Chapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to:

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2 Chapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to: 1. Explain the nature of the individual organization relationship. 2. Define personality and describe personality attributes that affect behavior in organizations. 3. Discuss individual attitudes in organizations and how they affect behavior. 4. Describe basic perceptual processes and the role of attributions in organizations. 5. Discuss the causes and consequences of stress and describe how it can be managed. 6. Describe creativity and its role in organizations. 7. Explain how workplace behaviors can directly or indirectly influence organizational effectiveness. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 2

3 Understanding Individuals in Organizations The Psychological Contract The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return. Individual Contributions The Psychological Contract Organizational Inducements permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 3

4 FIGURE 9.1 The Psychological Contract permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 4

5 Understanding Individuals in Organizations The Person-Job Fit The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducement offered by the organization. Each employee has a specific set of needs to be fulfilled and a set of job-related behaviors to contribute. The degree to which the organization can take advantage of those behaviors and, in turn, fulfill an employee s needs will determine the level of person-job fit. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 5

6 Personality and Individual Behavior Personality The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another. Agreeableness Conscientiousness The Big Five Personality Traits Negative Emotionality Extroversion Openness permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 6

7 FIGURE 9.2 The Big Five Model of Personality Agreeableness High agreeableness Low agreeableness Conscientiousness High conscientiousness Low conscientiousness Negative Emotionality Less negative emotionality More negative emotionality Extraversion More extraversion More introversion Openness More openness Less openness permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 7

8 The Big Five Personality Traits Agreeableness A person s ability to get along with others. Conscientiousness The number of goals on which a person focuses. Negative emotionality The extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and secure. Extraversion A person s comfort level with relationships. Openness A person s rigidity of beliefs and range of interests. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 8

9 The Myers-Briggs Framework Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A questionnaire used to differentiate personalities on the dimensions of the MB framework Useful to determine communication styles and interaction preferences; has questionable reliability and validity. Personality Types Extraversion (E) versus Introversion (I) Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N) Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F) Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P) permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 9

10 Personality Traits Locus of control Machiavellianism Self-efficacy Personality Traits at Work Self-Esteem Authoritarianism Risk propensity permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 10

11 Locus of Control Personality Traits at Work The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them. Internal locus of control individuals who believe they are in control of their lives. External locus of control individuals believe that external forces dictate what happens to them. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 11

12 Personality Traits at Work (cont d) Self-Efficacy A person s belief about his or her capabilities to perform a task. High self-efficacy individuals believe they can perform well while low self-efficacy individuals doubt their ability to perform. Authoritarianism The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 12

13 Personality Traits at Work (cont d) Machiavellianism Individual behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others. Self-Esteem The extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual. Risk Propensity The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 13

14 Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EQ) The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy, and possess social skills. Self-awareness Dimensions of EQ Managing Emotions Motivating oneself Empathy Social skills permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 14

15 Attitudes Attitudes and Individual Behavior Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people. Cognitive Dissonance The mental discomfort that individuals experience when their own attitudes are in conflict with their intended behavior. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 15

16 Attitudinal Components Affective Component How we feel toward the situation Cognitive Component Why we feel that way Intentional Component How we intend to behave toward or in the situation permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 16

17 Work-Related Attitudes Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and organizational factors. Satisfied employees are absent from work less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organization. Dissatisfied employees are absent from work more often, may experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and are continually looking for another job. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 17

18 Work-Related Attitudes (cont d) Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors High levels of job satisfaction do not necessarily lead to high job performance. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 18

19 Work-Related Attitudes (cont d) Organizational Commitment An attitude that reflects an individual s identification with and attachment to an organization. Organizational Commitment and Work Behaviors Employee commitment strengthens with an individual s age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making. Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 19

20 Affect and Mood in Organizations Positive Affectivity A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood. Negative Affectivity A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 20

21 Perception and Individual Behavior Perception The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information. Selective Perception The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs. If selective perception causes someone to ignore important information it can become quite detrimental. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 21

22 Stereotyping Perception (cont d) The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute (e.g., gender and race.) Stereotyping may cost the organization valuable talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is unethical. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 22

23 FIGURE 9.3 Perceptual Processes permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 23

24 Characteristics and Processes That Affect Perception Characteristics of the person: Salience Disposition Attitudes Self-concept Personality Situational characteristics: Selection Organization Stereotyping Halo Projection Characteristics of the object: Contrast Intensity Movement Repetition Novelty permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 24

