Data sources CHAPTER Secondary data

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1 CHAPTER 7 Data sources According to Orienta fokore, a man caed Nasiruddin was searching for something on the ground. A friend stopped and asked, What have you ost, Nasiruddin? My key, repied Nasiruddin. The friend went down on his knees, trying to hep, and they both ooked for the key. After searching in vain for some time, the friend asked, Where exacty did you drop it? In my house, answered Nasiruddin. Then why are you ooking here, Nasiruddin? There is more ight here than in my house, repied Nasiruddin. The purpose of this chapter is to ook at: (1) what we mean by data coection, (2) what the sources of data coection are and (3) where to find the right data. Data sources are the carriers of data (information). A first distinction can be made between secondary and primary data sources. Secondary data are information coected by others for purposes that can be different from ours. Primary data are origina data coected by us for the research probem at hand. These two types of data sources are discussed in some detai. 7.1 Secondary data Secondary data are usefu not ony to find information to sove our research probem, but aso to better understand and expain our research probem. In most research we need to begin with a iterature review: earier studies on and around our topic of research. They incude books, journa artices, onine data sources such as webpages of firms, governments, semi-government organizations and cataogues. The first step is to ocate these sources and then to evauate the usefuness of the contents of each. Some research questions can be answered ony through secondary data sources, where no further data coection is needed. You must reaize that a secondary data source provides the information that may have been coected for a different purpose. For exampe cataogues and websites of many companies are prepared to impress and convince the customer. This means that information is either exaggerated or biased. By contrast, information coected by other organizations, such as Bureaux of Statistics offers more neutra information and incudes not ony the positive information but aso the negative. In the same manner the scope of the information can be different. 91 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

2 Chapter 7 Data sources For exampe, you need to be observant on the time period. Does the information represent the current year, or an average of some years, or a particuary good/ bad year? Does the information refer to regiona or nationa comparison? You need aso to question the reiabiity of the information. Are the sources mentioned, and if yes, can you check the authenticity of the information? Once you use the secondary data in your report, the reiabiity of the information becomes your responsibiity (Cooper and Schinder, 2001). This eads us to the point that you need to interpret and check the reiabiity of the information in the best possibe way. You have to make a judgement that even if the information has been coected for a different purpose, can it be used for your study? Aso, how coud the purpose (for exampe marketing materia) have infuenced its contents? For exampe, if a company s website caims that they are the market eaders for a particuar market, can you verify that? If we coect data from US Chamber of Commerce pubications about the number of cars per thousand peope in India and on characteristics of car owners to determine the size of the car market for different car sizes, we are coecting secondary data. They are data that have been coected by the US Chamber of Commerce but we can use them to find answers to our questions. There are more reevant data avaiabe than most researchers woud beieve. In this respect, researchers need to ook at severa sources for data avaiabiity on the topic/area of study in question. Once these sources have been ocated they need to ook for data on their specific research probem and make a judgement on whether the information avaiabe can be used or not. Many research students underestimate the amount of data avaiabe from secondary sources. We shoud, therefore, start ooking for secondary sources reevant to our research probem before going out to coect our own data. Secondary data can hep researchers in the foowing manner: answering research questions or soving some or a of the research probems; heping in probem formuation and/or devising more concrete and focused research questions; deciding about the appropriateness of a certain research method or even suggesting better research methods for a particuar probem; providing benchmarking measures and other findings that can be compared ater on with the resuts of the study at hand. A number of government offices reguary coect information on different aspects of society. The census of popuation avaiabe in each country can provide us with an enormous amount of information on potentia customers and segments in a society. Centra bureaux of statistics and branch organizations coect information on different companies, their size and market shares, as we as imports and exports. The foowing secondary sources can be important for our research: 92 Internet sites and web pages of different companies and organizations (e.g. Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

