CHAPTER III. Urbanization is on the rise throughout the world, and there is. no better example of this than India. Thirty percent of the

Transcription

1 CHAPTER III INTERMEDIATE PUBLIC TRANSPORT AN OVERVIEW Introduction : Urbanization is on the rise throughout the world, and there is no better example of this than India. Thirty percent of the population in India lives in cities, A number increasing rapidly due to economic migration from rural areas. i. This migration places stress on urban infrastructure that is constantly catching up with this rapid growth. In particular, urban transportation is in high demand as new residents need ways to get to jobs, often living far away where housing is more affordable. Mumbai, as a city of over 12 million people, is no exception and has stark transportation challenges. In addition to private transport (personal vehicles, twowheelers and cycles) and mass transit (trains and buses), there is a third form of transportation - intermediate public transport in the form of auto-rickshaws and taxis that serve an important role in the transportation system of the city. Intermediate Public Transport Intermediate public transport (IPT) refers to modes that fill the gap between private transport and formal public transport modes in cities. Depending on a city s size and transport characteristics, IPT modes may fall under two broad categories: 92

2 (1) Contract Carriage Services, which are flexible demandbased services where the passenger determines the destination, and (2) Informal Public Transport (buslike) services, characterized by shared fixed-route services with intermediate stops for boarding and alighting (Fouracre and Maunder 1979). While contract carriage services are ubiquitous in cities, informal public transport services are typically seen in small and medium-sized cities, which may not have any or adequate formal public transport services. Such services are called informal because of their ownership structure (individual owners) and lack of (or poor) regulation and enforcement. 93

3 The market size of auto-rickshaws in cities currently varies from around 15,000 to 30,000 in Tier II cities (population between 1 and 4 million) to more than 50,000 in Tier I cities (population greater than4 million). Based on population statistics, it is estimated that Tier I and II cities have 4 to 16 auto-rickshaws serving every 1,000 people on average. Industry statistics on autorickshaw production and sales between 2003 and 2010 are presented in figure 3.2. These statistics show that the autorickshaw market is growing. While part of the domestic sales are associated with the rural and semiurban market, domestic sales are being driven by the growing auto-rickshaw market particularly in Tier II and Tier III cities (Tier III cities are those with a population of less than 1 million), as well as by replacement sales scrapping old vehicles and replacing them with new ones in Tier I cities. Market Size of Auto-rickshaws for Select Indian Cities,

4 Role of the Autorickshaw Sector in Promoting Sustainable Urban Transport : Current transport trends in Indian cities (section 2) are leading to growing sustainability challenges, such as deteriorating air quality and rising road fatalities. These trends point to the urgent need to promote more sustainable urban transport. Role of the Type of Service (Contract Carriage) As an approach to advance more sustainable urban transport, the Shift strategy of the ASI framework has the following two objectives: (1) retaining and promoting public transport usage by improving public transport quality, access, and connectivity, and (2) mitigating private motor vehicle ownership and sage. The following subsections explore the question of whether autorickshaw service in cities can play an integral part in achieving the above objectives. Connectivity to Public Transport Providing connectivity, among other parameters such as frequency, reliability, comfort, and safety, is an important aspect of public transport to retain as well as attract users. Auto-rickshaw services, integrated as feeder modes providing first and last mile connectivity for public transport services, help ensure that public transport is accessible to all parts of the city. In this role, autorickshaws will also ensure accessibility to public transport for commuters with special needs, such as the elderly and people with 95

5 disabilities. Ahmedabad s Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, Janmarg, has demonstrated that successful integration of autorickshaw services as feeder modes is a key aspect of ensuring accessibility and usage of the BRT system (Janmarg 2010). Doorto-Door Service as Alternative to Private Motorized Transport The ability to make door-to-door (long-distance) trips is a clear benefit of private motor vehicles. Therefore, strategies to mitigate private motorization growth in cities have to ensure that door-to-door motorized transport alternatives are available. This is particularly important for (1) occasional trips such as trips to the airport, and for shopping and recreation, and (2) emergency trips such as for health care, where door-to-door ondemand transport is favorable. Public transport typically does not provide door-to-door connectivity in cities, and it mostly operates on a fixed schedule. The door-to-door on-demand service provided by auto-rickshaw services can help ensure that such transport needs in cities are met without the need to rely on private motor vehicles (Mohan 2010). This has also been noted in the NUTP, which states that the primary role of autorickshaw (and other types of contract carriage) services in cities is to serve occasional trips such as trips to airports or rail stations with excessive baggage, or emergency trips 96

