IAEA-TECDOC Managing the First Nuclear Power Plant Project

Transcription

1 IAEA-TECDOC-1555 Managing the First Nuclear Power Plant Project May 2007

2 IAEA-TECDOC-1555 Managing the First Nuclear Power Plant Project May 2007

3 The originating Section of this publication in the IAEA was: Nuclear Power Engineering Section International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna, Austria MANAGING THE FIRST NUCLEAR POWER PLANT PROJECT IAEA, VIENNA, 2007 IAEA-TECDOC-1555 ISBN ISSN IAEA, 2007 Printed by the IAEA in Austria May 2007

4 FOREWORD Energy is essential for national development. Nearly every aspect of development from reducing poverty and raising living standards to improving health care, industrial and agricultural productivity requires reliable access to modern energy resources. States may have different reasons for considering starting a nuclear power project to achieve their national energy needs, such as: lack of available indigenous energy resources, the desire to reduce dependence upon imported energy, the need to increase the diversity of energy resources and/or mitigation of carbon emission increases. The start of a nuclear power plant project involves several complex and interrelated activities with long duration. Experience shows that the time between the initial policy decision by a State to consider nuclear power up to the start of operation of its first nuclear power plant is about 10 to 15 years and that before specific project management can proceed, several key infrastructure issues have to be in place. The proper management of the wide scope of activities to be planned and implemented during this period represents a major challenge for the involved governmental, utility, regulatory, supplier and other supportive organizations. The main focus is to ensure that the project is implemented successfully from a commercial point of view while remaining in accordance with the appropriate engineering and quality requirements, safety standards and security guides. This publication is aimed at providing guidance on the practical management of a first nuclear power project in a country. There are many other issues, related to ensuring that the infrastructure in the country has been prepared adequately to ensure that the project will be able to be completed, that are only briefly addressed in this publication. The construction of the first nuclear power plant is a major undertaking for any country developing a nuclear power programme. Worldwide experience gained in the last 50 years would be of benefit to the countries, utilities and other organizations involved in such endeavors. The IAEA has collated worldwide experience and developed guidance in all aspects of managing nuclear power plant projects. This guidance was published in a number of technical documents issued during the last two decades. The present publication is aimed to select some relevant elements that provide a general overview of the main activities in managing the first nuclear power project and lists those specific publications where the reader can obtain further detailed information. Target audience is the decision makers, advisers and senior managers in the governmental organizations, utilities, industrial organizations and regulatory bodies in the countries desiring to launch the first nuclear power project This publication was produced within IAEA program directed to increase the capability of Member States to plan and implement nuclear power programs and to establish and enhance national nuclear infrastructure. The IAEA wishes to acknowledge the assistance provided by the contributors and reviewers listed at the end of the report. The IAEA officers responsible for this work were M. Condu, R.I. Facer and N. Pieroni of the Division of Nuclear Power.

5 EDITORIAL NOTE The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.

6 CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION Background Objective Scope Users Structure How to use BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN MANAGING THE FIRST NUCLEAR POWER PLANT National and international legal framework Nuclear safety Nuclear power supply market Supply of nuclear power plants Supply of nuclear fuel and fuel cycle services Financial market Economics of nuclear power Nuclear power generation costs Liabilities Safeguards Objective of safeguards Essential elements of safeguards Security of nuclear materials and other radioactive materials Physical protection Radioactive material Management system Integrated approach Management system and safety culture Regional and interregional cooperation IAEA assistance NUCLEAR POWER PLANT PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION STAGES Project stages Stages description Stage 1: Pre-project Stage 2: Project decision-making Stage 3: Plant construction Stage 4: Plant operation Stage 5: Plant decommissioning Generic implementation stages of a nuclear power plant project PRE-PROJECT STAGE Organizational structure Project management system National energy supply planning Electric power system planning Nuclear power plant project planning Objectives of a nuclear power plant planning study... 25

7 Process for nuclear power plant planning study Activities related with treaties, conventions and agreements Preparation of conformity programme Accounting and control of nuclear materials National infrastructure Long term nuclear power programme policy and commitment Science and technology Human resources development Timely legal framework Financing National participation plan National industry National involvement Site survey Site survey scope Environmental assessment Public acceptance Manpower needs for pre-project activities Selection of a consultant(s) PROJECT DECISION-MAKING STAGE Pre-investment study Objectives of a pre-investment study Scope of a pre-investment study Site selection and evaluation Socio-economical and cultural aspects Implementation of the conformity plan related to legal framework Contractual approach Types of contractual approach Selection of the type of contract Bid invitation specifications Organization and staffing necessary for BIS preparation Bid evaluation Financing plan Negotiation and closure of a contract Owner s management organization PLANT CONSTRUCTION STAGE Project management Utility project management Main contractor project management Project management rules and procedures Project engineering Project engineering main tasks Scope of engineering Organization and manpower needs for project engineering Plant design Utility s role in project engineering Licensing, safeguards and physical protection Provision of resources for licensing... 68

8 Safety analysis report Provision of resources for safeguards and physical protection Procurement and expediting of equipment and materials Manufacturing of equipment and components Manufacturing main tasks Equipment manufacturing organization Plant construction, erection and installation Site construction Site organization and management Site preparation Erection of plant buildings and structures Plant equipment, components and systems installation Plant commissioning and acceptance Commissioning programme Commissioning organization Technical support Turnover to operation Lessons learned APPENDIX I. INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS ON NUCLEAR POWER APPENDIX II. EXAMPLE OF ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE PERFORMING NUCLEAR POWER PLANT PLANNING APPENDIX III. CHAPTER RELATED PUBLICATIONS REFERENCES ABBREVIATIONS CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW... 97

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10 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background A number of publications providing guidance on different aspects related with the introduction of nuclear power were developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since Although some of these publications were issued over two decades ago, the guidance provided continues to be valid to a large extent for present applications. 1 The present publication is based on the extensive information contained in the previous publications and aims to provide an introductory overall description of the main project management activities to be undertaken when planning the first nuclear power plant (NPP) in a country. The contents include excerpts from existing publications along with new material to reflect the changes that have taken place over the years and provide references to relevant publications where the user can find more elaborated guidance. Specific activities related to safety, security and development of nuclear infrastructure are dealt with in the IAEA publications within the Nuclear Safety Series and the Nuclear Security Series as well as in forthcoming publications on nuclear energy related subjects Objective To provide concise practical information on the main project management activities during the stages composing the planning and implementing the first NPP project in a country Scope The main project management activities in the period starting with the decision to consider nuclear energy as a potential source for producing electricity within the national energy system, up to start of commercial operation of the first NPP are addressed by this publication Users The target audience for the TECDOC is the decision makers, advisers and senior managers in the governmental organizations, utilities, industrial organizations and regulatory bodies in the countries desiring to launch the first nuclear power plant project Structure This publication consists of five chapters along with this introduction. Chapter 2 provides an overview on basic considerations in managing the first NPP for safe, secure and peaceful use. Chapter 3 describes the five broad stages that constitute the generic planning and implementation schedule of a NPP. It regroups and integrates several long duration activities. Chapter 4 describes the PRE-PROJECT stage, which is defined as the period starting with the decision to consider nuclear energy as a potential source for producing electricity within the 1 IAEA publications can be obtained at: Sales and Promotion Unit, International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramerstrasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria. Fax: ; tel.: ; sales.publications@iaea.org; 1

11 national energy system and ends with the launch of a pre-investment (feasibility) study. This stage can be characterized as conceptual preparatory embracing all technical-economicregulatory investigations needed for the justifications of such a project. Chapter 5 describes the PROJECT DECISION-MAKING stage of the NPP project in which many elements particular to a country or to an organization will have to be reviewed carefully to ensure a judicious decision-making and preparatory activities carried out to create national infrastructure to support the launching of the NPP project and to lead to the decision-making to go forward with it. Chapter 6 describes the PLANT CONSTRUCTION stage of the NPP project planning consisting of project-oriented activities leading to the successful construction, commissioning and acceptance of the first NPP. The PLANT OPERATION and DECOMMISSIONING stages of a NPP project are outside the scope of this publication How to use This publication can be used as a road map to other more detailed documents and reference material from IAEA for managing the implementation of the first NPP project. The publication is not prescriptive and should be considered as a guide. The quantitative measures given for resource development in this publication should be adjusted by the user to fit the needs and capabilities of the country and the associated organizations. Other IAEA publications with additional information related to the issues covered in this publication are listed in the Appendix III. 2. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN MANAGING THE FIRST NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 2.1. National and international legal framework A wide range of legislation is expected to be in place in a State that has decided to implement nuclear power, the key elements of such legislation being nuclear safety, security, safeguards and liability for nuclear damage. An outline of the legal requirements needed for embarking on a nuclear power programme is presently contained in [1]. The underlying commercial and industrial framework also needs to be considered when developing the corresponding legislation. International instruments for Member States to consider adopting prior to beginning a nuclear power project include: Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement pursuant to INFCIRC/153 (Corr.) Additional Protocol pursuant to INFCIRC/540 (Corr.) Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency Convention on Nuclear Safety Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management, reproduced in document INFCIRC/546 2

12 Convention on Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, and Amendment Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention, reproduced in document INFCIRC/402 Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage Revised Supplementary Agreement Concerning the Provision of Technical Assistance by the IAEA 2.2. Nuclear safety The fundamental safety objective of protecting people individually and collectively and the environment has to be achieved without unduly limiting the operation of facilities or the conduct of activities that give rise to radiation risks. To ensure that facilities are operated and activities are conducted so as to achieve the highest standards of safety that can reasonably be achieved, measures have to be taken: To control the radiation exposure of people and the release of radioactive material to the environment; To restrict the likelihood of events that might lead to a loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source or any other source of radiation; To mitigate the consequences of events if they were to occur. The fundamental safety objective applies to all nuclear facilities and activities and for all stages over the lifetime of a facility or radiation source, including planning, siting, design, manufacturing, construction, commissioning and operation as well as decommissioning and closure. This includes the associated transport of radioactive material and management of radioactive waste. Ten safety principles have been formulated on the basis of which safety requirements are developed and safety measures are to be implemented in order to achieve the fundamental safety objective. The principles are described in IAEA Safety Fundamentals No. SF-1, Fundamental Safety Principles, The safety principles form a set that is applicable in its entirety; although in practice different principles may be more or less important in relation to particular circumstances. The IAEA Safety Standards Series establishes the safety requirements governed by the safety principles as well as recommendations and guidance on how to comply with the safety requirements. This supposes that an effective nuclear infrastructure has been implemented in due time to ensure that the concerns of all stakeholders (and public especially) are being addressed adequately and that man and machine work together harmoniously to ensure safety. Also, although prime responsibility for safety rests with the organization responsible for the facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks, national efforts alone should not be considered sufficient and should be supported by the activities of variety of international organizations that cooperate to ensure an effective global nuclear safety regime. 3

13 Key safety elements of an effective nuclear infrastructure include: Legal framework This element includes a legislation establishing an independent and competent regulatory body as well as a regulatory system that provides framework (codes and standards, licensing process, assessments, inspections, enforcement if necessary) within which construction, operation and decommissioning of nuclear facilities can proceed. Regulatory competence The regulator should have the capacity to oversee all stages of the NPP project, including site evaluation, design review, construction, operation, decommissioning and waste management. As well as the operator, the regulator should seek for continuous improvement. He should regularly check for its effectiveness through self-assessments and/or international peer reviews. Financial stability A commitment to nuclear power demands financial capacity not only to acquire a plant but also to fund operations, decommissioning and waste management. This supposes that not only the operator, but the regulatory body, the industry and the education sector dispose of adequate financial resources to maintain adequate conditions for safety over this period of time (i.e. about 100 years from policy decision to site closure after decommissioning). Technical competence After an initial reliance to some extent on skills from abroad, the country should develop through adequate educational and training programmes an indigenous capacity to provide skilled personnel in all areas needed to maintain an effective safety level for the whole duration of the nuclear programme. Operator skills and attitude To ensure its prime responsibility in safety, the operator needs technical competence to operate and maintain its facilities. This requires the availability of staff and management with knowledge and experience, committed to a safety culture where everyone is aware of its individual responsibility for safety. Credit should be taken from experience at all levels including international, to continuously seek for improvements not only in the designs of NPPs, but also in training programmes, organizational structures and plant operation and maintenance procedures. Emergency preparedness Notwithstanding all the efforts to ensure safety, the country should also prepare for the possibility that a nuclear or radiation emergency could arise. Arrangements should be taken with the concerned stakeholders for an effective response at the scene and, as appropriate, at local, regional, national or international levels. International connectivity For obvious reasons, every country should share information with others and learn from their experience. Every country embarking on a nuclear programme should take the opportunity to join the variety of international organizations that constitute the global nuclear safety and 4