3 7.1 Secondary data Centra and oca government studies and reports, state budgets, rues on internationa trade regarding imports and exports, and poicies on foreign direct investment (e.g. US Chamber of Commerce, Nationa Trade Deveopment Bureau (NTDB) and Export Councis). Studies and reports of institutions and departments such as universities, teecommunication departments, marketing and other research institutes, chambers of commerce and foreign missions such as embassies, trade centres and consuates. Census reports on demographics, income eves and consumption patterns. Academic as we as professiona journas and newsetters reevant to the probem area. In many countries, different branch organizations pubish journas on statistics regarding their own industry, market shares, revenues and imports and exports. For exampe, oca chambers of commerce, sma business associations and associations of retaiers. Historica studies regarding the deveopment of a particuar discipine or probem area. For exampe there are a number of handbooks avaiabe on different topics, such as a Handbook on Internationa Business or a Handbook on Quaitative Research Methods. Textbooks and other pubished materia directy or indirecty reated to the probem area. Commercia research companies seing data, such as: AC Niesen ( and Synovate ( Internationa trade websites, United Nations, Internationa Trade Statistics and the Word Bank ( And, ast but not east, theses and reports written by other students in our own university and in other schoos and universities. Many schoos keep an up-todate record of a the theses written in different discipines. This is perhaps the most important secondary source at the earier stages of our research process. They provide us with insight not ony into our probem area, but aso into the data sources mentioned above. The websites isted as the number one sources above have become most important data sources, and are freey avaiabe. It is becoming increasingy easier to find reevant websites as there are scores of sites that can assist you to find information. Yahoo and Googe are two of these web directories. You coud aso go to Encycopedia Britannica ( or SNAP ( A these search services have a Hep option that can assist you to understand how the particuary directory works. The Financia Times maintains a number of good data banks and can serve as an exceent data source. Consut to check it out. Some governments keep up-to-date sources of data reating to industries, companies and countries, incuding detaied economic, socia and consumer information, as we as data on rues and reguations and poicy documents. Some of these sources are isted in Tabe Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

4 Chapter 7 Data sources Tabe 7.1 Government data sources Source Website Type of information US Department of Commerce Commercia data on countries US Chamber of Commerce Information on US countries US Patent and Trademark Office Information on patents appied for and registered US Sma Business Administration Data on smaer firms in the US US Census Bureau Data on US demographics Department of Trade and Industry Information on UK companies and trade Financia Times Severa data banks, e.g. on mergers and acquisitions Business Week Information on companies, e.g. top 500 firms Word Bank Economic, socia and nationa/regiona information on more than 200 countries Internationa Trade Administration, USA ITA heps US firms to compete in foreign markets Center for Internationa Business Education and Research (MSU- CIBER). A centre at Michigan State University, USA A website presenting different market information in the word Trade Compass www2.tradecompass.com Business reated information on different markets and companies European Union Statistica information on member countries Euromonitor Internationa Information on the EU and other countries, and companies University of Strathcyde, UK Company profies, country information, economic export data and company directories OECD Statistics, economic indicators and other information on member countries Eurostat Europe Direct 94 europa.eu.int/comm/ eurostat/ europa.eu.int/ europedirect Statistics at European eve that enabe comparisons between countries and regions Information on the EU Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