6 that have to be undertaken immediately when it is not possible to wait for public transport (MoUD 2006). It is important to note, however, that while autorickshaws provide an alternative to private motor vehicles, this paper does not assess whether they are replacing private motor vehicles or directly mitigating their usage in Indian cities. Challenges To ensure that auto-rickshaw services are able to play their intended role as feeder services to public transport and as a doorto-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles it is important to address the following challenges: Competition of auto-rickshaw services with public transport : Current trends in urban transport (section 2) highlight the usage of IPT modes (auto-rickshaws and taxis) in cities for daily commute trips, because of the poor quality of public transport. Thus, improving public transport in cities would be a key strategy in ensuring that auto-rickshaw services fulfill their intended role as feeder services instead of competing with public transport for longdistance trips (MoUD 2006). Challenges in technology implementation for dispatch (dial-arickshaw ) services: Dispatch (dial-a-rickshaw) services in the autorickshaw sector would be important in making auto-rickshaw services an attractive door-to-door transport alternative to private motor 97

7 vehicles for occasional and emergency trips. Fleet operations have been noted to be most effective at implementing the necessary technology for dial-a-rickshaw services (Schaller 2007). However, auto-rickshaw services in the majority of Indian cities are provided by individual owner operators rather than by fleet companies. The lack of organization poses a barrier for the provision of dial-arickshaw services. Regulatory reforms that allow fleet-based operations with dispatch services to enter the auto-rickshaw sector could help address this issue. Vehicle Performance and Need for Improvements This subsection looks at the performance of the motorized three-wheeler (auto-rickshaw) in Indian cities with respect to emissions and road safety, with the objective of identifying current sustainability challenges and areas for vehicle-related reforms in the autorickshaw sector to promote sustainable urban transport. Emissions Among the various emission categories, emissions of particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 microns (PM10), also referred to as respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM), is of critical concern in the auto-rickshaw sector. This can be traced to the following issues: Adverse health impacts of PM10 emissions: High ambient concentration of PM10 in cities in developing countries is having adverse impacts on public health, including 98

8 increased morbidity and premature mortality (Shah and Iyer 2004). According to a recent national air quality monitoring study in Indian cities(bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Kanpur, Mumbai, and Pune) conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), among all the criteria pollutants, PM10 is one of the most critical pollutants in almost all the study cities from a public health perspective. Existence of conventional two-stroke auto-rickshaw s in cities: The CPCB study (CPCB 2010) found that the transport sector contributed to between 15 and 50 percent of the PM10 emissions in the study cities, at residential and curbside locations. Among the transport sector sources, the study reported diesel heavy-duty vehicles and auto-rickshaws to be primary sources of PM10 emissions. In the autorickshaw sector, the PM10 emissions problem is caused by conventional two-stroke engine vehicles, which are noted to be major sources of PM10 emissions because of scavenging losses (loss of a portion of the intake fuel through the exhaust port without being combusted), misuse of lubricating oil, inadequate maintenance and poor performance or lack of catalytic converters (Shah and Iyer 2004). RTO surveys conducted by EMBARQ India for this study found that more than 80 percent of the auto-rickshaws in Rajkot, Surat, and Pune had conventional two stroke engines. 99