25 Perception and Perceptual Processes Attribution A mechanism through which we observe behavior and attribute a cause to it. How Behavioral Attributions Are Formed: Consensus Do other people in the same situation behave the same way? Consistency Does this person behave the same way at different times? Distinctiveness Does this person behave the same way in other situations? permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 25

26 Stress Stress and Individual Behavior A person s response to a strong stimulus (i.e., a stressor.) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Stage 1 Alarm Panic, wondering how to cope, and a feeling of helplessness. Stage 2 Resistance Individual is actively resisting the effects of the stressor. Stage 3 Exhaustion Prolonged exposure to stress causes an individual to give up. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 26

27 FIGURE 9.4 The General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 1 Alarm Stage 2 Resistance Stage 3 Exhaustion Response to stressful event Normal level of resistance Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 27

28 Type A personality Personality Types Extremely competitive, aggressive, devoted to work, have a strong sense of time urgency, impatient. Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible. Type B personality Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency. Less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other people. Likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 28

29 FIGURE 9.5 Causes of Work Stress Organizational Stressors Task Demands Quick decisions Incomplete information for decisions Critical decisions Physical Demands Temperature extremes Poorly designed office Threats to health Role Demands Role ambiguity Role conflict Interpersonal Demands Group pressures Leadership styles Conflicting personalities permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 29

30 Consequences of Stress Negative personal consequences Behavioral smoking, alcoholism, overeating, drug abuse. Psychological sleep disturbances, depression. Medical heart disease, stroke, backaches, ulcers, skin conditions. Negative work-related consequences Poor quality work output and lower productivity. Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment. Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 30

31 Burnout Individual Consequences of Stress A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 31

32 Managing Stress Regular Exercise Stress Management Strategies for Individuals Relaxation Time Management Support Groups permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 32

33 Stress Management Strategies Regular Exercise Reduces tension and stress, and improves selfconfidence and feelings of optimism. Relaxation Allows individuals to adapt and deal with their stress. Time Management Reduces stress by prioritizing activities to accomplish them in their order of importance. Support Groups Socializing away from work reduces stress. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 33

34 Creativity Creativity in Organizations The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas. The Creative Individual Background experiences and creativity Personal traits and creativity Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 34

35 Creativity in Organizations (cont d) Cognitive Abilities and Creativity Most creative people are highly intelligent. They are both divergent and convergent thinkers, a skill they use to see differences and similarities in situations, phenomena, and events. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 35

36 The Creative Process Preparation Incubation Insight Verification permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 36

37 The Creative Process Preparation Formal education and training is used to get up to speed. Experiences on the job provide additional knowledge and ideas. Incubation A period of conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas mature and develop. Incubation is helped by pauses in rational thought. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 37

38 Insight The Creative Process (cont d) A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation. Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding. Verification Determines the validity or truthfulness of the insight. Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see if the insight leads to the expected results. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 38

39 The Creative Process (cont d) Enhancing Creativity in Organizations Make creativity part of the organization s culture. Set goals for revenues from creative products and services. Reward creative success; refrain from punishing creative failures some ideas work out as expected, others don t. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 39

40 Workplace Behaviors Types of Workplace Behaviors Performance Behaviors Withdrawal Behaviors Organizational Citizenship permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 40

41 Types of Workplace Behavior Workplace Behavior A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness. Performance Behaviors The total set of work-related behaviors an organization expects an individual to display. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 41

42 Types of Workplace Behavior (cont d) Withdrawal Behaviors Absenteeism Occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons. May be a symptom of other work-related problems. Turnover occurs when individuals quit their jobs for work-related or personal reasons. permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 42

43 Attitude Behavior Relationships General Attitudes General Behaviors Specific Attitude Specific Behavior Example Example Positive attitude toward working hard this morning High work performance during morning hours permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 43

44 Types of Workplace Behavior (cont d) Organizational Citizenship The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization. Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Individual s personality, attitudes, and needs Social context of the workplace (work group) Organization s capability to reward citizenship permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 44

45 Types of Workplace Behavior (cont d) Dysfunctional Behaviors Behaviors that detract from, rather than contribute to, organizational performance. Absenteeism and turnover Theft and sabotage Sexual and racial harassment Politicized behavior Intentionally misleading others Spreading malicious rumors Workplace violence permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9 45