14 operating regimes and benefit of their services as well as of the experience built through these relationships Nuclear power supply market Ever since NPPs became available for export in the late 1950 s, most countries that started using nuclear power, whether industrialized or developing, have adopted the approach of importing the first NPP. It is very likely that this approach would continue to be adopted by any country launching its first NPP in the future Supply of nuclear power plants The implementation of a first NPP project will generally be through importation from an experienced foreign supplier or suppliers. There will be national participation too, which will vary from case to case and will depend mainly on the available infrastructure of the country. A thorough evaluation of the supply market is needed in order to identify the reactor or reactor types and sizes that are commercially available offering distinct economic or technical attractiveness and to analyse how nuclear fuel cycle requirements can be met. The evaluation will support the selection of the reference concepts for detailed economic and technical analysis and comparison among each other and with alternative projects. The evaluation will also facilitate the final decisions to be taken after the project is firmly committed. The choice of reactor type for the first NPP should also be seen as a possible long-term commitment to that type for additional NPPs to be built in the future, and also to the type of fuel cycle and associated supply requirements Provenness and demonstrated licensability Provenness and demonstrated licensability of a NPP lead to the establishment of the national requirements and the criteria in the bidding process for a reference plant which serves for the purpose of the project as a guideline for the following main features: design performance scope of supply licensing criteria operating experience. If the application of the provenness criterion were too strict, it could eliminate practically all types of designs of NPPs from the market as no export plant has been a duplicate of an existing one. Application of the demonstrated licensability concept helps to reduce the safety risk involved in the NPP and facilitates the regulatory procedures, even if it does not relieve the buyer s country of its basic responsibilities. It has often been recommended that licensability be demonstrated in the supplier s country through the use of a licensed reference plant, implying an acceptance by the recipient country of the supplier s country licensing requirements and procedures. Also cooperation with regulatory bodies of countries of origin of reference plants is advisable. 5

15 Where appropriate, various bodies (organizations, companies or individuals) may be designated as competent to work in the nuclear industry, generally or for specific aspects, either by a regulatory, a standards or a purchasing organization. This can be described as recognizing the body as suitably qualified and experienced for the purpose for which they are being used in the nuclear project. This recognition may be given in the form of formal certification, or by a less formal structure of being placed on a register of acceptable bodies or individuals either by regulatory bodies, or by industrial and utility organizations Nuclear technology developments New NPPs are being developed today which may not be commercially available for several years. These developing designs achieve safety and economical improvements over existing designs through small to moderate modifications, with a strong emphasis on maintaining proven design features to minimize technological risks. Substantial design and development programs are underway in several Member States for further technology improvements and for development of advanced NPP designs. This development is proceeding for all reactor lines water cooled reactors, gas cooled reactors, and liquid metal cooled reactors- so that nuclear power can play an increasing role in global energy supply in the near future Supply of nuclear fuel and fuel cycle services The supply of a NPP and the supply of its fuel must be considered simultaneously. The supply of the NPP fuel must be provided during the whole lifetime of the plant. Failures in supplying the plant with fuel would not only mean being left with an unproductive investment, but would also affect negatively the electricity supply of the country, which might have serious consequences on its economic and industrial activities. One of the important factors that influence the choice of reactor type is the adoption of the fuel cycle natural or enriched uranium- and the related services activities. Fuel cycle policy decisions not only affect the first NPP, but also and possibly even more the further NPP planning of the country. Though the decision on the first plant does not necessarily mean that all successive plants will have the same type and use the same fuel cycle, there are obvious advantages regarding the built-up of national capabilities if a certain line is followed through. Other aspects that should be taken into account include: Country uranium resources Local yellow cake production feasibility or strategy on purchasing and stocking yellow cake Enrichment services, if enriched uranium will be used as fuel Direct purchasing of finished fuel elements Stocking autonomy policies of fuel elements at the plant Fuel availability The NPP owner/utility/operator is primarily concerned with two main aspects of the nuclear fuel. The first one is the reliability of the supply of the fresh fuel and the second concern is the 6

16 handling of the spent fuel. To cater efficiently to these two items, fuel management has been developed as an expertise in itself, vital in both keeping the NPP in operation and holding the costs down. The nuclear fuel cycle consists of a number of distinct industrial activities which can be separated into two sections: the front end, comprising those steps prior to fuel irradiation in the NPP and the back end, which includes the activities concerning the irradiated, spent fuel. The acquisition by a country of its first NPP typically involves a major degree of dependence on external suppliers, with associated commitments to nonproliferation and international cooperation. The NPP is usually provided initially with fuel for one to four years of operation but it will have to be supplied with fuel over its lifetime of 40, 60 years or more. The nuclear fuel production and supply has evolved and various international initiatives proposed by supplier countries are currently underway. The status of uranium enrichment is presented in ref. [2] Fuel disposal After nuclear fuel has been used in a reactor to produce heat for the different purposes, it is known as spent fuel and may undergo a further series of steps in the back end of the fuel cycle, which include temporary storage and final disposal, reprocessing and recycling before eventual disposal as waste. The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management [3] obliges signatory governments of Member States to take a number of measures to ensure the safety of spent fuel and radioactive waste management facilities and to submit national reports on their activities and policies for peer review every three years. In the back end of the fuel cycle there are currently three main policy options for management of the spent nuclear fuel: (1) Storage for years and subsequent disposal as high level radioactive waste (HLRW) (2) Reprocessing to separate plutonium for fabrication of mixed oxide (MOX) fuel to be recycled in light water reactors (LWRs) (3) Deferral of the decision on whether to reprocess or dispose of the spent fuel. The first option of storage and final disposal of the spent fuel without reprocessing would be based on the transfer of technologies associated with the on-site storage of spent fuel along with the construction of the NPP. The facilities required should be included as part of the plant. Further treatment of the spent fuel will be a distant requirement and need not be considered as requiring technology transfer in the early stages of a nuclear power development programme. Transfer of spent fuel technology will depend on the country's policy decision with respect to the back end of the fuel cycle. The second option of spent fuel reprocessing is based on the fact that spent fuel still contains approximately 96% of its original uranium. The uranium in the spent fuel has approximately the natural content of U 235 and there is about 1% plutonium. Reprocessing separates uranium and plutonium from spent fuel by different chemical processes. Recovered uranium can be returned to the conversion plant for conversion to hexafluoride and subsequent nuclear 7

17 fuel fabrication. The reactor-grade plutonium can be blended with enriched uranium to produce MOX fuel, in a fuel fabrication plant. The economic advantages of reprocessing and recycling compared to storage and disposal are marginal at present but could be more clearly justified if uranium prices increase. Other considerations, such as the use of plutonium by burning it in reactors instead of disposing of it and the more suitable form of the remaining high level radioactive waste (HLRW), could encourage reprocessing. The status of spent fuel reprocessing is presented in [4]. The third option of deferring the back end decision is the cheapest in the short term as it would permit deferral of decisions on HLRW disposal technology and siting. The role of the government at the back-end has intensified in the past decade, as increasing attention is paid to decommissioning and long-term management of radioactive waste. Government involvement in the back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle can take many forms. The government has the responsibility to define national policy on nuclear waste, defining the process for funding, siting and environmental assessment of the facilities and possibly implement them. In some Member States, governments build and operate the facilities and perform research and development, either generic or site-specific. Short-term storage and management of radioactive waste, including spent fuel, is the responsibility of the NPP owner/utility/operator, usually as part of the NPP operation license. For the long term storage, central storage or disposal facilities may be required, subject to government regulation Financial market The availability of adequate and secure financial resources is probably one of the most crucial constrains affecting the implementation of NPP projects. Total financing arrangements for implementing new NPP projects are influenced by overnight costs, construction time and the cost of capital. Although it is expected that new reactor designs will reduce capital costs and construction time of NPPs, total investment costs of nuclear units are likely to remain high as compared to alternatives, in particular to combined cycle gas turbines. Therefore, financing, in the context of competitiveness of total electricity generating costs, is a key issue to be addressed before the successful implementation of a NPP project. Generally, NPPs are financed by the conventional approach that consists of multi-source financing, where a complete financing package is put together, covering the entire cost of the project. The first source is the investor/owner/operator. Its own resources constitute the basis of the financing package. In addition, bond issues, domestic bank credits and, in case of stateowned or controlled enterprises, funding from the governmental budget may complete the financing needed. Financing NPPs generally has been facilitated by need for base load electricity, at stable projected production costs, competitiveness of the nuclear option, stable regulatory regime and indirect or direct government support. The trend to market deregulation and to privatization creates new challenges for financing equipment in the energy sector, in particular large power plants. In the electricity deregulated market the nature of investment risks has changed and investors tend to favor less capitalintensive and more flexible technologies. Other risk factors also play important roles in investment decision, such as regulatory stability, international arrangements, environmental and security of supply polices. 8

18 In the case of nuclear power, the financial risks for private investors in deregulated markets may arise from regulatory uncertainties during plant construction and operation, political risks (such as those arising from public opposition), technical risks related to waste disposal and economic risks associated with liabilities for decommissioning and dismantling of NPPs. The parties in a financing agreement are the financing institution and the buyer of the NPP. The buyer might ask the vendor to provide specific assistance in the process of obtaining and negotiating loans, in the best possible terms and conditions Economics of nuclear power Nuclear power generation costs The demonstration that the economics of nuclear power is within the competitive range for inclusion in the generation mix is made based on the specific analyses using a financial model and considering all components of the cost for the lifetime of the NPP. The basic elements entering into calculation of nuclear power generation cost include the following: capital/investment cost; operation & maintenance (O&M) cost; nuclear fuel cycle cost. In the case of nuclear power, capital/investment costs represent some 60% of the total nuclear generation cost, while O&M and nuclear fuel cycle costs represent some 20% each. These are just rough figures that depend on the size of the reactor, the assumed lifetime and the establishment of a long-term strategy rather than considering one single NPP in the country. There is also a specific cost associated with national nuclear power programme implementation, known as infrastructure development cost, which include costs for planning studies, development of national infrastructure, transfer of technologies, national participation promotion and domestic nuclear industry development, domestic man power development and nuclear safety regulatory cost. The economic assessment of nuclear power generation alternative should be performed considering all components of the costs and technical parameters for the lifetime of the NPP. This economic assessment must be performed within specific set of economic ground rules, assumptions (input data) and cost estimates. The most common practice of economic analysis performance is to determine the present values of all costs and benefits of nuclear power and calculate the unit energy cost on a given base data. Unit energy cost calculation should be made for a particular country and site, accounting for all relevant factors and conditions, such as local infrastructure, current international trends in the national and international economy, site characteristics, local participation, technology transfer and human resources. Warehouses and stocking policies for spare parts and consumables, especially when the plant is located in a distant manufacturer s country, should also be taken into account. The total capital/investment cost, which is the largest component of the plant cost, can be estimated fairly accurately for a given NPP project model. Operation and maintenance costs can be assessed based on the information from the experienced operators of similar NPPs. The fuel cost and the component cost of the nuclear fuel cycle, for short term and long-term contracts can be obtained from international fuel suppliers. Conservative assumptions should be taken into account for estimating nuclear spent fuel and decommissioning costs of the 9

19 plant. The infrastructure developments costs, which include the national grid extension, are more complex to assess and should be spread over a number of NPPs and other technological developments in order not to adversely affect the economics of the project. Other necessary input data for the unit energy cost calculation are in connection with the specific mode of project financing: Total amount for funding; Debt to equity ratio; Interest rates for the internal and external loans; Escalation/inflation rates (foreign and local). The total amount for funding includes the total capital cost and financial cost for funding including interest during construction (IDC). The interest rate on the loans needed to meet the project cash flow requirements during the construction period has an impact upon the IDC. Also the escalation/inflation rates during plant construction will impact on the total capital/investment costs. The discount rate for the economic assessment of nuclear power generation, specific also for the free electricity market, is dependent on the particular model of project financing and on the potential investor s expectation (profit) from the project. The discount rate will be defined by the potential investors or by the utility/operator or by the government for the energy sector, depending of the financing model of the NPP project. The NPP lifetime plays an important role for the determination of the annual fixed charges due to the depreciation of and interest on the capital investment. Also the NPP lifetime and the discount rate will define capital recovery factor to be used for calculating the annual fixed charges on capital investment. The financial analysis should be performed using financial models and through different financial tests, the results being the following significant financial indicators, which demonstrate the economic viability of the NPP project: Unit energy price [ US $/MWh or Euro/MWh]; Cumulative Cash Flow; Equity requirements; Annual Debt Service Cover Ratio; Loan Life Cover Ratio. The assessment of the NPP project should include a sensitivity analysis assigning reasonable ranges of variations to the most relevant parameters and data. The sensitivity analysis should examine potential financial bottlenecks and risks associated with the project construction. A summary of the available IAEA analysis models regarding electricity and energy system development, energy investment planning and energy environment policy formulations, include the following: MAED: Model for Analysis of Energy Demand WASP: Wien Automatic System Planning Package ENPEP: Energy and Power Evaluation Program 10