9 Therefore, strategies to address the PM10 emissions problem in cities must consider ways to reduce PM10 emissions from the auto-rickshaw sector, particularly from conventional two-stroke engines. Reynolds, Grieshop, and Kandlikar (2011) found the use of clean fuels such as compressed natural gas (CNG) to be ineffective at controlling PM10 emissions from conventional two-stroke autorickshaws. They state that PM10 emissions from two-stroke autorickshaws cannot be dramatically reduced by switching to a clean fuel alone, because of the inherent problem of scavenging losses and the release of unburned lubricating oil. Transition to Four-Stroke Engines These challenges indicate that reducing PM10 emissions from the auto-rickshaw sector would entail moving to an improved four-stroke engine technology instead of retrofitting existing conventional two-stroke engines. Shah and Iyer (2004) have noted that for the same fuel such as gasoline, fourstroke engines have significant advantages over two-stroke engines in terms of (1) fuel economy; (2) lower PM10, Hydrocarbon (HC), and CO2 emissions; (3) lower noise levels; and (4) being an established technology. The challenge with four-stroke engines, however, is higher NOx emissions compared to two-stroke engines (Shah and Iyer 2004). NOx is reported to result in the formation of tropospheric ozone, which has harmful health impacts (EPA 2011). Industry 100

10 experts have noted, however, that this issue can be addressed through reforms in regulation on emission. National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, is the key guiding policy at the national level. With the underlying rationale of people-based transport planning, the NUTP framework focuses on planning and investments in public transport and NMT systems in cities. This section presents the way forward for the auto-rickshaw sector in terms of a policy vision and targeted reforms that should be pursued to ensure its role in promoting sustainable urban transport. As noted in Section 4, the NUTP envisions auto-rickshaw (and other types of contract carriage) services as modes that serve occasional trips such as trips to airports or rail stations with excessive baggage, or emergency trips that have to be undertaken immediately when it is not possible to wait for public transport (MoUD 2006). Given the increasing usage of auto-rickshaws as a substitute where quality public transport services are lacking, the NUTP stresses the need in cities to improve public transport in order to restore auto-rickshaw and other contract carriage services to their intended role of serving occasional and emergency trips (MoUD 2006). 101

11 The NUTP, to an extent, provides the right policy vision for promoting sustainable urban transport in cities by focusing on planning and improvements in public transport and NMT. However, for the policy vision to adopt the strategies of the ASI framework (in particular, the Shift strategy) it must recognize the role autorickshaws play in the following: Promoting public transport usage through improved connectivity: In addition to serving occasional and emergency trips, autorickshaw services can play an important role in making public transport accessible to all parts of the city, and encouraging daily commute trips on public transport by providing first and last mile connectivity. As feeder services, auto-rickshaws will ensure that public transport is accessible to commuters with special needs, such as the elderly and people with disabilities. Reducing private motor vehicle usage and providing quality door-to-door transport alternatives: While the NUTP recognizes the role of auto-rickshaw services in serving occasional and emergency trips, it does not acknowledge that auto-rickshaws provide a door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles. As discussed earlier, reducing private motor vehicle usage while providing quality transport alternatives is an integral part of the ASI framework to promote sustainable urban transport. Thus, the policy vision should recognize that provision of 102

12 quality auto-rickshaw service in cities is an important part of the strategy to help reduce private motor vehicle usage. It should also highlight the need to improve auto-rickshaw services to make them an attractive door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles in serving occasional and emergency trips. In addition to the role of the type of service (contract carriage), the policy vision should present the way forward for the type of vehicle (motorized three wheeler)in the auto-rickshaw sector, as part of the Improve strategy of the ASI framework. The findings in this study highlight the need for vehicle-related reforms in the auto-rickshaw sector to meet emissions and road safety challenges. Regulatory and vehicle related reforms are needed in the auto-rickshaw sector to ensure its role in promoting sustainable urban transport. Reform Needs Contract carriage services in cities can be separated into dispatch and walk-up services (e.g., use of cab stands or street hail) (Schaller 2007). In accordance with the policy vision, in order for auto rickshaws to fulfill a role as both a feeder service for public transport and a door-to-door alternative to private motor vehicles, both dispatch and walk-up service must be readily available (this is because feeder services to public transport would typically be walkup services at public transport stations, while dispatch services, as 103