5 7.1 Secondary data Governments aso keep statistics on demographics (e.g. census reports) that can hep business researchers in their segmentation and ocation decisions. An historica anaysis of companies interna information can aso hep you to find patterns of different deveopment and, thereby, forecast future trends. This is aso caed data mining and is often used in marketing and financia issues (see e.g. Data Mining, 1997; and SAS ( Advantages of secondary data The first and foremost advantage of using secondary data obviousy is the enormous saving in time and money. The researcher needs ony go to the ibrary and ocate and utiize the sources. This not ony heps the researcher to better formuate and understand the research probem, but aso broadens the base from which scientific concusions can be drawn. In other words, the verification process is more rapid and the reiabiity of the information and concusions is greaty enhanced. Most of the data coected by internationa organizations and governments are of high quaity and reiabe as they are coected and compied by experts using rigorous methods. Some exampes of this data are provided in Tabe 7.2. Moreover, in case you need to do a ongitudina study, secondary sources provide exceent historica data (e.g. from any of the sources isted in Tabe 7.2). The secondary sources can aso be hepfu in segmentation and samping of your target group (see e.g. Househod Pane Survey (BHPS) isted in Tabe 7.2.). Large data sets can be easiy categorized or grouped in sub groups (Addison and Befied 2000, Bryman and Be 2003). Secondary sources aso faciitate cross-cutura/internationa research, as it is easier to compare simiar data from two or more countries. A number of internationa surveys, for exampe the Word Bank and Euromonitor, provide comparabe cross-country data (Coutrot, 1998) that can be used as a soe data source or in combination with some primary data coection. Another advantage of consuting secondary data is that they can suggest suitabe methods or data to hande a particuar research probem. Moreover, they provide a comparison instrument with which we can easiy interpret and understand our primary data. Quite often some research questions can best be answered by combining information from secondary and primary data. In most research questions it is necessary to consut some secondary data sources as this saves time and faciitates better handing of our research questions. Considering a these advantages, many schoars recommend that a research shoud, in fact, start with secondary data sources. As Churchi (1999: 215) put it, Do not bypass secondary data. Begin with secondary data, and ony when the secondary data are exhausted or show diminishing returns, proceed to primary data. Sometimes secondary data provides enough information to answer the research questions. In such cases there is no need to coect primary data. Figure 7.1 present some guideines to get started with a search for secondary data. 95 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

6 Chapter 7 Data sources Tabe 7.2 Large UK and European data sets suitabe for secondary anaysis Tite Annua Empoyment Survey; formery Census of Empoyment British Househod Pane Survey (BHPS) Company-eve Industria Reations Survey European Community Studies and Eurobarometer Genera Househod Survey (GHS) Internationa Socia Survey Programme (ISSP) Office for Nationa Statistics (ONS) Omnibus Survey Source: Based on Bryman and Be (2003: ) 96 Data set detais Since 1971, Census of Empoyment conducted every two years. Provides a picture of the eve and distribution of empoyment in Great Britain covering 1.25 miion businesses. Since 1995, the Census of Empoyment has been repaced by the Annua Empoyment Survey (AES). Begun in 1991 and conducted annuay by interview and questionnaire with a nationa representative sampe of some 5,500 househods and 10,300 individuas. iserwww.essex.ac.uk/usc/bhps Conducted in 1985 and Sampe comprises arge UK organizations with empoyees in two or more cities. Sponsored by the Economic and Socia Research Counci (ESRC) and the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) Since the eary 1970s, pubic opinion surveys conducted on behaf of the European Commission at east twice a year in a member states of the European Union Annua interviews since 1971 with members aged 16+ in over 8,000 randomy samped househods Annua programme, since 1983, of cross-nationa coaboration covering survey topics important for socia science research. Brings together pre-existing projects, thereby adding a cross-cutura perspective to the individua nationa studies. Coordinated by the University of Coogne, accessibe via UK Data Archive Survey carried out eight times a year since 1990 using face-to-face structured interviews on a sampe of just under 2,000 interviewees. Uses short, simpe sets of questions to gain an impression of pubic attitudes concerning topics that change frequenty. Accessibe via UK Data Archive Topics covered Data are coected on the number of jobs by geographica ocation, detaied industria activity (SIC code), and whether fu or part time Househod organization; abour market behaviour; income and weath; housing; heath; and socio-economic vaues The main differences between this survey and AES is the eve of anaysis; instead of focusing on the workpace as the principa unit of anaysis, this survey concentrates on obtaining company-eve data Cross-nationa comparison of a wide range of socia and poitica issues, incuding European integration; ife satisfaction; socia goas; currency issues; working conditions; and trave Has tended to cover standard issues such as education and heath, about which questions are asked each year, pus additiona items that vary annuay Attitudes towards ega systems and the economy. Covers specia topics incuding work orientations; the environment; and nationa identity Covers core demographic questions about respondents pus questions that change from month to month on topics that change frequenty e.g. food safety; eating behaviour; persona finance; sports participation; Internet access; human rights; Aids awareness Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