20 FINPLAN: Model for Financial Analysis of Electric Sector Expansion Plans MESSAGE: Model of Energy Supply Systems and their General Environmental Impacts SIMPACTS: Simplified Approach for Estimating Impacts of Electricity Generation Further information can be obtained in: Liabilities Nuclear power liability Competition will put pressure on the utility/owner/operator to clearly identify and quantify future economic liabilities of NPPs and to include them in electricity prices. The current liabilities of NPP and associated insurance schemes, whose costs are rather well established, are not likely to change in a deregulated market. Decommissioning and radioactive waste management liabilities may be the most important of the various economic risks of nuclear power in competitive electricity markets. The associated concerns include accuracy of the estimated future cost, adequacy and availability of funding provision to meet those costs and stability of the regulatory requirements that impact on the costs. Civil liability It is recognized that the consequences of an accident occurring at a nuclear installation or during the transport of nuclear substances would not stop at political or geographical borders, that victims should be compensated equitably and that such compensation could only be assured through the establishment of an international nuclear liability regime. The regime is based on the treaties, conventions and protocols mentioned in 2.1 and listed in Appendix I Safeguards Safeguards are activities by which the IAEA can verify that a State is living up to its international commitments not to use nuclear programmes for nuclear-weapons purposes. Safeguards are based on assessments of the correctness and completeness of a State s declared nuclear material and nuclear-related activities. Verification measures include on-site inspections, visits, and ongoing monitoring and evaluation. Basically, two sets of measures are carried out in accordance with the type of safeguards agreements in force with a State, i.e. Comprehensive safeguard agreements- INFCIR 153 (Corrected); Additional Protocol- INFCIR 540 (Corrected). The additional measures within this additional protocol enable the IAEA to expand its rights of access to information and sites and to use the most advanced verification technologies Objective of safeguards In comprehensive safeguards agreements the objective of safeguards is defined as the timely detection of diversion of significant quantities of nuclear material from peaceful nuclear 11

21 activities to the manufacture of nuclear weapons or other nuclear devices or for purposes unknown and deterrence of such diversion by means of early detection Essential elements of safeguards The essential elements of safeguards are organized to provide an information system that permits the IAEA to monitor operational activities so that the validity of the operator s account of fuel operations can be verified [5]. The IAEA s safeguards activities monitor the physical activity in the storage and material transfer areas for accountancy verification purposes. Any activity observed that does not correspond to that declared will initiate a pre planned process to re-establish confidence that the declared record reflects the real inventory. That process might lead to an examination and validation of the entire inventory, an expensive task for the operator, which should be avoided. Safeguards agreements are negotiated on the governmental level, while the utility/owner in charge of the NPP project becomes involved in the implementation of the agreements. Thus, the utility s main tasks consist of performing detailed nuclear materials accountancy, reporting and providing counterparts at the plant to the safeguards inspectors Security of nuclear materials and other radioactive materials Nuclear security activities contribute to the prevention and detection of, and response to, malicious act and nuclear terrorism. The international instrument for that is the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material signed on 3 March INFCIRC/225/Rev. 4 is the principal source for the international guidelines relevant to the physical protection of nuclear material and nuclear installations. As part of building nuclear security framework, work is ongoing at the IAEA on the development of additional guidelines and recommendations. These include guidelines on the export-import of radioactive sources based on the provisions of the revised Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of Sources; on the development and maintenance of a data basis; on the functional specifications for detection instruments; on identifying vital areas in nuclear facilities; on the development of security culture; on the security of transport of radioactive sources; and on combating cyber attacks on nuclear installations. The IAEA has initiated a Nuclear Security Series of Documents to provide a coherent and integral framework for documents related to nuclear security. More information can be obtained in: Physical protection The purpose of physical protection is to protect nuclear facilities and to minimize the possibilities of sabotage or unauthorized removal of nuclear material. The responsibility for the establishment, implementation and maintenance of a physical protection within a State rests entirely with that State. To meet this commitment, a State considering the introduction of nuclear power and the use of special fissionable material must set up a system for adequate physical protection of nuclear material and facilities. The State must promulgate and review regularly its comprehensive regulations for the physical protection of nuclear material and facilities, whether in State or private possession. The main elements of such a system would include the following: 12

22 Determination of responsibility, authority and sanctions and overall coordination between the various authorities and organizations involved; Regulatory requirements for compliance with physical protection conditions; Categorization of nuclear material based on potential hazards depending on type of material, isotopic composition, physical and chemical form, radiation level and quantity; and Information system which enables the State to be informed of every change at nuclear sites or regarding transport of nuclear material that may affect implementation of physical protection measures. In July 2005 a conference was convened to amend the Convention and strengthen its provisions. The amended Convention makes it legally binding for States Parties to protect nuclear facilities and material in peaceful domestic use, storage as well as transport. It also provides for expanded cooperation between and among States regarding rapid measures to locate and recover stolen or smuggled nuclear material, mitigate any radiological consequences of sabotage, and prevent and combat related offences. The amendments will take effect once they have been ratified by two-thirds of the States Parties of the Convention Radioactive material Concerning radioactive sources, the General Conference of the IAEA approved a Code of conduct on the safety and security of radioactive sources [6]. This Code applies to all radioactive sources that may pose a significant risk to individuals, society and the environment, that are the sources referred in Annex 1 of the Code. States should devote appropriate attention to the regulation of other potentially harmful radioactive sources. This Code does not apply to radioactive sources within military or defense programmes. The objectives of this Code are, through the development, harmonization and implementation of national policies, laws and regulations, and through the fostering of international cooperation, to: Achieve and maintain a high level of safety and security of radioactive sources; Prevent unauthorized access or damage to, and loss, theft or unauthorized transfer of, radioactive sources, so as to reduce the likelihood of accidental harmful exposure to such sources or the malicious use of such sources to cause harm to individuals, society or the environment; and Mitigate or minimize the radiological consequences of any accident or malicious act involving a radioactive source Management system A major undertaking such as a NPP project requires the implementation of an integrated management system directed to provide a single framework for the arrangements and processes to address all the goals of the organization. The goals include safety, health, environmental, security, quality and economic plus other considerations such as social responsibility. Personnel, equipment and organizational culture as well as the documented policies and processes are constituent parts of the management system. Requirements for integrated management systems are established in, for example, IAEA Safety Standards [7] and other international standards. 13

23 Integrated approach Reference [7] suggests replacing the old quality assurance/quality management (QA/QM) thinking with the integrated management system approach. The main aims of an integrated management system are: Bringing together in a coherent manner all the requirements for managing the organization; Describing the planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that all these requirements are satisfied; and Ensuring that health, environmental, security, quality and economic requirements are not considered separately from safety requirements, to avoid the possibility of their potential negative impact on safety. Safety is paramount within the management system, overriding all other demands. The management system identifies and integrates the requirements contained within the applicable codes, standards, statutory and regulatory requirements of the Member State as well as any requirements formally agreed with stakeholders Management system and safety culture The management system promotes and supports a strong safety culture by: Assuring a common understanding of the key aspects of the safety culture within the organization; Providing the means by which the organization supports individuals and teams to carry out their tasks safely and successfully, taking into account the interaction between individuals, technology and the organization; Reinforcing a learning and questioning attitude at all levels of the organization; and Providing the means by which the organization continually seeks to develop and improve its safety culture Regional and interregional cooperation Probably all plans to introduce a major modern technology involve cooperation between nations. Cooperation between nations has taken several forms: Bilateral or regional cooperation; International cooperation chiefly through the IAEA. The IAEA continues to provide most of the support that its members require, based on substantial experience in serving as bridge for technical cooperation between nations. Other forms of cooperation takes place between regulatory bodies, private sectors (between firms and within multinationals and WANO), and among universities, research institutes, and non-governmental organizations. 14

24 2.10. IAEA assistance The IAEA has considerable experience in assisting Member States who are considering or have already decided to introduce nuclear power. For example, support can be provided for implementing the construction and operational stage of a NPP to the extent that the State has demonstrated that it has established the essential elements of a national framework. Advice and guidance on obligations and commitments can be provided during all stages of a nuclear programme. While the IAEA can assist, within available resources, with training on all aspects relating to the introduction of nuclear power, the State s own commitment to develop the necessary human resources, skills and core competencies and understanding of the requirements associated with nuclear power programmes is essential. It is also desirable that a State and owner/operating organizations obtain advice from appropriate international organizations and commercial suppliers. With the exception of issues relating to commercial decisions, the IAEA can also assist by providing technical support for the owner operator for the assessment of potential technology, the managerial approaches that can be used in the implementation of a project, and issues related to ensuring the safe and economic operation of a NPP. 3. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION STAGES 3.1. Project stages The NPP project planning and implementation is made up of several long duration activities which can be characterized as: (1) Conceptual and preparatory activities that embrace all investigations on technicaleconomic, safety and regulatory aspects needed for the justifications of a NPP project; (2) Preparatory activities to create the national infrastructure necessary to support the launching of the NPP project and the decision to go forward with the project; (3) Project oriented activities leading to the successful design, construction, commissioning, start-up, warranty tests and acceptance of the first NPP and potentially to subsequent ones; (4) Performance oriented activities leading to the safe and reliable operation and life management of the NPP and; (5) Post operation activities leading to decommissioning of the NPP. Combined together, they constitute the generic implementation stages of a NPP project planning which is shown in Figure 1. All these activities are normally performed by several different private and public (government controlled) organizations, each being responsible for a limited group of activities with a common goal, i.e. the achievement of the NPP programme objectives. These activities can be regrouped in five distinct stages which makes the NPP project. These stages are: Stage 1: Pre-Project; Stage 2: Project Decision-Making; Stage 3: Plant Construction; Stage 4: Plant Operation; Stage 5: Plant Decommissionning. 15

25 Section 3.2 defines and describes the different stages of a NPP project as is commonly recognized by the industry. As demonstrated in real time, activities corresponding to different stages can and very often are done in parallel. 1 - PRE-PROJECT 1-3 years Power system planning Legal and organizational framework National infrastructure survey National participation plan Site survey & environmental assessment Manpower survey and development program 2 - PROJECT DECISION-MAKING 3-7 years Pre-investment (feasibility) study Site selection & evaluation Bid specifications/reception offers Bid evaluation Contract negotiation and closure Initiation long lead procurement item 3 - PLANTCONSTRUCTION 3-6 years Preparation of site infrastructure Detailed design engineering Equipment and components manufacture Construction, erection and installation Commissioning and plant acceptance 4 - PLANT OPERATION years Operation and maintenance 5 PLANT DECOMMISSIONING years Decontamination Dismantling Asset recovery Waste processing, storage and disposal Fig. 1 Generic implementation stages of a nuclear power plant project Stages description Stage 1: Pre-project after plant closure Is defined as the period starting with the decision to consider nuclear energy as a potential source for producing electricity within the national energy system and ends with the launch of a pre-investment (feasibility) study for the first NPP project. This initial stage can be described as relating to conceptual preparatory activities embracing all technical-economic-regulatory investigations needed for the justifications of a NPP project. It is to be recognized that the introduction of nuclear power and nuclear technology in a country creates specific new requirements on the country s infrastructure and requires a national commitment on a long-term basis involving substantial efforts. The activities performed during the Pre-project stage are mainly related to: National energy supply planning; Electric power system planning; 16

26 Cost estimation; Nuclear power programme planning; International conventions and agreements; National infrastructure survey; National participation plan; Long term nuclear power programme policy and commitment Organizational structure Management systems Industry Science and technology Human resources development Legal framework Financing; Sites survey; Reactor technology survey; Environmental assessment; Public acceptance; Selection of a consultant or consultants. The overall manpower needs for that stage is relatively modest, mostly oriented at directing, coordinating and registering data, but do involve a large number of organizations (private and public-government controlled). For that purpose, senior governmental directions are required to insure full participation and cooperation of all entities invested in that stage Stage 2: Project decision-making This stage is defined as the period starting with the initiation of a pre-investment study which looks at the introduction of nuclear energy as a reliable and economical source of energy to meet the demand of the national energy system and ends with the closure of a contract for the purchase of a NPP. This stage can be described as preparatory activities to create a national infrastructure to support the launching of the project [8] and lead to the decision-making to go forward with it. For the successful introduction of nuclear power in any country, an essential element is a clear understanding at the decision-making level of the specific aspects of nuclear power, and a thorough knowledge of the tasks and activities to be performed as well as requirements, responsibilities, commitments, problems and constraints involved. The activities performed during the project decision-making stage are mainly related to: Completion of a pre-investment study; Site evaluation and qualification; Evaluation of the nuclear power supply market; Establishment of a management system; Completion of implementation of the conformity plan related to legal framework; Implementation of all international conventions and agreements; Regulatory requirements; 17