13 noted earlier, would be important to enable auto-rickshaws to serve as an attractive door-to-door alternative to private motor vehicles). However, as noted in section 4, the majority of Indian cities have walk-up services but lack dispatch (dial-a-rickshaw) services, because the auto-rickshaw sector is not organized (having individual owner-operators) and lacks fleet-based operations, which would enable implementation of technology for dispatch services. Tamil Nadu Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) Policy Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) refers to modes that fill the gap between public and private modes of transport. Depending on the unique characteristics of each city, IPT modes may fall under two broad service-type categories, as discussed below: Contract carriage (or taxi-like) services: These services are defined as services that are flexible and demand-based, serving the unique destination demands of passengers; and Shared (informal public transport) services: These services are characterized by shared and fixed route services with intermediate stops for boarding and alighting. These services are termed informal because of the lack of formal regulations such as route-based licensing of operations. In addition to service types, IPT modes can be further categorized based on the type of vehicle. For example, within contract carriage services, there are different types of services 104

14 based on the type of vehicle used V for example, cycle rickshaws (non-motorized three-wheeler taxi services) and auto-rickshaws (motorized three-wheeler taxi services). Similarly, in informal public transport, share-autos are three-wheeler informal public transport, while share cabs are four-wheeled informal public transport services. IPT modes operating The IPT modes currently operating in the city of Dindigul include the following: Contract carriage (taxi-like) services: 1. Auto-rickshaws: Auto-rickshaws operate in all parts of the city as motorized three-wheeler taxi service 2. Call Taxis: Fast Track, Bharathi, NTL, which operate call-taxi services Shared services: 1. Share-auto and share-taxi: Shared services provided by motorized three-wheelers like Vikram, and four-wheelers like Piaggio, Tata Magic, and Dost in different parts of the city. Need for IPT Policy Market imperfections: Though free market proponents argue for complete deregulation of the IPT sector, market imperfections in this sector calls for regulation to be in place. For example, in the absence of permit regulations, there can be monopolization of the market by 105

15 large companies, which can take advantages of economies of scale and scope. Geographic considerations: Regulation can ensure that service is available in an entire geographic area, wherein service in high demand areas can crosssubsidize service in low demand areas in a city. Fare regulation: Government regulation of fares serves to create transparency and standardization of fares for the sector. In the absence of government regulated fares, chances are that customers requiring services at low demand locations would be charged unrealistically high fares. Pollution controls: There is a need for government regulation to keep a check on air pollution from vehicles providing IPT services. Components of IPT Policy The following important components are covered in this IPT policy: Permits Fare estimation Pollution control Infrastructure Security Advertising Enforcement and regulation 106

16 Permits Auto-rickshaw Permits Auto-rickshaw permits are to be given by the regional transport offices (RTOs) located various places in Tamilnadu. A one-owner one-permit policy is to be adopted, according to which, an individual cannot own more than one permit. The rationale for this policy is to avoid hoarding of large number of permits by individuals Only individuals who are able to operate an auto-rickshaw for atleast one shift should be allowed to own a permit, in order to encourage employment opportunities for auto-rickshaw drivers, and discourage ownership of permits by individuals having other means of employment. This can be achieved by ensuring that only those individuals with a valid driver s license and public service badge are eligible for application of auto-rickshaw permit. The cost of a permit should be nominal, along with a nominal fee for annual renewal. Regulatory controls on the issue of new permits often create under-supply of auto-rickshaw services and also lead to escalation of permit costs, which can have a negative impact on quality of service for passengers and driver economics. Hence, there should not be any regulatory cap on permits, and new permits should be available from the government based on market demand. This creates a system of permit regulation, but at the same time does not constrain issue of new 107