7 7.1 Secondary data Figure 7.1 How to get started when searching pubished secondary sources Doing research in a company/organization wi be faciitated by the fact that other departments/sections of the organization might have the information needed to answer the question at hand. Some types of study, for exampe comparative and ongitudina, require some historica data, avaiabe ony through secondary sources. Secondary data are not ony inexpensive but are reativey easy to access. As mentioned above, increasing use of eectronic sources has enhanced avaiabiity of these sources. Secondary data hep us understand the situation/research fied and identify areas of potentia concerns that merit in-depth investigation based on primary research (Craig and Dougas, 2000). Begin with secondary data and ony when they are exhausted proceed with primary data Disadvantages of secondary data There are some serious drawbacks in working with secondary data. We shoud be carefu in using data just because they are easiy avaiabe and save us time and money. One of the main probems is that these data are coected for another study with different objectives and they may not competey fit our probem. It is therefore of the utmost importance to identify what we are studying, what we aready know about the topic, and what we want to have as further information on it. Here we shoud make a ist of the terms and concepts on which we need to 97 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

8 Chapter 7 Data sources coect information. The idea is to take our research probem as the starting point for secondary data we need, and not the other way around. If the secondary data do not fit with your specific probem, they shoud not be used. It is better to answer your question partiay or not at a than to provide an answer based on wrong information. It is sometimes difficut to cassify these data in ways that are consistent with the study at hand. The variabes might have been defined differenty or the measurement unit coud have been totay different and woud, therefore, make the comparison absoutey invaid. For exampe, when studying the export behaviour of smaer firms, we coud use a number of studies undertaken in different countries and coud compare the resuts with our findings. After a coser ook, however, we might reaize that smaer firms were defined differenty. To determine the size (sma, medium or arge), different measurement units were used. Some studies defined size in terms of saes, some in terms of number of empoyees, some in terms of profit and some in terms of square metres of occupied space, as in the case of retaiing firms. Moreover, even if two studies use the same measurement unit, the terms of definition were often different. In a study in Norway, for exampe, firms with empoyees were defined as medium sized, whie in the USA firms with fewer than 500 empoyees were defined as smaer firms. In such a comparison, if the US study concuded that smaer firms depend highy on unsoicited orders for their initia export, we coud not compare this finding with our findings in Norway by saying that, Consistent with the US study, smaer firms in Norway aso depend heaviy on unsoicited orders for their initia export, whie mediumsized firms are much more aggressive and do not depend upon unsoicited orders for their initia exports. These types of difference are quite common, and researchers using secondary data or comparing and supporting their findings with the hep of these data shoud be aware of the probems and make the comparison with some caution. One way to ameiorate the situation is to discuss the differences and the reevance of secondary data to our own study, ooking at the vaidity of comparison and how it shoud be understood (see e.g. Box 7.1). Athough we have mentioned cost saving as one of the advantages of using secondary data, this cannot aways appy. For exampe, using secondary data compied by a commercia organization might be quite expensive. In this case you wi have to compare the cost of coecting primary data as compared with the price of purchasing the secondary data. Another probem is that it is the responsibiity of the researcher that data are accurate; inaccuracies cannot be bamed on the secondary source. It is the researcher s responsibiity to check whether findings presented by another researcher are based on primary or secondary data. This can be checked by interna consistency of the report being consuted. It is therefore important aways to check the origina source of data. It is ony the origina source that can provide us with the required information on the quaity of data as it describes the process 98 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