27 Selection of a contractual approach; Preparation of bid invitation specifications (if competitive bidding process is used); Bid evaluation; Financing plan; Negotiation and closure of a contract or contracts; Technology transfer and training requirements; Public acceptance; Owner s management organization. The overall manpower needs for that stage are relatively few (50 to 100) but highly qualified professionals. The relevant staff should preferably have professional experience in the coordination and performance of complex interdisciplinary studies. The needs start to increase strongly when the commitments are made (letter of intent, contract, etc.) to build the plant. The involvement of a knowledgeable consultant is recommended Stage 3: Plant construction This stage is defined as the period immediately following the closure of a contract for the purchase of a NPP and ends with the completion of the commissioning stage of the plant and its acceptance which allows the utility starting commercial operation. This stage can be described as project-oriented activities leading to the successful construction, commissioning and acceptance of the first NPP. The activities performed during the plant construction stage are mainly related to: Project management; Plant safety Safety concepts and implementation of safety objectives Safety analysis report and licensing application; Project engineering Plant conceptual design Basic and detailed design engineering Preparation and review of equipment and plant specifications; Procurement and expediting of equipment and materials; Manufacturing of equipment and components; Management systems; Plant construction, erection and installation Site preparation and infrastructure Erection of plant buildings and structures Plant equipment, components and systems installation; Plant commissioning and acceptance; Turnover to operation; Safeguards and physical protection; Security; Public information. 18

28 The overall manpower needs for this stage are higher than for any other stage. Within this stage, manufacturing and construction are the activities that have by far the largest manpower requirements, of the order of 6000 people during its peak period. Most of these (about 85%) will be technicians and craftsmen. The present tendency to increase significantly the prefabrication and the modularization of sizable part of a nuclear plant will greatly modify the requirements for site manpower. In the nuclear power industry, the requirements for unskilled labour are very low (of the order of 10%) although in some countries their proportion may be considerably higher, mainly owing to local labour practices and employment policies. Professionals during design and construction periods are needed primarily for project management and engineering (250 to 350). In addition, manpower is required to perform the supporting activities: NPP project planning and coordination, regulatory and licensing activities, fuel cycle activities, research and development, education and training Stage 4: Plant operation Is defined as the period at which the plant starts commercial operation and ends at the time when the decision to decommission the plant is made. This stage can be described as performance oriented activities leading to the safe and reliable operation and life management of the plant. The primary concern of any NPP operator resides in the safe and reliable operation of its unit. Taking into account the actual expectation of the plant life (40 to 60 or more years), this represents the most extensive endeavour in the NPP project. The activities performed during the plant operation and life management stage are mainly related to: Operation management; Outage management; Technical support; Maintenance management; Configuration management; Procurement management; Plant life management; Fuel cycle management; Waste management; Management systems; Training and re-training; Emmergency plan rehersals; Radiological protection and environmental surveillance; Safeguards; Physical protection; Licensing and regulatory surveillance; Public information and public relations. The overall manpower requirements for that stage are not so much directed by the plant output capacity but mainly by the policies regarding the uses of external contractors for such 19

29 activities as preventive maintenance and planned shutdown. For guidance, the manpower requirements can be defined as an average of one worker for one megawatt electrical of gross capacity of the plant (680 MWe gross capacity would require approximately 680 workers). This average can vary significantly with the experience of the operating utility and also when more than one plant is located on the same site. This average value of workers per MWe is not linear and tends to be as low as 0.7 as the plant gross capacity increases especially for multiunits station. Other major factors affecting this value reside in the local labour practices and sub-contracting capabilities Stage 5: Plant decommissioning This stage is defined as the period starting with the decision to decommission the plant is made and ends with the return of the area, used originally by the plant, to its original conditions or to a state allowing this area to meet the intent of its future use. This stage can be described as post operation activities leading to decommissioning of the plant and management of the waste within the frame of the country s long term waste management programme. At the end of its operating life, a NPP has to be decommissioned. A useful life of 30, 40 and now of 60 years with the new designs being proposed should be taken into account. The plant life could be extended beyond these durations with suitable life management programmes that include control of degradation processes, maintenance, repair and refurbishing and replacement of plant components. There are three recognized decommissioning strategies: Immediate dismantling is the strategy in which the equipment, structures and parts of a nuclear facility containing radioactive contaminants are removed or decontaminated to a level that permits the facility to be released for unrestricted use, or with restrictions imposed by the regulatory body. In this case decommissioning implementation activities begin shortly after permanent cessation of operations. It implies prompt and complete decommissioning and involves the removal and processing of all radioactive material from the facility to another new or existing licensed nuclear facility for either long-term storage or disposal. Deferred dismantling (sometimes called safe storage, safe store or safe enclosure) is the strategy in which parts of a nuclear facility containing radioactive contaminants are either processed or placed in such a condition that they can be safely stored and maintained until they can subsequently be decontaminated and/or dismantled to levels that permit the facility to be released for other uses. Entombment is the strategy in which radioactive contaminants are encased in a structurally long-lived material until radioactivity decays to a level permitting unrestricted release of the nuclear facility, or release with restrictions imposed by the regulatory body. Because radioactive material will remain on the site, this essentially means that the facility will eventually become designated as a near surface waste disposal facility as long as it can meet the requirements for a near surface disposal facility. Deferred dismantling and entombment strategies also allow for the processing and removal of some radioactive material from the facility, even though these activities may be delayed or only partially implemented. 20

30 The costs of decommissioning NPPs including disposal of associated wastes usually do not exceed 2% of the total costs of electricity generation. Some countries include fees in their pricing structure to cover the estimated cost of decommissioning. The overall manpower requirements for the decommissioning stage are directly related to the strategy selected. Either one will require highly qualified staff with similar qualifications as the one used in the implementation stage with particular ones highly knowledgeable in working under high radioactive environment. Depending on the strategy selected the manpower requirements can range from a few hundreds to more than 1000 people Generic implementation stages of a nuclear power plant project The generic implementation stages of a NPP project were shown in Figure 1 as an example. The schedule for performing each of the activities stated in the five stages described above depends of many factors, and is affected largely by the amount of planning and the adequacy, level of expertise and sufficiency of the staffing of the project management organization. It also depends on the approach adopted for dealing with the various tasks. There is no precise rule that would define the time period required for each stage and it may vary over a wide range from case to case depending on the prevailing situation and conditions. Approximate estimates, however, may be obtained from previous experience, which would serve to provide guidelines and might give an indication of the ways and means that could lead to shortening or at least not unduly prolonging the overall time schedule of a given project in a particular situation. The following conditions can greatly modify the overall duration of a NPP project, and in fact are the ones on which the industry as a whole is working on at all levels: Licensing process or regulatory and environmental issues have been resolved by the time design is complete; Design is complete before first concrete is placed; Nuclear qualified equipment/materials are available at the appropriate time in correct and sufficient quantity; Sufficient qualified manpower is available; Modularization is used to the extent possible. In order to forecast the overall schedule to deploy a NPP project, the interaction of the different components of the licensing process must be coupled with the project activities and as such, with the site preparation, construction, commissioning, operation staff training and start-up activities. The periods shown for different activities in Figure 1 as well as the starting points are approximate and should be considered only indicatives. Supporting activities of the NPP project are not included; they begin even before the pre-project activities are started and continue throughout the project. Additional major factors affecting the project schedule are: The time needed to make decisions; The time to establish the national nuclear law; Licensing requirements and procedures changes; International conventions and agreements; Financing arrangements; 21

31 Project management efficiency; Management systems implementation; Unforeseen manufacturing or construction problems; Late alterations of the design; First of a kind issues; Strikes; Clima / Weather conditions; Interferences during installation; Delays in procurement of components; Non-conformances & corrective actions backlog; Public acceptance. 4. PRE-PROJECT STAGE This is the period starting with the decision to consider nuclear energy as a potential source for producing electricity within the national energy system and ends with the launch of a preinvestment (feasibility) study for the first NPP Organizational structure The initiation and formulation of a NPP project as well as subsequent implementation need efficient organizational structures for the management of required activities at the government as well as utility, industries, research and development (R&D), and educational institutions involved. The first task to be performed, when the introduction of a NPP in a country is considered, is the setting up of a national organization to be in charge of the planning and coordination of the NPP project, including all related activities. In most countries that have started a NPP project such an organization has been initially formed by Atomic Energy Commissions, or by Governmental Ministries or Authorities concerned with the energy resources and development, such as the Ministries of Energy or Industry. In some cases, the organization was set up through the establishment of a separate body, the Nuclear Power Implementation Agency [8], in which the appropriate divisions or departments of the ministries and organizations concerned were represented. Whichever type of organization is formed, it is essential that this organization be totally devoted and solely directed to the NPP project objectives and the related activities, during the various stages of its planning and implementation. This planning and co-ordinating organization would be the leading organization and assume the overall responsibility for the planning and initiation of the various tasks to be performed, and for the direction and coordination of the work to be carried out by the different parties involved in the NPP development. The NPP project activities are usually performed by several national organizations together with national and foreign consulting and architect engineering firms, suppliers and contracting companies, as well as the utility/owner. The distribution of tasks, functions and responsibilities between the organizations involved follows similar patterns to those for any other conventional power or industrial plant, but in addition, there will be a specific nuclear 22

32 regulatory organization, the nuclear regulatory body. The functions of this organization includes establishment of safety requirements and regulations, independent safety assessments and reviews of safety analysis reports, authorizations, inspections, enforcement, coordination with other national and international organizations, and public information. There is no universally applicable organizational framework that is equally applicable to every country and in each situation. It should also be recognized that the formation of the organizational structures is a continuous and gradual process. As the NPP project develops appropriate changes are gradually introduced according to the needs and available resources Project management system The overall responsibility for ensuring the fulfillment of the NPP project requirements is placed on the owner. To meet the whole requirements, it is necessary, during the pre-project stage, to establish, implement, assess and continue improve the management system (see 2.8) which integrates all the requirements of safety, health, the environment, security, quality and economics and ensures that safety is properly taken into account in all the activities related with the NPP project. Guidance in this area can be found in IAEA s Safety Standards [7] and [9] National energy supply planning Planning for and assessing energy sector development is becoming increasingly complex with the recognition that social, economic and environmental aspects of energy are intrinsically linked. Each energy option or technology, besides direct costs, has varying degrees of social and environmental costs and benefits. Energy planners and decision makers are confronted with the need to strike a balance among all these while choosing any option or technology. The complexity of the task is compounded by energy market restructuring which has become necessary almost everywhere as high demand for energy investment funds squeezes public sector budgets. Each country is responsible for the organization and management of its energy supply planning of which electricity supply is generally an important source. National energy supply planning is a continuous and rigorous activity due to the necessity of meeting energy demand through an ever-changing environment. Constant updating and adjustments are necessary whether nuclear power is considered or not. The implementation of additional sources of supply requires long and costly processes involving large investments. Electricity supply expansion planning might fall under the direct responsibility of a governmental authority or it might be performed by electric utilities supervised, controlled or regulated by the government. Electricity supply is more and more market driven with the ever increasing privatization and deregulation scheme within the globalization world. National energy supply planning process consists mainly of the following: National energy market analysis: should include surveys of past trends, current energy balance, energy demand by sectors, energy resources available, demand forecast, supply alternatives and share of electric energy in the overall energy market. In addition, such analysis has to take into account the national objectives or policies regarding national independence of energy supply. The results will lead to the elaboration and definition of energy supply options and to the development of policies and strategies for the energy sector in the country concerned. 23