17 permits. Most cities in Gujarat have adopted this model, and have been able to achieve a transparent permit regulation system. The permit policy should allow the setting up of autorickshaw cooperatives and/or organized fleet auto-rickshaw services in the city, to promote organizational reforms in the autorickshaw sector. An up to date database of all permit holders should be maintained by the RTO, and should be available to the public, if such information is solicited. This would serve to address the following issues: i) maintain an accurate estimate of total number of auto-rickshaws operating in the city, ii) assess historical trends in the supply and usage of auto-rickshaws in the city, and iii) create a system of enforcement to prevent malpractices and crime. Taxi Permits Permits for fleet taxis Fast Track and other company taxis operate as a fleet taxi service, unlike auto-rickshaws, which are individual ownedoperated. Since fleet taxis such as Fast Track provide a valueadded service to the city, such as call-taxi service, a separate system of permits is used, which allows ownership of multiple permits by a company. New permits should be available for Fast Track operator from RTO to expand the fleet, if required by market conditions. Since Fast Track provides value added service such as call-taxi, the 108

18 permits for fleet expansion should be given only if operator meets certain service qualifications, such as type of vehicle and use of technology. The policy for fleet taxi service in Dindigul should create an enabling environment to allow the entry of other fleet operators to promote competition in the provision of fleet taxi service in Dindigul, and avoid monopolization in this sector. Permits for Shared-services (share-autos and Tata Magic) Currently, share-auto services are operating in Dindigul, due to the inability of public transport to meet the overall demand. Therefore, these services are directly competing with public transport (bus service) in Dindigul. As a policy, these services should be integrated as a feeder service (first/last mile connectivity) to public transport, instead of directly competing with public transport. It should be left to each of the public transport agencies (buses, metro, monorail, MRTS) to make their services more efficient, convenient and competitive which would then automatically shift ridership to these modes of public transport. As a first step, all the routes where these services currently operate should be studied by the RTO to identify the following. This exercise should be undertaken in collaboration with the public bus operator in the city, to enable integrated planning of public transport: 109

19 1. Routes where public transport service can be further improved in the city, so that shared-services can be reorganized, and 2. Routes where public transport operations are either non-existent or too low that they should be discontinued and shared-services can be promoted along these routes as part of an integrated public transport system. As a next step, the following approach is to be adopted to promote shared-services to complement the public transport system in Tamilnadu: 1. Permits: The existing shared-service operators shall be formalized by the RTO by issuing stage carrier permits, after necessary background checks of operators. Further, new permits shall be available from the RTO for new operators aiming to enter the shared-service market in the city. 2. Existing operators shall be encouraged to form cooperatives to provide shared-services based on the following considerations: Fare Estimation Fare regulation for IPT services shall be applicable for autorickshaw services in the city. Call Taxi services operate on a market regulated fare, and this system can be continued, with overall government oversight. The following sections discuss the fare estimation process for auto-rickshaw services in the city. 110

20 Auto-rickshaws Fares for auto-rickshaws should be government regulated instead of market regulated fares, because auto-rickshaw services, unlike fleet services, are provided by individual owner-operators. Thus, government regulated fares can bring standardization, uniformity, and transparency in the auto-rickshaw fare system. Fare advisory committee: The RTO should set up a fare advisory committee comprising of researchers, civil society, union members, and consumer groups, to create a collaborative process for fare regulation for autorickshaws and shared services. For example, the Government of Maharashtra has set up the Hakim Committee for auto-rickshaw and taxi fare regulation, which recently developed a fare fixation formula, which was implemented for auto-rickshaw and taxi fare revisions in There are three components of fares for auto-rickshaw services which need to be regulated by the government. These include the following: Minimum fare: This is the minimum fare which customers pay for availing the service. There is a maximum distance which is determined upto which the minimum fare is applicable. 111

21 Running fare: This is the fare which becomes applicable when the trip distance exceeds the maximum distance. Idling fare: This fare is applicable when the vehicle is being used but is stationary (either in traffic or waiting) Frequency of fare revisions: Since input costs may change every year due to inflation and other factors and operating characteristics of auto-rickshaws may also change from year to year, the minimum fare, running fare and idling fare for auto-rickshaw services should be considered for revision every year, based on an assessment of input costs and operating characteristics. This effort can be undertaken by the fare advisory committee every year. Fleet Taxis The Call Taxi services operate on a market regulated fare, instead of government fare regulation. This system functions without a problem because of the organized nature of this service, and the applicability of a standardized and transparent fare for all Call Taxi services. Shared-services The approach discussed above for auto-rickshaw fare estimation can be applied to estimate fares for shared-services, after accounting for the following considerations: 112