9 7.1 Secondary data Box 7.1 Difficuties in making cross-cutura comparison using officia statistics Jackie Davis (2001) carried out an internationa comparison of abour disputes and stoppages through strike action in 23 OECD countries between 1990 and 1999 using statistica data coected at a nationa eve. However, the artice is carefu to point out the imitations of such an anaysis for the foowing reasons: Vountary notification. In most of the countries governments rey on empoyers notifying them of any disputes, which they are then abe to confirm through media reports. Fai to measure fu effects. None of the countries records the fu effects of stoppages at work, for exampe measured in terms of ost working time in companies not invoved in the dispute but that are unabe to work because of a shortage of materias caused by the strike. Different threshods for incusion. In the UK, disputes invoving fewer than ten empoyees or asting ess than one day are excuded from the recorded figures. In other countries the threshods for incusion are particuary high. For exampe, in the USA, records incude ony disputes invoving more than 1,000 workers. This can make comparison of strike rates between countries particuary difficut. Excusion of certain industria sectors. Some of the countries excude the effects of disputes in certain sectors: for exampe, Portuga omits the pubic sector and genera strikes. Changes in the way figures are recorded. For exampe, France has changed the way it records ost working days, thus making it difficut to make comparison over time. Indirecty invoved workers. There are differences between the countries in recording those workers who are unabe to work because others at their workpace are on strike. Haf of the countries, incuding France, the Netherands and New Zeaand, attempt to incude these workers in the statistics, but the other haf, incuding Itay and Japan, do not. Dispute rates affected by a sma number of very arge strikes. Some countries can appear to have very high abour dispute rates in one particuar year because of one strike invoving a arge number of workers. In France, for exampe, there was a strike in 1995 invoving a of the pubic sector. These differences ead some countries, such as the USA or Japan, to record a ower number of working days ost through abour disputes than say the UK or Germany simpy because of the different methods used for compiing statistics in the individua countries. This means that cross-cutura comparisons using nationay coected statistics need to be made with a degree of caution. Source: Davis (2001); Bryman and Be (2003: 227) 99 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

10 Chapter 7 Data sources of data coection and anaysis. Aso, whie referring to secondary data, you have to consut and refer to the origina source and not what you have coected from an intermediate or third-hand report. One probem with accuracy is that we have to understand the purpose of data coection for the source we are using. For exampe, it is quite common for companies to utiize wishfu thinking in their annua reports rather than facts, when they describe their market position. They may mention that they are market eaders or have a certain percentage of market share. However, if we are studying the competitive position of a company, we shoud make certain checks to see whether it is the market eader or has the market share it caims. Macroeconomics and industry data coected by different countries and organizations vary consideraby in their accuracy and equivaence. This is particuary probematic in deveoping countries where different sources report different vaues/data. For exampe, number of TV sets or automobies per hundreds of the popuation. In some countries income of nationas working in foreign countries may be incuded in GDP Types of secondary data As mentioned earier (and iustrated in Figure 7.2), severa types of secondary data are avaiabe, from government reports to companies annua reports, that are aways more upbeat than the reaity. In business research, whie doing work for a company, a ot of information is avaiabe from interna sources, incuding information on customers, suppiers, empoyees, marketing pans and efforts Figure 7.2 Types of secondary data 100 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

11 7.1 Secondary data and, sometimes, even on the competitors. The researcher cannot accept this information at its face vaue, athough it is free and readiy avaiabe. Externa sources incude pubished books and journa artices, academic as we as professiona and popuar. And then there are data that have been coected by commercia organizations or companies for the purpose of seing them. In the business research fied a ot of such data are avaiabe, on market structure, consumers, demographics, advertising resuts, and on different products and markets (see Tabe 7.1 and 7.2 for some sources). For pubished externa sources, the best poicy is to do a systematic search in the ibrary. For this you need to deveop a ist of main concepts and key words for your research probem. Search through the ibrary by using these key words in different combinations. For exampe, if your research probem is to study export difficuties faced by sma and medium-sized companies, you can use the foowing combinations: SMEs; sma and medium-sized companies and export; export behaviour; export behaviour of SMEs; export probems; export subsidies, etc. For this purpose you shoud aso make use of search engines on the Internet and the various websites and data banks avaiabe. There are aso export promotion bureaux and export credit banks A number of universities aso maintain usefu data banks (see e.g. Figure 7.3). Aso, consut your adviser and reference ists from the pubications you have found. Figure 7.3 MSU-CIBER Source: MSU homepage ciber.msu.edu 101 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