33 Structure of the national energy market: should show a plan to implement an energy balance at the national level. Main components are: Final energy consumption by energy forms and sectors; Primary energy production by energy sources and forms; Domestic energy production, imports and exports; Cost structure of energy produced and consumed. Survey of energy resources: To develop a national energy policy, a survey of the country s energy resources available as well as potential ones is needed. The most relevant energy resources to be surveyed are uranium, hydro-power, coal, lignite, oil and natural gas. A survey of other energy resources, in particular the renewable ones, such as geothermal, wind, biomass, tidal, solar, etc., should also be performed since one or more of these might become relevant within the period considered The energy resources survey should not be carried out in isolation from the other activities associated with the NPP project planning. Indeed, systematic feed-in and feedback of information in relation to the evaluation of power market /system review, potential alternatives for power generation plant, economic review, etc, are major factors in the planning work. Energy demand forecast: Constitutes the frame of reference for any analysis regarding the composition of the energy supply development [10]. For the purpose of providing a basis for NPP planning studies, long-term energy demand forecasts are required. The validity of the forecasts lies in general not so much in whatever methodology is adopted, but in the profound knowledge of energy systems and uses, and of the macro-economic development of the country concerned. In order to provide assistance to the Member States, the IAEA has developed a special model known as the Model for Analysis of Energy Demand (MAED) [11]. The main purpose of the MAED is to provide a flexible framework for exploring the influence of social, economic, technological and policy changes on the long-term evolution of the energy demand. Energy supply planning: To determine long term energy supply and demand balance for a given country. It should be based on the final and primary energy demand forecast of the country and should take into account the major constraints that could limit the development of energy supply, taking into consideration alternative energy supply strategies. Relatively simple to very sophisticated methodologies have been developed and are available worldwide for such analysis. The results will lead to the elaboration and definition of energy supply options and to the development of policies and strategies for the energy sector in the country concerned Electric power system planning The growth of energy demand comes from different sources. Electricity usually plays an important role in ensuring the total energy demand is met. For that purpose, an electricity market analysis is required from which the electric power system expansion planning will be derived. Electricity Market Analysis to provide the basis for the planning of the electric power system expansion. It consists of: 24

34 Demand structure and forecast: a detailed and comprehensive survey of the consumer market and analysis of its past development is required to establish the starting point for electricity demand forecasts. Power system survey: to establish the basic characteristics and parameters of the existing system together with any committed expansions (under construction, ordered or decided). Electric Power System Expansion Planning: prime objectives of electric utilities are reliable supply of electric energy at the lowest possible cost and maximisation of profit, with attention to ensuring public safety and environmental protection. The traditional method of evaluating the competitiveness of NPPs with other types of generation plants has been to calculate assumed plant load, generating costs for each type of plant using suitable capital, operating and fuel cost estimates along with plant life expectation and cost of money. Financial implications of an expansion plan for a power generating system needs also to be addressed. Power Technology Forecast: evolution of arquitectures, supply systems, demand systems, power efficiency in major components, in addition to material, etc. This can anticipate inflexions in electricity demand trends. Power Arquitecture Forecast: evolution of min/max power ratios to capacity, which tend to determine base and peak load. This depends mostly on the industrial maturity within the system Nuclear power plant project planning NPP project planning consists of a long-term development strategy that includes a series of activities related with the study, acquisition, design, construction, commissioning and operation of the NPP. It also includes the fuel cycle activities required for the provision of fresh fuel and the disposal of spent fuel and waste, together with the development of the necessary regulatory and supporting infrastructures and services. Thus, NPP project planning becomes a major undertaking involving a great variety of activities, several organizations, both public and private, large human and material resources and a substantial effort at the national and international level. Appendix II provides an example of elements to be considered while performing NPP project planning. When consideration is given to the introduction of nuclear power as a mean of supplying electricity (heat production and desalination could also be considered as secondary objectives), the first task is to perform a nuclear power plant planning study (NPPPS) Objectives of a nuclear power plant planning study The primary objectives of a NPPPS study are: The establishment of the need for and viability of the NPP as an alternative to other electricity generation sources; The determination of the extent and schedule of the NPP project development that might be required. The results of the NPPPS will define the demand for nuclear power and constitute the basis for planning the NPP aimed at satisfying this demand. 25

35 Process for nuclear power plant planning study In a NPPPS, the long-term (20 to 30 years) energy needs and the extent of meeting those needs by the available resources should be examined. A comparison of the available energy options and the merits of various expansion plans for the development of the electricity supply system should be carried out. This comparison would provide the basic elements upon which the role that nuclear power could play in the long-term energy programme should be assessed. This evaluation should include, in addition to the economic competitiveness of nuclear power with alternative energy options, a number of other factors and considerations, such as: Financial requirements and viability; Assurance of the energy supply; Influence on the country s overall economic, technical, social, and industrial development; Effects on the society and the environment; Disposal of radioactive waste; National infrastructure requirements and capability; Manpower requirements and development; Sources and assurance of supply for the NPP, nuclear fuels and fuel cycle services. Important factors to be taken into account when defining the size and timing of the NPP to be installed are: Compatibility with the electric system (size and stability); Lead times necessary for plant construction and for infrastructure development; Commercial availability of a NPP of a given size; Cost estimates, foreign currency and financial requirements. A NPPPS is programme-oriented and therefore its scope will be long-term. A wide coverage of all relevant factors is more important than a detailed in-depth study of some particular aspects. Of course, this does not mean that detailed in-depth studies should be avoided. On the contrary, these would tend to increase the level of confidence and credibility of the results and thus facilitate the decision-making process. The NPPPS will lead to the determination of policies and strategies. Within the framework of the NPPPS, detailed siting and preinvestment studies will be required for the NPP. The detailed actions to be taken in the early stages of NPP project planning are summarised in Table 1. It represents the integrated package of activities that have to be performed. It shows a very large number of separate activities; each will comprise several more detailed activities. They will have to be carried out in a large number of organizations and integrating these activities into a coherent programme with orderly progress will be a major undertaking. The tools available are the classical ones in the management of any major programme or project, i.e. good communication, coordination, follow-up, scheduling, risk analysis and decisionmaking. It would, of course, be an advantage if all activities could be performed from a central unit, but this often cannot be achieved in reality. A number of authorities, institutions and organizations, each with its own established mandate, are likely to be involved and lack 26

36 of coordination and cooperation among them could delay or even block nuclear power programming. TABLE 1 INTEGRATED PACKAGE OF ACTIVITIES IN NUCLEAR POWER PLANT PLANNING (REF. [12]) STAGES ACTIONS OBJECTIVE A. CREATING THE BASIC PLANNING COMPETENCE - Define the organizations and responsibilities for energy and electricity system analysis in planning for expansion. - Decide on the role environmental and health issues should have in the analysis of energy expansion plan based on options. - Establish and train a qualified energy and electricity-planning group, equipped with state-of- the-art models and methodologies. - Identify sources for data and information required for planning studies. - Set up a group with defined responsibilities for public information on general energy issues, including relationships with economic development, energy supply security and environmental protection agencies. - Develop an energy and electricity supply plan, taking into account all possible options and the consequences of excluding one or more of them. TO INCLUDE NUCLEAR POWER OPTION IN PLANNING B. EXAMINING THE NUCLEAR POWER OPTION - Survey possible sources for assistance and decide which to use for what. - Survey the international supply situation for nuclear power plants, fuel, fuel cycle services and technology transfer, including technical, economic, political and policy aspects. - Review the possible organisational structures for nuclear activities, including ownership of nuclear power plants, radiation protection, nuclear safety, R&D, waste management, disposal and safeguards. - Review possible alternative nuclear safety policies (acceptance of supplier country's regulations or adoption of other alternative). - Review legislative requirements for ownership of nuclear power plants and material, radiation protection, nuclear safety and third party liability. - Review possible options for waste management and disposal, including the back end of the fuel cycle. - Assess the requirements and possible mechanisms for financing. - Assess the national infrastructure requirements, capabilities, constraints and development needs, in particular, with regard to qualified manpower at all levels, industrial support, QM/QA, management systems and support to technology transfer. TO REVIEW ALL RELEVANT ISSUES RELATED TO NUCLEAR POWER - Define a group (or expand the existing one) to be responsible for public information on all aspects of nuclear power and prepare a programme for its work. - Survey sites for nuclear power plants and waste repositories and initiate site survey processes. C. DEVELOPING THE NUCLEAR POWER OPTION - Develop and propose a policy of the nuclear safety regime. - Develop and propose a policy for nuclear manpower development at home and foreign training. - Develop a realistic approach to setting targets for national participation in the first nuclear plant and develop proposals for the national infrastructure to support the nuclear options. - Identify the needs for international agreements and contracts, including nonproliferation aspects. - Propose a long-term policy for nuclear waste management and disposal, including the whole back end of the nuclear fuel cycle and siting of waste repositories, based on existing activities. - Summarise the benefits, disadvantages, requirements and constraints of nuclear power introduction in a "nuclear power plant pre-investment study", which must include all technical, economic, financial, social and environmental aspects. - Decide on an overall policy for nuclear power application in the context of national development plans and long-term electricity supply planning, including policies for safety, waste management and infrastructure development. TO DEFINE A NUCLEAR POWER POLICY 27

37 STAGES ACTIONS OBJECTIVE D. ESTABLISHING THE NUCLEAR POWER OPTION - Establish the legal and organisational framework for plant ownership, operation and regulation. - Establish the regulatory body. - Establish an overall, preliminary timing of nuclear power plants within the electricity supply plan. - Define the possible and desirable national participation in the first projects. - Start negotiation of the international agreements required. - Start nuclear manpower development programmes. - Establish a project management group. - Launch a pre-investment study. - Start developing an adequate and stable electricity grid TO LAUNCH A PRE- INVESTMENT STUDY In any case, a comprehensive action plan where the responsibilities of different agencies are delineated will have to be developed and approved by the government right in the early stages of NPP project planning. The organizations associated with nuclear power programme planning include: The government which, through its ministries, planning commission and other authorities, will have to take a lead role in creating the policies for energy supply, safety and regulation, environmental protection, domestic infrastructure development, including those related to education and training of nuclear manpower, and to the use of the international market. It will have to promulgate the necessary legislation, suscribe international conventions and protocols, establish the needed organizations or select the ones which should have important roles, and take the actions necessary to facilitate financing; The future plant owner who will have responsibilities for electricity system expansion planning, performance of economic analyses, defining the projects, obtaining licensing and executing them and operating the plants safely. If this organisation is different from the utility which owns and operates other generating plants, a close cooperation and coordination with the utility will be necessary in order to ensure a coherent operational plan for the nuclear and non-nuclear generation systems; The independent nuclear regulatory body, which may have to be created or expanded, with responsibilities for defining all safety, safeguards and security requirements and supervising that they are met. Other regulatory authorities, involved in specif areas such as safety of pressure vessels and electrical installationsk pollution control, environmental protection,etc. The different R&D organizations, including nuclear research centres, which have to give scientific and technical support and also promote and facilitate technology transfer; The national industry, which will participate actively in any NPP project; The educational institutions, which will have to help meet the needs for highly qualified staff at all levels Activities related with treaties, conventions and agreements Preparation of conformity programme Treaties, conventions and agreements related to the use of nuclear power for electricity production have been listed in 2.1 and Appendix I. 28

38 In the pre-project stage, the activities related to this subject will mainly consist in the understanding of the responsibilities born by a country using nuclear power and in the preparation of a conformity programme that would allow the country to meet its obligations under the terms of these treaties, conventions and agreements internally as well as internationally once a final decision is taken to use nuclear power as a source of producing electricity. New laws or complementary ones as well as regulatory documents might need to be written and approved by the national government. In addition, the country will need to participate and sign specific agreements with countries of potential suppliers which might require long negotiations Accounting and control of nuclear materials The introduction of a NPP normally commits a country to accept international safeguards (see 2.6). Relevant IAEA publications provide the basis for Safeguards Agreements between the IAEA and States pursuant to the NPT, or between the IAEA and States that did not ratify the NPT. One of the basic requirements of NPT agreements conforming to INFCIRC/153 is that the State shall establish and maintain a system of accounting for and control of all nuclear materials, including periodical external inspections subject to safeguards. Safeguards agreements conforming to INFCIRC/66/Rev.2 do not explicitly call for States to establish and maintain a system of accounting for and control of nuclear material, but the fact that the document calls for agreement between the IAEA and the State on a system of records and a system of reports implies the need for an accounting and control system. The establishment of a State System of Accounting for and Control of Nuclear Material (SSAC) is needed, whether or not such a system is explicitly required National infrastructure Even if the approach of importing the first NPP on a turnkey basis is selected, there are certain basic national infrastructure requirements to be fulfilled. In fact, a NPP project could hardly exist as a lone case of advanced technology in a country without adequate infrastructures. Organizational, manpower, regulatory, governmental, industrial, financial, legal and educational and training infrastructure requirements to support a NPP project are quite extensive. The infrastructure will have to be gradually built up as the NPP project evolves, but at the start of the programme some basic infrastructure is already required so that the studies of the first project can proceed smoothly [8]. A survey of the national capabilities should be performed to establish a clear understanding of the scope, schedule and costs involved in the development efforts, as well as of the preinvestment of achieving the required results taking into account the country s prevailing possibilities and constraints. The lack of adequate national infrastructure and the effort and time required for its development may constitute the principal constraints to the implementation of a NPP project and could effectively determine the schedule for the introduction of the first NPP. 29