22 The fixed and variable costs for shared autos (instead of autorickshaws) should be considered. Unlike auto-rickshaw service, there are no empty kilometres in the case of shared-services. Therefore, unit fixed and variable costs in this case will be costs per km. The only fare applicable in this case would be running fare (minimum fare and idling fare will not be applicable) Running fare per km is calculated as: fixed cost per km + variable cost per km + X, where X is cost of living per km, as estimated in the case of auto-rickshaw fares. The running fare shall be apportioned per passenger, based on the capacity of the vehicle. Therefore, running fare per km per passenger= running fare per km/ passenger capacity of Tata Magic. Pollution Control Engine type: Most relevant for auto-rickshaw services, where many two-stroke engines are prevalent Fuel type: Again most relevant as a policy focus for the autorickshaw sector, where fuel choice has a major impact on the emissions performance of auto-rickshaws Operating efficiency: Most relevant for auto-rickshaw services, where empty kilometres travelled by auto-rickshaws contribute to unnecessary emissions. 113

23 Vehicle inspection and maintenance: This is relevant to all the three types of IPT services (auto-rickshaws, fleet taxis, and shared-services). Advertising IPT vehicles present a great opportunity to attract advertising. Therefore, the RTO shall develop a plan to promote advertising on auto-rickshaws, fleet taxis and shared-service vehicles. This plan should also have provisions for revenue sharing with operators, so that they can get additional earnings from advertising on their vehicles. Regulation and Enforcement The RTO shall be responsible for regulation of IPT services in the following areas: Permits: Issuing and renewal of permits, maintenance of permit holders database. Driver licensing and background checks Fares: Developing fare policy and fare revisions, in consultation with fare advisory committee Promoting engine and fuel type use for IPT vehicles Vehicle inspection and maintenance program: Creating driver awareness, and functioning of the PUC and fitness certification program. Infrastructure: Identification of locations for auto-rickshaw and share-auto stands 114

24 Advertising: Developing an advertising policy on IPT vehicles and issuing of advertising rights Security (in collaboration with the police): Ensuring maintenance of driver database, display of driver identification cards, and deployment of technology (GPS) on vehicles The Traffic Police shall be responsible for the following enforcement activities related to IPT services: On-road checks: Checking of permits, licenses and other certificates (such as PUC and fitness certificates) of on-road IPT vehicles Enforcement of on-road driver behaviour and driving practices Infrastructure: Notification of auto-rickshaw and share-auto stands The Municipal Corporation shall be responsible for the following: Infrastructure: Allocation of space for auto-rickshaw and shared-vehicle stands Funding Some areas where the IPT sector may need support from the government include technology implementation (such as GPS devices), infrastructure, and facilities such as for vehicle inspection and maintenance (which can be implemented on a public-private partnership basis). There are a couple of funding sources, which 115

25 can be considered to channelize funding towards these areas. These are discussed below: GEF5 program: The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), Government of India, through the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has, for the first time, made funding available for cities to promote green projects, which include i) public bike-sharing schemes, and ii) transforming auto-rickshaws into (Green Autos). The state government can work in partnership with cities to apply for this grant program to introduce reforms in the IPT sector. More information about this program, and its auto-rickshaw reform component, can be found in this presentation. Dedicated urban transport fund: As part of the state urban transport fund, dedicated funding for auto-rickshaw and other IPT service improvements in cities should be allotted, in addition to other urban transport components (such as improvements in bus services, walking and cycling projects). Driver Training and Licensing Driver training and licensing is one of the most important areas for government role in the IPT sector, to ensure proper driver behaviour, safe driving practices on roads, knowledge about traffic rules, and to build driver awareness about issues such as vehicle inspection and maintenance to reduce air pollution. The 116

26 government can either on its own or through partnerships with private sector or industry organizations such as the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) create driver training programs for the IPT sector (as well as public transport such as bus services). The issuing of driving licenses for public carriage, including IPT services, should be linked to this training program. 117