12 Chapter 7 Data sources 7.2 Primary data When secondary data are not avaiabe or are unabe to hep answer our research questions, we must ourseves coect the data that are reevant to our particuar study and research probem. These data are caed primary data. What we shoud ook for, ask about and coect depends upon our research probem and research design. We have severa choices as regards the means of coecting primary data. Normay this incudes observations, experiments, surveys (questionnaires) and interviews, as iustrated by Figure 7.4. There are both advantages and disadvantages with primary data, as iustrated in Tabe 7.3. Figure 7.4 Sources of primary data Advantages of primary data The main advantage of primary data is that they are coected for the particuar project at hand. This means that they are more consistent with our research questions and research objectives. For business studies, for exampe, we may need specific demographic information about consumers such as education, income, ifestye, personaity and interests. This information might not be avaiabe in a Tabe 7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of primary data coection 102 Communication Observation Scope + Cost + Objectivity + Precision/accuracy + Speed + Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

13 7.2 Primary data census report (or any other secondary source). Moreover, if we want to know about peope s attitudes, intentions and buying behaviour for a particuar product, ony primary data can hep us answer these questions. Through primary data we coud aso know the reasons behind consumer behaviour, management decisions or probems faced in internationaization efforts. We can hardy earn about opinions and behaviour without asking questions directy of the peope invoved. Data/information on past events or experience can ony be gathered by asking peope who have been invoved or have observed and can remember the particuar event. In the case where we are coecting data through survey or teephone interviews, we coud cover a arge geographic area with reativey itte cost Disadvantages of primary data The main disadvantage is that primary data can take a ong time and can cost a ot to coect. Moreover, it is difficut to get access: to find consumers, companies or other target groups who are wiing to cooperate and answer our questions. This is particuary difficut if we are deaing with sensitive issues or research questions that can turn out to be mission impossibe. Another disadvantage/probem is that the researcher needs to be carefu in using proper toos, procedures and methods of anaysis, as otherwise s/he wi jeopardize the reiabiity and appicabiity of the study. An important disadvantage is thus that the researcher has ess degree of contro in data coection. As a resut, unexpected factors may infuence and interfere with efficient data coection. One major weakness in the quaity and scope of information gathered through primary sources is that the researcher is fuy dependent on the wiingness and abiity of respondents. There may be many reasons why peope are reuctant or refuse to cooperate. These incude ack of time, or ack of incentive; they may consider it a waste of their vauabe time; there may be fear of any negative consequences if they are honest in their answers and fear of embarrassment in case of sensitive issues Types of primary data Status and state of affairs data These data are typica of a demographic or socio-economic nature, for exampe on age, education eves, profession, marita status, gender, income or socia cass. These types of data are used for cross-cassification of information. For exampe, is purchase/usage of a particuar product reated to a certain age group? This type of data/information is used, for exampe, for segmentation and positioning in marketing. 103 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

14 Chapter 7 Data sources Psychoogica and ifestye data This category refers to personaity and behaviour data, that is information which can infuence individua behaviour. These are measured with standard methods, expaining persona activities and interests, for exampe different types of buyers/consumers, proactive vs. reactive shoppers and traditiona vs. innovative shoppers. Attitude and opinion data These revea an individua s attitude and opinion about a certain idea, product, object or issue. This category aso refers to cognitive behaviour such as assumptions or opinion on a certain matter/object and effects such as evauation or judgement on a particuar issue/object. Moreover, they revea attitudes about the future, for exampe usage of a particuar project. Awareness and knowedge data These describe what is known about a particuar product, object or business activity. For exampe, this type of data is important in order to earn about the effects of a particuar advertising campaign whether the respondents reca the advertisement(s), with or without some hep. Such data are needed if we want to find out what respondents know about a particuar product and its characteristics, where it can be bought, its price eve, who produces it and where, how it shoud be used, the functions it can perform, etc. Data on intentions This type of data can revea, for exampe, whether or not the respondent s intention is to buy a particuar product in the near future. Typicay, this wi expain the buying behaviour of customers. Moreover, this type of information wi hep in reating intentions to actua behaviour, for exampe how many buyers intended to buy and how many have actuay bought the product. Data on motivations This information can hep us understand what motives/stimui can infuence buyers or managers behaviour, for exampe factors such as needs, wishes, driving forces, or other motives that can infuence behaviour towards a particuar product, matter or issue. This aso heps us to understand why peope behave the way they do so that we can better understand their past and predict future behaviour. Motives are more stabe than the behaviour itsef and thus revea vauabe information. Data on behaviour Finay, this type of data heps us to understand what respondents have done or wi be doing. For business studies, this type of information is very important. 104 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