39 Long term nuclear power programme policy and commitment The special features of a NPP require the establishment of organizational structures, highly competent personnel, national infrastructures and substantial financial resources. The deployment of important national resources can only be attained in the assurance of a firm commitment at governmental level to a clearly formulated long-term policy. Particularly the long-term aspect is important in creating the necessary confidence to attract investments and industrial support. In some countries the Government s nuclear policy and the commitment to its implementation has been promulgated as constitutional mandate. A prerequisite to such a commitment is the establishment of a clear policy on the desired energy mix for the country and an assessment of the pre-investment of the potential use of nuclear power Science and technology It is widely recognized that national development in general and nuclear in particular, require a scientific and technological infrastructure. Such infrastructure is mainly contained in: National and private R&D institutes; Institutes and laboratories for standardization and calibration; Higher educational institutions; Professional training centres; Scientific academies and professional associations; National industry. Past experience of countries embarked on a NPP planning has indicated that the establishment of a nuclear research institute operating a research reactor, through not prerequisite for a NPP, has always proved to produce a catalytic effect upon the country s nuclear development. An important role for the establishment of a nuclear R&D infrastructure is to stimulate the activities in various fields of nuclear science and technology, which will keep the experts active in their respective specializations. It also provides a good source of manpower in some important areas needed for NPPs, such as reactor engineering, reactor operation, radiation protection, radiochemistry, nuclear safety and waste disposal. Management disciplines related with project management, including quality and business areas, are also required. It is in general the government s role to take the lead in establishing a scientific and technological infrastructure for NPPs. Depending on the objectives of the national policies and the particular conditions prevailing in the country, this could be done by: Promoting technology-oriented applied R&D activities in general; Establishing national nuclear R&D institutes and nuclear technology development centres with adequate staffing, funding, facilities, programmes and autonomy; Introducing nuclear science and technology-oriented curricula in national universities or institutes of advanced science; Promoting the establishment of nuclear training centres according to the expected manpower development requirements; 30

40 Concluding international agreements and arrangements for the exchange of scientific and technical information and the transfer of technology; Promoting and financing the specialized training of professionals within the country and abroad; Establishing a system of socio-economic incentives to provide motivation for professionals to choose scientific and technological careers in the country. The development of a viable science and technology infrastructures is a long-term process which can take several years or even decades, depending on the level of the country s overall scientific and technological infrastructures at the beginning of this process Human resources development A country embarking on the first NPP should make a critical and realistic assessment of its organizational, educational and industrial capabilities and determine the requirements for developing the quality and quantity of human resources needed. Since nuclear technology has special features that are not encountered in other areas of industrial development, special requirements are imposed on manpower for NPP operation, fuel cycle activities, radioactive waste management and radiological protection. Early recognition of these special features will help in the definition of the actions required to meet the requirements. The human resources development programme for each country has its own unique characteristics that should be identified and taken into account. This is only possible when national planners primarily develop the programme. General guidance, or outside expertise can and should be used wherever needed, but it should never supplant the country s own effort to define its human resources requirements from a thorough understanding of the nature of each activity and task in the first NPP project. Governmental support is required for consistent, long-range policies on human resources development, and decisions and commitments must be taken at the governmental level. In a NPP project, whatever the contracting arrangements, there are certain essential activities, for which full responsibility has to be borne by national organizations and which have to be performed primarily by qualified local manpower. Therefore, before undertaking a nuclear NPP project, a country must be prepared and committed to develop its manpower in order to attain the capability to perform at least these essential activities [8] Timely legal framework Amongst the preparatory steps required for the implementation of a NPP project, it is essential that consideration be given at the earliest stage to the legal and administrative aspects thereof in order to achieve the timely establishment of an adequate legal framework. The legislation governing industrial establishments of a hazardous nature and, in particular, public utilities will have to apply to the erection of a NPP as well. However, the most stringent safety measures required because of the special nature of nuclear energy, and the effective financial protection to be ensured for victims of nuclear incident add new dimensions to traditional patterns of regulatory schemes devised for industrial activities of a conventional type. Consequently, special legislation dealing with nuclear facilities and related matters should basically be aimed at ensuring that a national nuclear law is established which addresses, inter alia: 31

41 Providing legislative authority for regulating and ensuring the safe development and use of nuclear energy in the national interests; Vesting a specific nuclear regulatory body with such a functional status and powers that would enable it to discharge its regulatory responsibilities independently of governmental, public and private corporations, manufacturers and suppliers; Setting forth the principles, conditions and procedures under which the regulatory body may authorize the carrying out of nuclear activities, with adequate physical protection of nuclear materials and facilities, with proper regard to protecting the environment, and in accordance with relevant treaty obligations entered into by the State; and Establishing the principles and rules consistent with international conventions on third party liability for nuclear damage in order to ensure adequate indemnification in the event of a nuclear incident. Enabling legislation should, to the extent feasible, look forward into the future and accordingly provide a comprehensive framework encompassing foreseeable developments of nuclear energy applications within the national context. It should also, where appropriate, take into account approaches by other countries to the issues involved and relevant recommendations established by qualified intergovernmental organizations Financing The availability of adequate and secure financial resources is probably one of the most crucial constraints affecting the implementation of a NPP project. Though the end product of a NPP is the same as the end product of a fossil-fuelled power plant, i.e. electricity, there are certain differences from the point of view of financing. These are mainly due to: The higher investment costs which may even exceed the overall credit limits of lending institutions for an individual country; The longer construction period than for fossil fuelled power plants; The potential uncertainties in schedule and costs due, for instance, to regulatory and public interventions, longer construction duration and policy changes. Another factor that makes NPPs different from equivalent fossil-fuelled power plants is the level of management, technical and engineering skills that are needed. From the point of view of financing institutions, concern may arise regarding the competence of the owner to undertake such a complex operation, in particular for a first NPP. Because of all these differences, special financing approaches are required for NPPs to overcome the difficulties and constraints that may be encountered. The total capital investment for NPPs is higher than for equivalent fossil-fuelled plants. In addition, the expansion and upgrading of the transmission and distribution systems may also prove necessary and require additional funds. Because of these higher initial financing requirements, the availability of the necessary funds might constitute difficulties in relation to the gross national capital formation, balance of payments and the priorities assigned to various development projects in the country. The classical method of export credit financing by export-import banks has been used in many cases in the past. The capital costs for power plants can, however, be so high that, even 32

42 for coal-fired plants, international financing consortia are formed to share the financing risks for a single plant. It may well be that the government could find itself having to make a choice between available credits being used for a NPP or for other high priority development projects, even if the latter would bring less economic benefits over the long term. This emphasises the need to perform financial analyses from the very beginning, in parallel with the economic studies of different system expansion strategies, in order to provide the basis for such priority setting. An overriding consideration for the lending institutions is the creditworthiness of the country and the plant owner. This depends in part on the past performance in servicing loans but also on how realistically the tariffs for electricity have been set. The World Bank and other lenders are highly critical of subsidised tariffs, which do not reflect real costs of production. An appropriate risk analysis should address, among others, the following factors influencing financing: Is the nuclear regulatory estability ensured? Is the NPP option financially viable as well as economically competitive? Is the plant owner organisation financially sound? Do the country and plant owner have acceptable credit ratings? Are the generally less favourable credit conditions for NPP supportable or are there sources, which would be more acceptable? Is the currency risk covered? Is there a government guarantee? Do electricity tariffs reflect full cost recovery in a deregulated market? Can financing of local costs be arranged? Are there other, high priority and competing, national development needs? Has the utility the capability to collect generation costs? What are the conclusions of the environmental assessment? One of the most difficult, but often underestimated, problems is arranging for local financing. This is not covered by outside financing sources and must at the very least cover the costs of local participation in the project. Sources of local financing would be the government budget and owner's funds, either from equity or earnings set aside for investments. Difficulties arise if there is a shortage of government funds and if there are constraints in the local capital market. If such problems exist, they must be recognized clearly and early on before any policy decisions on a NPP are taken. The question on the possibilities to obtain financing on supportable terms thus remains one of high priority, which must be followed carefully from the very beginning, when the NPP option is included in the planning process. It will require using a group having expertise to deal with financial, economic and legal questions National participation plan The introduction of the first NPP in most countries will be initially and may remain for some time based largely on the importation from advanced supplier countries. However, national participation is an essential element in the development of a NPP project. The extent of such 33

43 participation will significantly depend on the existing infrastructures capabilities and on the availability of local resources for the supply of necessary materials, services, equipment and qualified manpower. While interest in the maximum use of domestic resources in any industrial activity is a common characteristic of all countries, the degree of national involvement in NPP development will be a process in which the local participation is gradually increased in the further NPP projects. This will be possible if there is a policy favouring the evolution of the national capabilities for such participation, f. ex. through technology transfer agreements, in various areas of nuclear technology development of local suppliers (detailed engineering, mechanical/electrical erection, etc) National industry There are no firm rules regarding the industrial infrastructure needs of a country starting a NPP project. One element that is of prime importance is the quality requirements that are looked for to ensure the safe operation of the NPP. At minimum, the plant has to be built, the equipment and components have to be installed and tested, and the plant has to be licensed, operated and maintained within the country. This means a basic level of competent construction and erection firms and of operation and maintenance capabilities. The available industrial infrastructure will probably not have all the technology, know-how, level of quality, or the expertise necessary for the NPP, but these can be acquired. Regarding engineering industrial capability, this becomes a basic requirement if a non-turnkey approach is adopted, or if there is a policy for increased national participation. The national engineering, manufacturing, construction and erection capabilities play an essential role in the promotion and development of the NPP project. These industrial infrastructures should be closely associated, early on, with the NPP project planning to which they provide a pool of necessary skills and human resources. The quality requirements of the nuclear technology call for the enforcement of an adequate QA programme (sometimes also named quality management (QM) programme). A NPP project places special demands on the industrial infrastructure, for example: Advanced technology is involved, which usually has to be acquired through technology transfer from foreign suppliers; Strict quality standards have to be met, owing to nuclear safety and reliability requirements; Unfamiliar industrial standards have to be applied; Some special materials new to the industry are used; Some supplied items are of unique design; Equipment and components of unusually large sizes and weights and hazards have to be handled and transported. Schedules must be rigourosly complied with due to large investment costs; Cost has to be maintained at a reasonably competitive level; The overall result is that the existing conventional industry is usually unable to supply the materials, equipment, components and services without first improving its capability. This means upgrading of QA programme, acquisition of new technology, installation of additional 34

44 equipment and changes in methods and procedures. All these imply generally an increase on their financial requirements National involvement There are certain activities within the scope of a NPP project, for which full responsibility has to be borne by national organizations and which should be primarily executed by national manpower whatever the contracting arrangements. These are considered essential or basic activities for national participation. Expert help from abroad could be obtained and used-up to a point, but only for technical assistance and not as a complete replacement of the national effort. Categorization of activities as essential or basic is particular to a country; there are, however, some general indications based on experience which should be considered when planning the national effort [8]. In general, most activities to be performed during the pre-project stage would be basic activities for national participation. A country expecting to have a successful NPP project must be able and willing to study, plan and prepare its first project and make all necessary decisions itself. Should it lack resources to perform these activities, serious considerations should be given as to whether the country ought to embark on a NPP or postpone it until such resources are available. The first target for national involvement would be to adequately perform those activities that have been defined as basic for national participation. Further, short-term development of those capabilities required to perform the activities set out in the priorities above would be objectives to be progressively attained in the project. This would call for increasing responsibility of the owner for project management and development of national engineering services, as well as the enhancement of manufacturing capabilities and improvement of quality in their production lines. Such a course of action would allow the initial turnkey approach (if adopted) to evolve into a split-package approach and eventually give possibility to move to a multi-package management of the project. This evolution is a challenging task for the country, and requires a firm long-term policy for the NPP project, careful planning and realistic and critical assessment. From the very start of the NPP project planning, the importance of national participation must be fully appreciated. One of the essential factors defining the project viability will be the extent to which the industrial capabilities are available and can be made available in the country. This is the factor to account for and the ground on which the decision of whether embarking on a NPP should be formulated. Right at the start of the decision-making process the responsible authorities must take stock of the situation with a thorough survey of national industries and realistic assessment of their present and future potential capabilities. The survey should first of all identify those national industries whose production meets or might meet the quality standards of nuclear technology. Investments, if needed, associated with their necessary development must be evaluated on a cost/benefit basis. This activity best starts with an assessment of the present engineering and industrial capability and its participation in conventional power projects and even in other large projects. This may lead to a plan to improve the local participation in these projects that would not only save foreign currency but also be a good means to prepare the local engineering and industry for its future participation in a NPP project [12]. 35

