized by identifying reward systems that recognize employee contributions. Some other basic mechanisms for departmental action are providing resources, training, and other types of support that are required by employees to effectively perform their jobs. Also, having processes (advisory boards, regular meetings, etc.) in place that allow for open communication between management and employees signifies that the organization cares about employee opinions. The results of this study provide fertile ground for several lines of subsequent inquiry. Although this study attempted to answer questions regarding the relationship between POS and commitment and job satisfaction among student employees, more research is needed to further examine this topic. In particular, future research

10 104 Pack et al. should examine the antecedents of POS for employees of recreational sports departments. Several antecedents of POS (e.g., supervisory support, participation in decision making, organizational justice, trust, careerist orientation) may ultimately have differing effects on the subsequent consequences of POS. Also, other possible outcomes of POS might provide more depth in understanding exchange relationships for student employees of recreational sports departments. Some of the additional outcomes of POS not addressed in this study are organizational citizenship, performance, self-efficacy, felt obligation, job-induced tension, and positive mood. Examining these additional outcomes of POS might shed light on the most critical outcomes of POS for student employees. More research must also be performed with regard to the temporal nature of POS. As Shore and Shore (1995) suggested, the history of treatment of an employee by an organization may have more of an impact on voluntary turnover decisions than the implementation of a particularly favorable human resource practice. Hence, since this study was cross-sectional, student employees POS might change based on their particular supervisor or various regulatory or policy changes within their department. In addition, future research directions can be aided by qualitative techniques or an instrument that is specifically designed to measure the antecedents and consequences of student employees POS. Limitations The present study has certain limitations that require the reader to interpret the findings with caution. First, the generalizability of the results may be limited because of the fact that data was obtained from student employees working for one particular university recreational sport department. Although the authors have no reason to believe that this organization is significantly different from other university recreational sport departments, additional research needs to be conducted on student employees working at other institutions in order to confirm our findings. Second, the sample chosen for the study represents a possible limitation. Data on the variables of interest were collected from student employees working part time at the recreation department. Findings for this study should not be extended to employees working for other sport organizations. Although the use of part-time employees is not unique to recreational sport departments, there is a need to test the reliability of the results obtained from this study with those from other populations. Finally, data for the present study were collected through self-reported information at a particular time. The validity and reliability of self-reported information is dependent on the willingness of participants to provide truthful responses and on their understanding of the questions being asked (Thomas, Nelson, & Silverman, 2005). Further, because responses were solicited only once, it is possible that recent work experiences had the greatest influence on responses (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1996). Future studies should compare student employees based on tenure, as well as measure POS, commitment, and satisfaction over a period of time to more fully understand the contextual nature of the constructs.

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