15 7.2 Primary data Coecting cross-cutura data Before coecting primary data, however, you need to consider a number of issues. First you need to define the reevant unit of anaysis, that is who shoud be the right person/group/organization to be consuted/studied. This is particuary important in an internationa research setting, as the compexity of environmenta and contextua factors may have a major impact on the topic/area of research. According to some views, cross-cutura research can be viewed as a quasi-experiment in which data is coected from different contexts that may or may not be equivaent (Campbe and Staney, 1966; Craig and Dougas, 2000). The unit of anaysis and a particuar research question may ead to different research design and data sources. Here the comparabiity of data coected from different countries/cutures aso needs to be evauated. The data source, and the information coected, shoud represent the same meaning and interpretation. The data coected from different countries shoud aso be equay reiabe and accurate. Diversity in cuture, anguage and methods of communication between the respondents and aso between the researchers (if more than one researcher is invoved) can ead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations (see Craig and Dougas, 2000; Andreasen, 1990 for further reading and Lonner and Adamopouos, 1997). In cross-cutura and internationa research projects/studies we need to hande this issue and deveop equivaent or comparabe measures/ interpretations of the data to be coected. In iterature, we find two different approaches to handing this issue. The emic approach beieves that cutures are different and issues reated to one cuture shoud be understood through the particuar cutura context. Consequenty our questions and interpretations shoud be adjusted to the specific cuture to get the correct understanding (Pike, 1966). The etic approach advocates constructing measures that are cuture free and can be used in cross-cutura studies without posing equivaence or comparabiity probems (Triandis, 1972). In this case constructs and measures deveopment in one country can be used without any or minimum adjustment to cutura differences. These two approaches present two extremes, and many authors recommend that whie doing cross-cutura research you need to raise this issue and try to use an etic approach as far as possibe, by preparing constructs and measures that are comparabe. This can aso be achieved by using aready estabished constructs and measures (Wind and Dougas, 1982; Schwartz, 1992; Craig and Dougas, 2000). In many cases a combination of emic and etic approaches is advisabe (Berry, 1989). Here it is suggested that you first conduct research in your own cuture and then appy the construct or measurement instrument to study behaviour in the other cuture (imposed etic). Behaviour is then studied in the other cuture within its own context, using an emic approach in both cutures. These two observations are then brought together towards an etic approach and are interpreted in a comparabe manner. A derived etic approach is thus possibe based on common aspects and features. This is further expained in Figure Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

16 Chapter 7 Data sources Figure 7.5 Steps in operationaizing emic and etic approaches Source: Based on Berry (1989) and Craig and Dougas (2000: 156) Further reading Ader, P.A. and Ader, P. (1994) Observationa techniques, in Denzin, N.K. and Lincon Y.S. (eds) Handbook of Quaitative Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp Churchi, G.A. (1991) Marketing Research: Methodoogica Foundations, 5th edn, Chicago, IL: Dryden Press (Chapters 6 and 7). 106 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.

17 Exercises Grisar-Kassé, K. (2004) The roe of negative persona experiences in cross-cutura case study research: faiure or opportunity, in Marshan-Piekkari, R. and Wech, C. (eds) A Handbook of Quaitative Research Methods for Internationa Business, Chetenham: Edward Egar, pp ? Questions 1. Expain the difference between secondary and primary data. 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data? 3. Expain the two concepts emic and etic. How can we hande these issues in crosscutura research? Exercises 1. Seect a product category. Make an estimate for the tota demand of that product in your home country. Aso cacuate the market share for the argest producer. 2. A company in the... industry (seect industry) wants to earn about the market opportunities in... (seect country). Visit websites isted in Tabe 7.1 to provide this information. 107 Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practica Guide, Third Edition, by Pervez Ghauri and Kje Grønhaug. Pubished by Prentice Ha Financia Times. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education Limited.