45 The first NPP project is usually executed on a turnkey contract basis with the supplier, but in the past it has been a normal demand by the plant owner that national engineering and industry be used to the extent possible and a plan has often been made aiming towards an increasing participation in subsequent projects. The decision is important, since realistic targets can help in the effective transfer of imported technology to the domestic industry but overly ambitious targets can lead to serious delays in the projects. Whether the project is executed on a turnkey basis or not, the licensing process demands a deep involvement of the future operator for the application of the construction and operation licenses. The regulatory body also needs the necessary technical capabilities in order to effectively assess the applications prior to delivering the licenses Site survey The site survey includes the activities conducted at national scale directed to identify potential candidate sites that are suitable for a NPP. The identification, selection, evaluation and authorization of suitable sites for NPPs require extensive studies. Preliminary sites surveys are required to provide the necessary basis for site selection and the input to the electric system expansion planning studies. Therefore, a reasonable number of alternatives should be identified and investigated in sufficient depth to enable preliminary decisions to be reached as to their suitability and to assess their implications Site survey scope The site studies will include: Ease of integration into the electric system; Geology and tectonic; Seismology; Heat removal capability; Hydrology; Demography; Meteorology; Nuclear safety and radiation protection aspects; Environmental effects; Risks from man-made events; Availability of local infrastructure; Ease of access; Legal aspects; Public acceptance (including in neighbouring countries if the site is close to a border). The studies might well be carried out largely on the basis of existing data and information. Sites identified require to be characterized in order of merit. In principle, it can be assumed that suitable sites can be located in any given country but site characteristics can affect substantially the cost of a NPP. A site survey may be subdivided into three distinct stages: Regional analysis and identification of potential sites; Screening of potential sites and selection of candidate sites; Comparison of candidate sites. 36

46 In each of these stages, those relevant site characteristics are considered that may lead to the rejection of unacceptable areas or sites, and to the identification of the more suitable ones. The details of the data required and the complexity and sophistication of the selection process increase as the site survey advances towards its goals of selecting the preferred sites. It must be recognized that the quantity and quality of information to be collected during the various stages vary in relation to the site characteristic under consideration. It is necessary to establish for each region: The characteristic to be considered at each stage; The criteria for rejecting areas and sites; The criteria for assigning a weight factor to each characteristic of the sites; The comparison methodologies Environmental assessment Environmental assessment and other impacts of different energy options should be included in the NPP project planning study. In the case of NPPs, at least the specific aspects of possible radiation impacts are included in the preliminary safety analysis report. The environmental assessment should determine if more than one NPP can be constructed at the site in the future, reviewing cooling capacity and potential temperature increase of heat sinks. Potential exclusion radio for the NPP and future units should be evaluated and defined, in order to determine possible necessary future land Public acceptance A NPP project is a national undertaking and hence its introduction and implementation within the country, including the acceptance by the population in general, is a matter to be handled primarily by national (and regional) governmental organizations and authorities. The electric utility, which is providing a public service, also has an important role to play. A public information programme aimed at both the general public and the population around the site of the NPP should be carefully planned and implemented and started as early as possible. The justification of the NPP project should be explained in terms of its economic viability, its contribution to energy independence and how it fits with economic development plans on a national level, and its impact on economy, development and employment on a local level. Among the basic facts to be discussed openly are also the role of environmental and health issues, waste management and disposal policies and information on potentially harmful consequences of normal operation of NPPs and of abnormal events. These should be discussed in simple terms. However, each interaction should be tailored to the particular stakeholder group with whom it interacts. A preoperational fingerprint programme for future evaluations of environmental impact during the NPP operation should be made available to the public and regulators (waterborne concentrations and biota concentrations evolution, routinely air and water monitoring, etc) Manpower needs for pre-project activities Pre-project activities require relatively few but highly qualified professionals. It should be noted that all pre-project activities are considered essential for national participation. Since these activities overlap quite a bit, there is a need for particularly close cooperation and 37

47 transfer of data and findings. Experienced staff should be used quite flexibly in this early stage, more in a task force style than in a rigorous organizational structure. Many times such staff could be employed on either side of the line dividing adjacent tasks and activities. Quantity is not and cannot be made a substitute for knowledge and experience. For all these activities, quality is essential Selection of a consultant(s) Generally, it is good practice to establish a short list of consultants containing from three to six candidates. Some of the key factors to be considered in the selection of a consultant are: General and relevant experience; Sufficient experience in the past in the relevant works; Capacity to complete the work; Experience of key personnel such as project management and senior staff; Access to support resources; Past performance on client contracts; Meaningful partnership/associations with local firms; Quality management system established in the firm. 5. PROJECT DECISION-MAKING STAGE To allow for judicious decision-making, many elements particular to a country or to a specific organization will have to be reviewed carefully. This stage can be described as preparatory activities to support the launching of a NPP project and to lead to the decision-making to go forward with it. As for any other stage in the NPP project, all the activities are accomplished in compliance with the established management system that provides the framework of the arrangements and processes to address all the goals of the NPP project (see 2.8). Once nuclear power has been established as a viable alternative to other energy sources and a need for the development of a NPP project has been indicated through the NPPPS, the next step would be the detailed in-depth study of the first NPP to be implemented. For this purpose, a pre-investment (feasibility) study for the detailed definition and assessment of a specific NPP must be undertaken as well as a site evaluation, both of which are part of this chapter Pre-investment study Objectives of a pre-investment study The pre-investment (feasibility) study is primarily intended to provide the relevant interested parties (governmental authorities, utility/owner, stakeholders) with all the necessary detailed information needed to decide on the implementation of the NPP project. It will also be of importance in the negotiations for financing of the project, as it is usually requested by all financing institutions. Although the content and scope of a pre-investment study may vary depending upon the particular associated conditions, the basic objectives will include the following: Evaluate in detail the integration of the NPP to the electric power system; 38

48 Determine the size and main features of the NPP; Determine the preferred site and identify any specific problems associated with the selected site (might be a separate study or part of the pre-investment study; Determine which type (or types) of reactor should be the basis of bids; Carry out detailed cost and economic evaluations and compare with alternative options; Determine the organizational and manpower requirements to implement the project and to operate the plant; Determine the overall project schedule; Determine financial viability for the project (the project is self-sustainable from the financial point of view) and the possible sources for financing; Determine the contractual approach to be adopted for the acquisition of the plant; Analyse the international market for NPPs, fuel cycle and essential materials and services; Define the country s infrastructure requirements and survey the national participation possibilities; Define the nuclear safety criteria to be applied. Assess the environmental impact Scope of a pre-investment study The scope of a pre-investment study should provide a detailed analysis and information on all technical, economical, financial, regulatory, etc. aspects, with specific recommendations to enable the authorities concerned to make the appropriate decisions for the implementation of the NPP project. It should also outline the further steps to be taken and identify the areas in which more investigations are still needed Contents of a pre-investment study An example of the contents of a pre-investment study is given in Table 2. TABLE 2 CONTENTS OF THE PRE-INVESTMENT (FEASIBILITY) STUDY REPORT (REF. [10]) 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Scope 1.3 Background information 1.4 National energy market analysis 2. ELECTRIC SYSTEM ANALYSIS 2.1 Electric system description 2.2 Demand forecast 2.3 Generation expansion programme 3. CHOICE OF UNIT SIZE 3.1 Electric supply grid analysis 3.2 Unit size definition 3.3 Station size 4. SITE CONSIDERATIONS 4.1 Site survey 4.2 Site selection and evaluation 39

49 5. TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR PLANTS 5.1 Nuclear power supply market survey and choice of reactor types 5.2 Design characteristics 5.3 Construction schedule 5.4 Fuel cycle evaluation 6. NUCLEAR COST ESTIMATES 6.1 Basis of cost estimates 6.2 Capital costs 6.3 Fuel costs 6.4 Operation and maintenance costs 7. GENERATIONS COSTS 7.1 Annual changes 7.2 Total generating costs 7.3 Cost estimates and comparison of alternative sources 8. FINANCIAL REVIEW 8.1 Financial review of utility/owner 8.2 Financial requirements of nuclear project 8.3 Financial projections for utility/owner 8.4 Survey of financing sources 9. PROJECT DEVELOPMENT 9.1 Project organization 9.2 Project development schedule 9.3 Contractual approach 9.4 Safety criteria 9.5 Legal framework 10. STAFFING AND TRAINING REQUIREMENTS 10.1 Project management 10.2 Construction 10.3 Commissioning 10.4 Operations and maintenance 10.5 Industrial infrastructure 11. NATIONAL PARTICIPATION 11.1 National participation policy and strategy 11.2 Survey of industrial infrastructure 11.3 Participation goals and implementation measures 12. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 12.1 Pre-investment of nuclear power project 12.2 Implementation programme Organization and staffing necessary for the preparation of a pre-investment study To perform an interdisciplinary pre-investment study basically ten to fifteen professionals from the Nuclear Power Implementation Agency (see 4.1 and [8]) would be required to form a team, assisted part-time by experts (advisers, consultants) in specific subjects. It is essential that sufficient resources and experienced people be made available for performing the study. Some of the personnel involved in the NPPPS would logically expand their work into this activity and would form a team with other professionals who could have gained their experience in non-nuclear projects. The performance of a pre-investment study requires a year to a year and a half, not including site survey and evaluation, which would be an on-going activity during the course of the pre-investment study Site selection and evaluation All the potential sites identified during the site survey are evaluated in order to select the definitive site for the NPP. Requirements for site evaluation are to ensure adequate protection of site personnel, the public and the environment from the effects of ionizing radiation and other factors arising from nuclear installations. The IAEA Safety Standards ref. [13] establishes requirements and provides criteria for ensuring safety in the site evaluation of 40

50 nuclear installations. The related IAEA Safety Guides provide detailed guidance on fulfilling the requirements. The purpose of site evaluation is to demonstrate that the preferred sites are acceptable from all aspects, and in particular from the safety point of view. The site-related design bases are evaluated and defined before the start of the plant design. After the start of construction and prior to operation, additional studies and site investigations are performed, to complete and refine the assessment of site characteristics, as needed for plant operation, and in particular for developing emergency plans for the case of potential accidents Socio-economical and cultural aspects The construction and operation of a NPP involves several non-safety related factors that influence local population. In areas of high unemployment a power plant may generate a significant number of jobs during the construction stage. On the other hand, the work force associated with the plant place demand upon the local infrastructure resources (housing, schools, and community). It is desirable those adverse social impacts of the plant, if any, are minimized and that social benefits are enhanced. The construction and operation of a power plant also generate traffic causing noise, and visual effects. It may also disturb or limit the access to important archaeological remains if there are any, and it may modify the landscape. Should these affect individuals or communities, the government and local or regional organizations should provide forums for discussion in order to move towards acceptable solutions for most of the individuals and for general interest. The socio-economical and cultural aspects components of the project on the environment should include, but not necessarily be limited, to: population (including relevant demographic characteristics); economic base; community infrastructure and services; renewable and non-renewable resource use; existing and planned land use; heritage, cultural or archaeological sites; recreation areas; and use of lands and resources for traditional purposes by aboriginal persons. The required level of detail in the description of the existing environment will be less where the potential interactions between the NPP project and various components of the environment are weak or remote in time and space. Relevant existing information may be used to describe the environment. Where that information is significantly lacking, additional research and field studies may be required to complete the site related and site-installation interaction factors Implementation of the conformity plan related to legal framework The implementation of a NPP project requires the timely establishment of an adequate legal framework. As the work progress during the decision making stage, all activities related to 41

51 legal requirements have to be integrated to the work load of the owner s management organization. Before an invitation to bid, the necessary legal frameworks must be in place including treaties, conventions and agreements which need to be taken care of with the same time consideration as above. Non-proliferation treaty, international safeguards, physical protection and protection against terrorism, international cooperation and trans-boundary conventions are some of the elements to manage with due regard to time Contractual approach Nuclear power plants have been contracted in a wide variety of ways. At one extreme, a single contractor has been given complete technical responsibility to design, build and commission a complete NPP, handing it over to the owner only when it is running. At the other extreme, the owner has bought only the basic hardware of the nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) from the reactor vendor, designing the rest of the power plant station and buying all of the other equipment himself Types of contractual approach Basically, there are three different types of contractual approach which have been applied so far for NPP stations, namely: Turnkey approach, where a single contractor or a consortium of contractors takes the overall technical responsibility for the whole works; Split-package approach, where the overall technical responsibility is divided between a relatively small number of contractors, each building a large section of the works; Multi-contract approach, where the owner or his architect-engineer (A/E) assumes overall responsibility for engineering the station, issuing a large number of contracts. The possible lead technical responsibilities for the different types of contractual approach are shown in Table 3. 42

52 TABLE 3 USUAL LEAD TECHNICAL RESPONSIBILITIES FOR DIFFERENT CONTRACT TYPES (REF. [14]) Lead responsibility Activity Multiple Turnkey Split package package Pre-project activities U U U Project management MC AE or U U + AE Project engineering MC AE + SS U or AE Quality assurance MC + U AE + SS + U U + AE Procurement MC AE + SS U or AE Application for license U U U Licensing RA RA RA Safeguards, physical protection U U U Manufacturing MC SS + EM EM Site preparation U or MC U or AE U or AE Erection MC AE + SS U or AE Equipment installation MC AE + SS U or AE Commissioning MC AE + U U or AE Plant operation and maintenance U U U Fuel procurement U U U Fuel fabrication FS FS FS Waste management U U U Symbols: AE : FS : MC : Architect-engineer Fuel supplier Main contractor EM RA : SS : U : Equipment manufacturer Regulatory authority System supplier Utility Turnkey approaches Basically, there are two types of turnkey approaches; super turnkey and normal turnkey. Super turnkey This term is used when a single contract is placed covering the whole NPP. It also implies that the prime technical responsibility for the success of the project and, therefore, also for the design of the plant, is placed upon the contractor. This approach is particularly suitable for utilities with limitations in manpower resources and/or experience in the nuclear field. Normal turnkey This term is used to describe a contract placed for a NPP where the utility supplies all peripheral items of the plant (10-20% of the plant costs). It is usual for owners with nuclear experience or greater competence in conventional power stations to wish to influence and approve the design of the plant to a greater extent than for the super turnkey contracts, as well as taking full responsibility for the owner's scope themselves. The owner's scope can, however, differ substantially depending on the engineering capability within the utility Split-package contracts The split-package approach has been applied to a great extent for the construction of NPPs and also for conventional thermal power stations, where the term package is used herein to describe a functionally complete part of a power station where a single contractor takes the overall responsibility for the design, supply, construction and setting to work. 43

53 Basically, one distinguishes between the following types of split-package approaches: The two-package approach With this approach, the two main contracts (excluding the owner's scope) are for a nuclear island and a turbine island. By dividing the main plant into two packages, a higher degree of competition and technical choice can be affected. This approach has, however, two main difficulties: one the problem of harmonizing the interfaces, and the other the problem of having two civil contractors close to one another. However, this can be avoided if each bidder is asked to select his civil contractor later by a sequential bidding technique. The bidding for the civil contractor is for both halves of the station. The three-package approach This approach separates the civil works from both the nuclear and turbine islands and makes them a separate contract placed directly by the owner. This approach has, apart from the problem related to civil work, the same positive and negative features of the two-package approach, i.e. it does not ease the problem associated with the interface between reactor and turbine. Considerable engineering and interfacing experience by the utility is required. The five-package approach In this approach the problems associated with the matching of the interface between the nuclear island and turbine island are reduced by the owner taking direct responsibility for much of the mechanical and electrical equipment which links them. The initial bidding is then for nuclear and turbine lots each with reduced extents of supply compared with the corresponding island. When the two main plant contractors have been chosen, the owner (or his architect-engineer) issues appropriate bid invitations for civil, mechanical and electrical lots to complete the power station. In practice the electrical and mechanical lots may be treated as a number of separate contracts over an extended period of time Multi-contract approach The owner, or more usually his architect-engineer, invites bids for a the nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) and turbine-generator and fuel, selects the preferred bids, places contracts and then designs the balance-of- plant (BOP) around this equipment. The Architect/Engineer (A/E) will provide experienced and readily available staffs, which acts on the orders of the utility. The utility or its A/E will produce a very large part of the safety report and supervise construction, usually erecting the plant themselves Selection of the type of contract The selection of the type of contract is one of the basic decisions to be taken concerning the realization of a NPP station. It should, therefore, receive great attention and be based on a careful analysis of all aspects. These aspects include: Potential vendors and their particular experiences and attributes; Standardization and proven quality; Government and industrial relationships; Competitive and economic considerations; Foreign financing possibilities; Guarantee and liability considerations; 44

54 Planning and implementation of the project and subsequent projects; Availability of qualified project management, co-ordinating and engineering manpower; Development of national engineering and industry capability; and Owner experience in handling large projects. Independently of the type of contract selected, provisions should be contractually arranged on transfer of design information and as-build plant information in order to ensure the procurement of replacement components and maintenance services after the NPP started operation Bid invitation specifications The primary purpose of the bid invitation specifications (BIS) is to provide information to the bidders (the prospective suppliers). The prospective plant owner informs the bidders of his wishes and requirements, the conditions and circumstances under which the supplier will have to perform his tasks, the information required the form of presentation of this information in the bids and the basis on which the bids will be evaluated. The owner also makes proposals for contractual arrangements with the successful bidder. A diagram of the complete bid process is shown in Figure 2. Fig. 2 Example of a bid process (Ref. [15]) Organization and staffing necessary for BIS preparation The owner of a NPP should have full responsibility for the preparation of the BIS and for its contents. He can delegate certain tasks, obtain assistance and use as much advice as he needs or wishes, but he should not delegate the general responsibility nor should he share it with 45

55 anyone. The owner should establish a basic organizational unit which is in charge of the preparation of the BIS and should select competent persons for this unit. The owner might request assistance from well qualified consultants or an A/E who has the experience and specialized knowledge that may be lacking in the owner's team. Consultants or A/E should, however, always have an advisory function. The overall effort required for preparing the BIS for a NPP under a turnkey contract is of the order of professional man-years (including the basic team and outside assistance) and the time needed is about 8-12 months. For a split package project, considering the main packages, the overall effort and time needed may be somewhat higher but should be of a similar order of magnitude as those for a turnkey project Contents of the BIS and preparation procedures The BIS should contain all the information needed by the bidders for the preparation of their bids, in response to the invitation of the owner and according to his requirements. This information should be structured in such a way as to facilitate the subsequent bid evaluation. The example approach is to divide the contents of the BIS into two main parts. In each part, the different aspects and subject areas are treated separately, in a sequence which can facilitate the work Contents of the BIS BIS is typically made of two main parts. The content of each part can be as follows: Part 1: Information provided by the owner 1. Invitation letter 2. Administrative instructions 3. General information 4. Technical requirements and criteria including safety and security constraints 5. Scope of supply and services 6. National participation and technology transfer 7. Bid evaluation criteria 8. Draft contract: Terms and conditions 9. Commercial conditions Part 2: Information requested from the bidders 1. General information 2. General technical aspects 3. Technical descriptions 4. Scope of supply and services 5. Alternatives and options 6. Quality assurance programme/management System 7. Training 8. Project schedule 9. National participation and technology transfer 10. Guarantees and warranties 11. Deviations and exceptions 12. Commercial conditions 46

56 Bid evaluation This section refers to the evaluation of bids for turnkey nuclear power plants but can also be applied for non-turnkey projects (nuclear steam supply systems and turbo-generator sets). It deals with the objectives and the basis for technical and economic bid evaluation as well as with the scope, methods and approaches which can be selected for such evaluation Technical bid evaluation The technical bid evaluation is a part of the overall, bid evaluation, which comprises technical (including safety), economic, financial, contractual, political, organizational and other applicable aspects which have to be considered in the decision-making process of implementing the project and the selection of the suppliers. Objectives of technical bid evaluation The objectives of technical bid evaluation are to evaluate the bids with regard to scope and limits of supply and services as well as the technical design features of the plant offered. This is so as to determine the costs for deficit and surplus materials and services, the technical acceptability of a bid and/or the best technical bid. In most instances the objective of the technical bid evaluation is to determine the technical acceptability of the bid rather than to determine the best technical bid. This is in particular the case if there is no open bidding competition (negotiated contract) and in cases where financing of the project is an important prerequisite for its realization. A bid is technically acceptable if it gives assurance of an adequate standard of reliability and safety. The NPP must be licensable in the country and should further give assurance of adequate operability and maintainability. The main aim in evaluating the technical acceptability of a bid is: To spot technical inadequate solutions; To evaluate the risks (in terms of performance and safety) associated with the construction, operation and maintenance of the station. Basis for the technical evaluation The main references for the technical bid evaluation are: Bid specifications prepared by the utility and/or its consultant; Bid documents prepared and submitted by the bidders; Reference plants; Preliminary safety analysis report (PSAR) of a reference or generic plant; Survey of the bidders; General project situation and related documents. The best basis for a good technical evaluation is given if detailed bid specifications are available and the background of the bidders (reference plants, PSAR, survey of bidders) as well as the general project situation is adequately taken into account. 47

57 Scope of the technical evaluation The scope of the technical bid evaluation depends on: The contract approach selected for the project (turnkey or non-turnkey) and the corresponding scope of the bids, including the determination of the balance-of-plant costs; The definition of technical bid evaluation as part of the overall bid evaluation (including organizational and contractual aspects). Further, the scope and the depth of the technical bid evaluation are defined by the know-how and experience as well as the corresponding amount of money and time which are available for the evaluation. Technical evaluation method The technical evaluation of the bids mainly comprises: An evaluation of scope and limits of supply and services; An evaluation of the technical design features. The evaluation of scope and limits of supply and services finally results in a cost estimate for any deficit or surplus material and/or services (compared with what has been specified in the bid specification) and gives directly an input into the economic bid evaluation (adjustment of the bid price). The evaluation of the technical design features can finally result in a cost estimate, but might also be expressed only qualitatively. Design features which have a direct influence on station performance such as power output, efficiency, etc. can be and should be expressed in money terms. Technical evaluation approach The technical evaluation approach is the procedure followed by the owner to evaluate the bids, e.g. if a detailed evaluation is carried out on one bid, on a limited number of preferred bids, or on all bids received. One distinguishes basically the following three types of evaluation approach which are applied for the technical evaluation of bids for nuclear power stations: Single evaluation approach; Two-stage evaluation approach; and Multi-evaluation approach. The evaluation approaches differ mainly in the number of bids which are evaluated in detail. Simple evaluation approach is applied in the case of a negotiated contract approach with one particular bidder who, for technical and financial and/or political reasons, has been selected as the potential supplier for the plant. The two-stage evaluation approach is applied in connection with an open or limited bidding competition whereby, after a first evaluation dealing only with the important features, if possible, a short-list of one to three bidders is made, who are then evaluated in more detail. A multi-evaluation approach is applied in 48

58 connection with an open bidding competition and it means that all bids which have been received are considered and evaluated to the same extent. Technical evaluation work process The technical bid evaluation has to be planned as part of the overall bid evaluation and as part of the overall project schedule. The work process required to prepare and organize the technical evaluation of bids for nuclear power projects comprises: Establishment of the evaluation method and approach; Preparation of a time schedule for the whole evaluation period; Preparation of an evaluation form and other standard forms; and Organization and instruction of the evaluation team. The technical bid evaluation starts with the receipt of the bids and ends with the final evaluation report. The most important activities during the bid evaluation stage are the following: Receipt and opening of the bids; Preliminary bid evaluation and preparation of preliminary bid evaluation report; Detailed bid evaluation; Preparation of questionnaires; Negotiations; Preparation of input data for the economic bid evaluation including BOP cost estimate; Preparation of final evaluation report Economic bid evaluation An example flow diagram of the complete economic bid evaluation process for an NPP is presented in Fig. 3. The first step necessary to obtain offers from suppliers involves the preparation of the BIS. In these specifications, the organization of the entire project should be explained in detail so that it is clear to the supplier(s) what the buyer wishes to purchase. The type of contract for plant construction turnkey contract, split package contract or multiple package contract must be clearly specified. 49

59 Fig. 3 Example data flow diagram of the economic bid evaluation process for NPPs (Ref. [15]). Objectives of economic bid evaluation The main objectives of the economic bid evaluation are to establish the plant costs and to rank the available bids with the help of an economic figure of merit. This requires consideration of the following points: Results of the technical bid evaluation; Capital investment costs; Nuclear fuel cycle costs; Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs; Owner s costs; Commercial and contractual terms and conditions; Financing proposals; Economic parameters; Domestic participation and technology transfer; Fringe benefits and spin-off effects; Political and socioeconomic aspects. Basis for the economic bid evaluation The economic bid evaluation is based on the following data and information. Cost information tabulated in accordance with an account system, such as: 50